citing evidence in an essay

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Academic writing often requires students to use evidence, and learning how to use evidence effectively is an important skill for college writers to master. Often, the evidence college writers are asked to use comes from their textbooks, course readings, or other written work by professional scholars. It is important to learn how to use these writings responsibly and accurately.

General Considerations

There are three methods of incorporating the writing of others into your paper as evidence:

• quotation , which is anything from a word to several sentences taken word-for-word from the original source and enclosed in quotation marks
• paraphrase , which is a rephrasing in your own voice and sentence structure of one portion of the original source and is about the same length as the original sentence or sentences you are paraphrasing
• summary , which is shorter than the original source and gives the text’s central idea in your own words

Some words to use in signal phrases are argues, asserts, contends, emphasizes, explains, observes, suggests, writes.

In what follows, you will learn some strategies for using these methods of incorporating evidence into your paper.

In Practice

Quoting When you use a q uotation as evidence, you should integrate it into your own writing using a “signal phrase.” Take, for example, this quotation, taken from page 418 of the essay “Prejudice and the Individual” by Gordon Allport: “Much prejudice is caught rather than directly taught.” Here are three ways to integrate Allport’s quotation into a sentence of your own with a signal phrase:

Allport claims that “prejudice is caught rather than directly taught” (418). “Much prejudice is caught rather than directly taught,” claims Allport (418). “Much prejudice,” Allport claims, “is caught rather than directly taught” (418).

You can adapt a quotation to fit your own paragraph and sentence structure by making small changes to words and indicating those changes with square brackets. Say, for example, you liked this quotation from Allport:

“It should be added that overgeneralized prejudgments of this sort are prejudices only if they are not reversible when exposed to new knowledge” (417).

However, you want to apply Allport’s words to a specific example of your own. You could adapt the quotation like this:

The young man in my example was not prejudiced, according to Allport’s definition; his opinion was “reversible when [he was] exposed to new knowledge” (417).

You can also use ellipses to indicate that you have left irrelevant words out of a quotation. Again, say you wanted to use this quotation from Allport:

“The best opinion today says that if we eliminate discrimination, then—as people become acquainted with one another on equal terms—attitudes are likely to change, perhaps more rapidly than through the continued preaching or teaching of tolerance” (417).

But the middle part is less important to your paper than what Allport says at the start and the end. You could modify the quotation like this:

“The best opinion today says that if we eliminate discrimination . . . attitudes are likely to change, perhaps more rapidly than through the continued preaching or teaching of tolerance” (417).

Longer quotations must be formatted in a special way; usually, they are indented from the left margin and/or single-spaced. Depending on what citation style you use, guidelines differ regarding what defines a long quotation and how a long quotation should be formatted. Typically, a quotation of four or five lines is considered long.

Paraphrasing To paraphrase a source for use as evidence, you should use as little of the original language as possible and put the passage in your own voice and sentence structure. Also, because paraphrasing involves wrapping your words around someone else’s idea, people often forget to give credit to the author. Even though a paraphrase is in your words, it is not your idea. Remember to cite your source when you paraphrase. Here is another quotation from Allport and an example of weak and strong paraphrase:

“Education combats easy overgeneralizations, and as the educational level rises we find a reduction in stereotyped thinking” (Allport 422).

WEAK PARAPHRASE: Learning fights against stereotypes, and as more people are more educated we notice a decrease in prejudice (422).

STRONG PARAPHRASE: Allport explains that the more we learn, the harder we will find it to make unfair assumptions about groups of people, which means as more people pursue more education, prejudice decreases (422).

In the weak example above, you can see the sentence structure in the paraphrase is very similar to the quotation—notice, for instance, the use in both the original sentence and the weak paraphrase of a comma plus the conjunction “and.” Also, the replacement of Allport’s words with synonyms makes the paraphrase too close to the original—Allport’s “education” is replaced with “learning” in the paraphrase; his “combats” is exchanged for “fights”; “overgeneralizations” becomes “stereotypes.” The strong example above does a better job of restating Allport’s idea in a new sentence structure and without simple word substitution. Also, notice the weak paraphrase does not give Allport credit by mentioning him, but the strong one does.

Summarizing When you summarize another writer’s idea to use as evidence in a paper of your own, you are taking the essence of the writer’s idea and stating it more briefly, with less detail and explanation, than in the original. You may summarize an article or a chapter, or even a book, in a sentence, a paragraph, a page, or more—the purpose of your summary should dictate how specific you are. Summaries should be mostly in your own words, but often summaries include quotations or paraphrases when it is necessary to highlight a certain key point. When you are writing a summary, you need to be very careful not to use the original writer’s words without putting those words in quotation marks. You also need to be sure that when you summarize, you are fairly representing the original writer’s main idea. Here is a paragraph from Allport and examples of weak and strong summary:

“While discrimination ultimately rests on prejudice, the two processes are not identical. Discrimination denies people their natural or legal rights because of their membership in some unfavored group. Many people discriminate automatically without being prejudiced; and others, the “gentle people of prejudice,” feel irrational aversion, but are careful not to show it in discriminatory behavior. Yet in general, discrimination reinforces prejudices, and prejudices provide rationalizations for discrimination. The two concepts are most distinct when it comes to seeking remedies. The corrections for discrimination are legal, or lie in a direct change of social practices; whereas the remedy for prejudice lies in education and the conversion of attitudes. The best opinion today says that if we eliminate discrimination, then—as people become acquainted with one another on equal terms—attitudes are likely to change, perhaps more rapidly than through the continued preaching or teaching of tolerance.” (Allport 417)

WEAK SUMMARY: Discrimination is when people are denied their rights because they belong to some unfavored group, and it is addressed with legal action or a change in social practices. Eliminating discrimination from society would have a drastic effect on social attitudes overall, according to Allport (417).

STRONG SUMMARY: Allport explains that discrimination occurs when an individual is refused rights because he or she belongs to a group which is the object of prejudice. In this way, discrimination reinforces prejudice, but if instances of discrimination are ruled illegal or seen as socially unacceptable, prejudice will likely decrease along with discrimination (417).

You will notice that the weak summary above uses exact words and phrases from the source (“unfavored group,” “social practices”) and also some words and phrases very close to the original (“when people are denied,” “eliminating discrimination”). It does not effectively restate the original in different language. It also does not fairly represent the complete idea of the source paragraph: it does not explain the relationship between discrimination and prejudice, an important part of what Allport says. The strong example does a better job using independent language and fairly conveying Allport’s point.

How to choose which method of incorporating evidence to use These methods of incorporating evidence into your paper are helpful in different ways. Think carefully about what you need each piece of evidence to do for you in your paper, then choose the method that most suits your needs.

You should use a quotation if

• you are relying on the reputation of the writer of the original source to give authority or credibility to your paper.
• the original wording is so remarkable that paraphrasing would diminish it.

A paraphrase is a good choice if

• you need to provide a supporting fact or detail but the original writer’s exact words are not important.
• you need to use just one specific idea from a source and the rest of the source is not as important.

Summary is useful when

• you need to give an overview of a source to orient your reader.
• you want to provide background that leads up to the point of your paper.

Last but certainly not least, remember that anytime you use another person’s ideas or language, you must give credit to that person. If you do not know the name of the person whose idea or language you are using, you must still give credit by referring to a title or any such available information. You should always check with your instructor to see what method of citing and documenting sources you should use. The examples on this handout are cited using MLA style.

The sample text in these exercises is Holly Devor’s “Gender Role Behaviors and Attitudes.”

1. Read the paragraph from Devor below, then identify which summary of it is weak and which is strong.

“Body postures and demeanors which communicate subordinate status and vulnerability to trespass through a message of "no threat" make people appear to be feminine. They demonstrate subordination through a minimizing of spatial use: people appear to be feminine when they keep their arms closer to their bodies, their legs closer together, and their torsos and heads less vertical than do masculine-looking individuals. People also look feminine when they point their toes inward and use their hands in small or childlike gestures.” (486)

A. Devor argues that body language suggests a great deal about gender and power in our society. People who minimize the body space they occupy and whose physical gestures are minimal and unobtrusive appear inferior and feminine (486).

B. Devor says that body postures and demeanors that imply weakness make people look feminine. Minimizing the space one takes up and using infantile gestures also makes one appear feminine (486).

2. Read the sentence from Devor below, then identify which paraphrase of it is weak and which is strong.

“They demonstrate subordination through a minimizing of spatial use: people appear to be feminine when they keep their arms closer to their bodies, their legs closer together, and their torsos and heads less vertical than do masculine-looking individuals.” (486)

A. Devor explains that people demonstrate a lesser position by using less space, keeping arms close, legs together, and head less upright (486).

B. According to Devor, taking up less space with one’s body—keeping arms and legs close and hunching to reduce height—makes one appear inferior and implies femininity (486).

3. The quotations of Devor below, taken from the paragraph in exercise 1, contain technical errors. Identify and correct them.

A. Devor argues that “[b]ody postures and demeanors which communicate subordinate status and vulnerability make people appear to be feminine” (486).

B. The actress looked particularly feminine because she “point their toes inward and use their hands in small or childlike gestures” (486).

C. Devor claims that “using their hands in small or childlike gestures” makes people look feminine (486).

Answers: 1. A. STRONG B. WEAK – This example uses too many exact words and phrases from the original.

2. A. WEAK – This example uses too many exact words and phrases from the source, and its sentence structure is also too close to the original. B. STRONG

3. A. Devor argues that “[b]ody postures and demeanors which communicate subordinate status and vulnerability . . . make people appear to be feminine.” B. The actress looked particularly feminine because she “point[s her] toes inward and use[s her] hands in small or childlike gestures.” C. Devor claims that “us[ing] their hands in small or childlike gestures” makes people look feminine.

Allport, Gordon, “Prejudice and the Individual,” in The Borozoi College Reader , 6th ed. Eds. Charles Muscatine and Marlene Griffith (New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1988): 416-22.

Devor, Holly, “Gender Role Behaviors and Attitudes,” in Signs of Life in the USA: Readings on Popular Culture for Writers , 4th ed. Eds. Sonia Maasik and Jack Solomon (New York: Bedford / St Martin's, 2003): 484-89.

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How to Introduce Evidence: 41 Effective Phrases & Examples

Research requires us to scrutinize information and assess its credibility. Accordingly, when we think about various phenomena, we examine empirical data and craft detailed explanations justifying our interpretations. An essential component of constructing our research narratives is thus providing supporting evidence and examples.

The type of proof we provide can either bolster our claims or leave readers confused or skeptical of our analysis. Therefore, it’s crucial that we use appropriate, logical phrases that guide readers clearly from one idea to the next. In this article, we explain how evidence and examples should be introduced according to different contexts in academic writing and catalog effective language you can use to support your arguments, examples included.

When to Introduce Evidence and Examples in a Paper

Evidence and examples create the foundation upon which your claims can stand firm. Without proof, your arguments lack credibility and teeth. However, laundry listing evidence is as bad as failing to provide any materials or information that can substantiate your conclusions. Therefore, when you introduce examples, make sure to judiciously provide evidence when needed and use phrases that will appropriately and clearly explain how the proof supports your argument.

There are different types of claims and different types of evidence in writing. You should introduce and link your arguments to evidence when you

• state information that is not “common knowledge”;
• draw conclusions, make inferences, or suggest implications based on specific data;
• need to clarify a prior statement, and it would be more effectively done with an illustration;
• need to identify representative examples of a category;
• desire to distinguish concepts; and
• emphasize a point by highlighting a specific situation.

Introductory Phrases to Use and Their Contexts

To assist you with effectively supporting your statements, we have organized the introductory phrases below according to their function. This list is not exhaustive but will provide you with ideas of the types of phrases you can use.

Although any research author can make use of these helpful phrases and bolster their academic writing by entering them into their work, before submitting to a journal, it is a good idea to let a professional English editing service take a look to ensure that all terms and phrases make sense in the given research context. Wordvice offers paper editing , thesis editing , and dissertation editing services that help elevate your academic language and make your writing more compelling to journal authors and researchers alike.

For more examples of strong verbs for research writing , effective transition words for academic papers , or commonly confused words , head over to the Wordvice Academic Resources website.

What this handout is about

This handout will provide a broad overview of gathering and using evidence. It will help you decide what counts as evidence, put evidence to work in your writing, and determine whether you have enough evidence. It will also offer links to additional resources.

Introduction

Many papers that you write in college will require you to make an argument ; this means that you must take a position on the subject you are discussing and support that position with evidence. It’s important that you use the right kind of evidence, that you use it effectively, and that you have an appropriate amount of it. If, for example, your philosophy professor didn’t like it that you used a survey of public opinion as your primary evidence in your ethics paper, you need to find out more about what philosophers count as good evidence. If your instructor has told you that you need more analysis, suggested that you’re “just listing” points or giving a “laundry list,” or asked you how certain points are related to your argument, it may mean that you can do more to fully incorporate your evidence into your argument. Comments like “for example?,” “proof?,” “go deeper,” or “expand” in the margins of your graded paper suggest that you may need more evidence. Let’s take a look at each of these issues—understanding what counts as evidence, using evidence in your argument, and deciding whether you need more evidence.

What counts as evidence?

Before you begin gathering information for possible use as evidence in your argument, you need to be sure that you understand the purpose of your assignment. If you are working on a project for a class, look carefully at the assignment prompt. It may give you clues about what sorts of evidence you will need. Does the instructor mention any particular books you should use in writing your paper or the names of any authors who have written about your topic? How long should your paper be (longer works may require more, or more varied, evidence)? What themes or topics come up in the text of the prompt? Our handout on understanding writing assignments can help you interpret your assignment. It’s also a good idea to think over what has been said about the assignment in class and to talk with your instructor if you need clarification or guidance.

What matters to instructors?

Instructors in different academic fields expect different kinds of arguments and evidence—your chemistry paper might include graphs, charts, statistics, and other quantitative data as evidence, whereas your English paper might include passages from a novel, examples of recurring symbols, or discussions of characterization in the novel. Consider what kinds of sources and evidence you have seen in course readings and lectures. You may wish to see whether the Writing Center has a handout regarding the specific academic field you’re working in—for example, literature , sociology , or history .

What are primary and secondary sources?

A note on terminology: many researchers distinguish between primary and secondary sources of evidence (in this case, “primary” means “first” or “original,” not “most important”). Primary sources include original documents, photographs, interviews, and so forth. Secondary sources present information that has already been processed or interpreted by someone else. For example, if you are writing a paper about the movie “The Matrix,” the movie itself, an interview with the director, and production photos could serve as primary sources of evidence. A movie review from a magazine or a collection of essays about the film would be secondary sources. Depending on the context, the same item could be either a primary or a secondary source: if I am writing about people’s relationships with animals, a collection of stories about animals might be a secondary source; if I am writing about how editors gather diverse stories into collections, the same book might now function as a primary source.

Where can I find evidence?

Here are some examples of sources of information and tips about how to use them in gathering evidence. Ask your instructor if you aren’t sure whether a certain source would be appropriate for your paper.

Print and electronic sources

Books, journals, websites, newspapers, magazines, and documentary films are some of the most common sources of evidence for academic writing. Our handout on evaluating print sources will help you choose your print sources wisely, and the library has a tutorial on evaluating both print sources and websites. A librarian can help you find sources that are appropriate for the type of assignment you are completing. Just visit the reference desk at Davis or the Undergraduate Library or chat with a librarian online (the library’s IM screen name is undergradref).

Observation

Sometimes you can directly observe the thing you are interested in, by watching, listening to, touching, tasting, or smelling it. For example, if you were asked to write about Mozart’s music, you could listen to it; if your topic was how businesses attract traffic, you might go and look at window displays at the mall.

An interview is a good way to collect information that you can’t find through any other type of research. An interview can provide an expert’s opinion, biographical or first-hand experiences, and suggestions for further research.

Surveys allow you to find out some of what a group of people thinks about a topic. Designing an effective survey and interpreting the data you get can be challenging, so it’s a good idea to check with your instructor before creating or administering a survey.

Experiments

Experimental data serve as the primary form of scientific evidence. For scientific experiments, you should follow the specific guidelines of the discipline you are studying. For writing in other fields, more informal experiments might be acceptable as evidence. For example, if you want to prove that food choices in a cafeteria are affected by gender norms, you might ask classmates to undermine those norms on purpose and observe how others react. What would happen if a football player were eating dinner with his teammates and he brought a small salad and diet drink to the table, all the while murmuring about his waistline and wondering how many fat grams the salad dressing contained?

Personal experience

Using your own experiences can be a powerful way to appeal to your readers. You should, however, use personal experience only when it is appropriate to your topic, your writing goals, and your audience. Personal experience should not be your only form of evidence in most papers, and some disciplines frown on using personal experience at all. For example, a story about the microscope you received as a Christmas gift when you were nine years old is probably not applicable to your biology lab report.

Using evidence in an argument

Does evidence speak for itself.

Absolutely not. After you introduce evidence into your writing, you must say why and how this evidence supports your argument. In other words, you have to explain the significance of the evidence and its function in your paper. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has with a larger claim or argument: evidence is always evidence for or against something, and you have to make that link clear.

As writers, we sometimes assume that our readers already know what we are talking about; we may be wary of elaborating too much because we think the point is obvious. But readers can’t read our minds: although they may be familiar with many of the ideas we are discussing, they don’t know what we are trying to do with those ideas unless we indicate it through explanations, organization, transitions, and so forth. Try to spell out the connections that you were making in your mind when you chose your evidence, decided where to place it in your paper, and drew conclusions based on it. Remember, you can always cut prose from your paper later if you decide that you are stating the obvious.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself about a particular bit of evidence:

• OK, I’ve just stated this point, but so what? Why is it interesting? Why should anyone care?
• What does this information imply?
• What are the consequences of thinking this way or looking at a problem this way?
• I’ve just described what something is like or how I see it, but why is it like that?
• I’ve just said that something happens—so how does it happen? How does it come to be the way it is?
• Why is this information important? Why does it matter?
• How is this idea related to my thesis? What connections exist between them? Does it support my thesis? If so, how does it do that?
• Can I give an example to illustrate this point?

Answering these questions may help you explain how your evidence is related to your overall argument.

How can I incorporate evidence into my paper?

There are many ways to present your evidence. Often, your evidence will be included as text in the body of your paper, as a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Sometimes you might include graphs, charts, or tables; excerpts from an interview; or photographs or illustrations with accompanying captions.

When you quote, you are reproducing another writer’s words exactly as they appear on the page. Here are some tips to help you decide when to use quotations:

• Quote if you can’t say it any better and the author’s words are particularly brilliant, witty, edgy, distinctive, a good illustration of a point you’re making, or otherwise interesting.
• Quote if you are using a particularly authoritative source and you need the author’s expertise to back up your point.
• Quote if you are analyzing diction, tone, or a writer’s use of a specific word or phrase.
• Quote if you are taking a position that relies on the reader’s understanding exactly what another writer says about the topic.

Be sure to introduce each quotation you use, and always cite your sources. See our handout on quotations for more details on when to quote and how to format quotations.

Like all pieces of evidence, a quotation can’t speak for itself. If you end a paragraph with a quotation, that may be a sign that you have neglected to discuss the importance of the quotation in terms of your argument. It’s important to avoid “plop quotations,” that is, quotations that are just dropped into your paper without any introduction, discussion, or follow-up.

Paraphrasing

When you paraphrase, you take a specific section of a text and put it into your own words. Putting it into your own words doesn’t mean just changing or rearranging a few of the author’s words: to paraphrase well and avoid plagiarism, try setting your source aside and restating the sentence or paragraph you have just read, as though you were describing it to another person. Paraphrasing is different than summary because a paraphrase focuses on a particular, fairly short bit of text (like a phrase, sentence, or paragraph). You’ll need to indicate when you are paraphrasing someone else’s text by citing your source correctly, just as you would with a quotation.

When might you want to paraphrase?

• Paraphrase when you want to introduce a writer’s position, but their original words aren’t special enough to quote.
• Paraphrase when you are supporting a particular point and need to draw on a certain place in a text that supports your point—for example, when one paragraph in a source is especially relevant.
• Paraphrase when you want to present a writer’s view on a topic that differs from your position or that of another writer; you can then refute writer’s specific points in your own words after you paraphrase.
• Paraphrase when you want to comment on a particular example that another writer uses.
• Paraphrase when you need to present information that’s unlikely to be questioned.

When you summarize, you are offering an overview of an entire text, or at least a lengthy section of a text. Summary is useful when you are providing background information, grounding your own argument, or mentioning a source as a counter-argument. A summary is less nuanced than paraphrased material. It can be the most effective way to incorporate a large number of sources when you don’t have a lot of space. When you are summarizing someone else’s argument or ideas, be sure this is clear to the reader and cite your source appropriately.

Statistics, data, charts, graphs, photographs, illustrations

Sometimes the best evidence for your argument is a hard fact or visual representation of a fact. This type of evidence can be a solid backbone for your argument, but you still need to create context for your reader and draw the connections you want them to make. Remember that statistics, data, charts, graph, photographs, and illustrations are all open to interpretation. Guide the reader through the interpretation process. Again, always, cite the origin of your evidence if you didn’t produce the material you are using yourself.

Do I need more evidence?

Let’s say that you’ve identified some appropriate sources, found some evidence, explained to the reader how it fits into your overall argument, incorporated it into your draft effectively, and cited your sources. How do you tell whether you’ve got enough evidence and whether it’s working well in the service of a strong argument or analysis? Here are some techniques you can use to review your draft and assess your use of evidence.

Make a reverse outline

A reverse outline is a great technique for helping you see how each paragraph contributes to proving your thesis. When you make a reverse outline, you record the main ideas in each paragraph in a shorter (outline-like) form so that you can see at a glance what is in your paper. The reverse outline is helpful in at least three ways. First, it lets you see where you have dealt with too many topics in one paragraph (in general, you should have one main idea per paragraph). Second, the reverse outline can help you see where you need more evidence to prove your point or more analysis of that evidence. Third, the reverse outline can help you write your topic sentences: once you have decided what you want each paragraph to be about, you can write topic sentences that explain the topics of the paragraphs and state the relationship of each topic to the overall thesis of the paper.

For tips on making a reverse outline, see our handout on organization .

Color code your paper

You will need three highlighters or colored pencils for this exercise. Use one color to highlight general assertions. These will typically be the topic sentences in your paper. Next, use another color to highlight the specific evidence you provide for each assertion (including quotations, paraphrased or summarized material, statistics, examples, and your own ideas). Lastly, use another color to highlight analysis of your evidence. Which assertions are key to your overall argument? Which ones are especially contestable? How much evidence do you have for each assertion? How much analysis? In general, you should have at least as much analysis as you do evidence, or your paper runs the risk of being more summary than argument. The more controversial an assertion is, the more evidence you may need to provide in order to persuade your reader.

Play devil’s advocate, act like a child, or doubt everything

This technique may be easiest to use with a partner. Ask your friend to take on one of the roles above, then read your paper aloud to them. After each section, pause and let your friend interrogate you. If your friend is playing devil’s advocate, they will always take the opposing viewpoint and force you to keep defending yourself. If your friend is acting like a child, they will question every sentence, even seemingly self-explanatory ones. If your friend is a doubter, they won’t believe anything you say. Justifying your position verbally or explaining yourself will force you to strengthen the evidence in your paper. If you already have enough evidence but haven’t connected it clearly enough to your main argument, explaining to your friend how the evidence is relevant or what it proves may help you to do so.

Common questions and additional resources

• I have a general topic in mind; how can I develop it so I’ll know what evidence I need? And how can I get ideas for more evidence? See our handout on brainstorming .
• Who can help me find evidence on my topic? Check out UNC Libraries .
• I’m writing for a specific purpose; how can I tell what kind of evidence my audience wants? See our handouts on audience , writing for specific disciplines , and particular writing assignments .
• How should I read materials to gather evidence? See our handout on reading to write .
• How can I make a good argument? Check out our handouts on argument and thesis statements .
• How do I tell if my paragraphs and my paper are well-organized? Review our handouts on paragraph development , transitions , and reorganizing drafts .
• How do I quote my sources and incorporate those quotes into my text? Our handouts on quotations and avoiding plagiarism offer useful tips.
• How do I cite my evidence? See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .
• I think that I’m giving evidence, but my instructor says I’m using too much summary. How can I tell? Check out our handout on using summary wisely.
• I want to use personal experience as evidence, but can I say “I”? We have a handout on when to use “I.”

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 2016. Everything’s an Argument , 7th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Miller, Richard E., and Kurt Spellmeyer. 2016. The New Humanities Reader , 5th ed. Boston: Cengage.

University of Maryland. 2019. “Research Using Primary Sources.” Research Guides. Last updated October 28, 2019. https://lib.guides.umd.edu/researchusingprimarysources .

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to Introduce Evidence in an Essay

Last Updated: May 5, 2024

This article was co-authored by Tristen Bonacci . Tristen Bonacci is a Licensed English Teacher with more than 20 years of experience. Tristen has taught in both the United States and overseas. She specializes in teaching in a secondary education environment and sharing wisdom with others, no matter the environment. Tristen holds a BA in English Literature from The University of Colorado and an MEd from The University of Phoenix. This article has been viewed 239,450 times.

When well integrated into your argument, evidence helps prove that you've done your research and thought critically about your topic. But what's the best way to introduce evidence so it feels seamless and has the highest impact? There are actually quite a few effective strategies you can use, and we've rounded up the best ones for you here. Try some of the tips below to introduce evidence in your essay and make a persuasive argument.

Things You Should Know

• "According to..."
• "The text says..."
• "Researchers have learned..."
• "For example..."
• "[Author's name] writes..."

Setting up the Evidence

• You can use 1-2 sentences to set up the evidence, if needed, but usually more concise you are, the better.

• For example, you may make an argument like, “Desire is a complicated, confusing emotion that causes pain to others.”
• Or you may make an assertion like, “The treatment of addiction must consider root cause issues like mental health and poor living conditions.”

• For example, you may write, “The novel explores the theme of adolescent love and desire.”
• Or you may write, “Many studies show that addiction is a mental health issue.”

Putting in the Evidence

• For example, you may use an introductory clause like, “According to Anne Carson…”, "In the following chart...," “The author states…," "The survey shows...." or “The study argues…”
• Place a comma after the introductory clause if you are using a quote. For example, “According to Anne Carson, ‘Desire is no light thing" or "The study notes, 'levels of addiction rise as levels of poverty and homelessness also rise.'"
• A list of introductory clauses can be found here: https://student.unsw.edu.au/introducing-quotations-and-paraphrases .

• For example, you may write, “In the novel, Carson is never shy about how her characters express desire for each other: ‘When they made love/ Geryon liked to touch in slow succession each of the bones of Herakles' back…’”
• Or you may write, "The study charts the rise in addiction levels, concluding: 'There is a higher level of addiction in specific areas of the United States.'"

• For example, you may write, “Carson views events as inevitable, as man moving through time like “a harpoon,” much like the fates of her characters.”
• Or you may write, "The chart indicates the rising levels of addiction in young people, an "epidemic" that shows no sign of slowing down."

• For example, you may write in the first mention, “In Anne Carson’s The Autobiography of Red , the color red signifies desire, love, and monstrosity.” Or you may write, "In the study Addiction Rates conducted by the Harvard Review...".
• After the first mention, you can write, “Carson states…” or “The study explores…”.
• If you are citing the author’s name in-text as part of your citation style, you do not need to note their name in the text. You can just use the quote and then place the citation at the end.

• If you are paraphrasing a source, you may still use quotation marks around any text you are lifting directly from the source.

• For example, you may write, “In the novel, the characters express desire for each other: ‘When they made love/ Geryon liked to touch in slow succession each of the bones of Herakles' back (Carson, 48).”
• Or you may write, "Based on the data in the graph below, the study shows the 'intersection between opioid addiction and income' (Branson, 10)."
• If you are using footnotes or endnotes, make sure you use the appropriate citation for each piece of evidence you place in your essay.

• You may also mention the title of the work or source you are paraphrasing or summarizing and the author's name in the paraphrase or summary.
• For example, you may write a paraphrase like, "As noted in various studies, the correlation between addiction and mental illness is often ignored by medical health professionals (Deder, 10)."
• Or you may write a summary like, " The Autobiography of Red is an exploration of desire and love between strange beings, what critics have called a hybrid work that combines ancient meter with modern language (Zambreno, 15)."

• The only time you should place 2 pieces of evidence together is when you want to directly compare 2 short quotes (each less than 1 line long).
• Your analysis should then include a complete compare and contrast of the 2 quotes to show you have thought critically about them both.

Analyzing the Evidence

• For example, you may write, “In the novel, Carson is never shy about how her characters express desire for each other: ‘When they made love/ Geryon liked to touch in slow succession each of the bones of Herakles' back (Carson, 48). The connection between Geryon and Herakles is intimate and gentle, a love that connects the two characters in a physical and emotional way.”
• Or you may write, "In the study Addiction Rates conducted by the Harvard Review, the data shows a 50% rise in addiction levels in specific areas across the United States. The study illustrates a clear connection between addiction levels and communities where income falls below the poverty line and there is a housing shortage or crisis."

• For example, you may write, “Carson’s treatment of the relationship between Geryon and Herakles can be linked back to her approach to desire as a whole in the novel, which acts as both a catalyst and an impediment for her characters.”
• Or you may write, "The survey conducted by Dr. Paula Bronson, accompanied by a detailed academic dissertation, supports the argument that addiction is not a stand alone issue that can be addressed in isolation."

• For example, you may write, “The value of love between two people is not romanticized, but it is still considered essential, similar to the feeling of belonging, another key theme in the novel.”
• Or you may write, "There is clearly a need to reassess the current thinking around addiction and mental illness so the health and sciences community can better study these pressing issues."

Expert Q&A

You Might Also Like

• ↑ Tristen Bonacci. Licensed English Teacher. Expert Interview. 21 December 2021.
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/quoliterature/
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/evidence/
• ↑ https://wts.indiana.edu/writing-guides/using-evidence.html

About This Article

Before you introduce evidence into your essay, begin the paragraph with a topic sentence. This sentence should give the reader an overview of the point you’ll be arguing or making with the evidence. When you get to citing the evidence, begin the sentence with a clause like, “The study finds” or “According to Anne Carson.” You can also include a short quotation in the middle of a sentence without introducing it with a clause. Remember to introduce the author’s first and last name when you use the evidence for the first time. Afterwards, you can just mention their last name. Once you’ve presented the evidence, take time to explain in your own words how it backs up the point you’re making. For tips on how to reference your evidence correctly, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Using evidence.

Like a lawyer in a jury trial, a writer must convince her audience of the validity of her argument by using evidence effectively. As a writer, you must also use evidence to persuade your readers to accept your claims. But how do you use evidence to your advantage? By leading your reader through your reasoning.

The types of evidence you use change from discipline to discipline--you might use quotations from a poem or a literary critic, for example, in a literature paper; you might use data from an experiment in a lab report.

The process of putting together your argument is called analysis --it interprets evidence in order to support, test, and/or refine a claim . The chief claim in an analytical essay is called the thesis . A thesis provides the controlling idea for a paper and should be original (that is, not completely obvious), assertive, and arguable. A strong thesis also requires solid evidence to support and develop it because without evidence, a claim is merely an unsubstantiated idea or opinion.

This Web page will cover these basic issues (you can click or scroll down to a particular topic):

• Incorporating evidence effectively.
• Integrating quotations smoothly.
• Citing your sources.

Incorporating Evidence Into Your Essay

When should you incorporate evidence.

Once you have formulated your claim, your thesis (see the WTS pamphlet, " How to Write a Thesis Statement ," for ideas and tips), you should use evidence to help strengthen your thesis and any assertion you make that relates to your thesis. Here are some ways to work evidence into your writing:

• Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.
• Present evidence that contradicts your stance, and then argue against (refute) that evidence and therefore strengthen your position.
• Use sources against each other, as if they were experts on a panel discussing your proposition.
• Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim.

Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence

In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your essay by following this pattern:

• State your claim.
• Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
• Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim.

To see the differences between strong and weak uses of evidence, here are two paragraphs.

Weak use of evidence

Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Everything is about what we want.

This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn't explain the connection.

The same evidence can be used to support the same claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim and evidence, and some analysis of the evidence cited.

Stronger use of evidence

Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.

This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim.

Using Quotations: A Special Type of Evidence

One effective way to support your claim is to use quotations. However, because quotations involve someone else's words, you need to take special care to integrate this kind of evidence into your essay. Here are two examples using quotations, one less effective and one more so.

Ineffective Use of Quotation

Today, we are too self-centered. "We are consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity" (Gleick 148). Everything is about what we want.

This example is ineffective because the quotation is not integrated with the writer's ideas. Notice how the writer has dropped the quotation into the paragraph without making any connection between it and the claim. Furthermore, she has not discussed the quotation's significance, which makes it difficult for the reader to see the relationship between the evidence and the writer's point.

A More Effective Use of Quotation

Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much any more as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence, as James Gleick says in his book, Faster . "We are consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity" (148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.

The second example is more effective because it follows the guidelines for incorporating evidence into an essay. Notice, too, that it uses a lead-in phrase (". . . as James Gleick says in his book, Faster ") to introduce the direct quotation. This lead-in phrase helps to integrate the quotation with the writer's ideas. Also notice that the writer discusses and comments upon the quotation immediately afterwards, which allows the reader to see the quotation's connection to the writer's point.

REMEMBER: Discussing the significance of your evidence develops and expands your paper!

Citing Your Sources

Evidence appears in essays in the form of quotations and paraphrasing. Both forms of evidence must be cited in your text. Citing evidence means distinguishing other writers' information from your own ideas and giving credit to your sources. There are plenty of general ways to do citations. Note both the lead-in phrases and the punctuation (except the brackets) in the following examples:

Quoting: According to Source X, "[direct quotation]" ([date or page #]).

Paraphrasing: Although Source Z argues that [his/her point in your own words], a better way to view the issue is [your own point] ([citation]).

Summarizing: In her book, Source P's main points are Q, R, and S [citation].

Your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and are the most effective way of interpreting the evidence.

Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper

• Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
• Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
• Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
• Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper's main claims?
• Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
• Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

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Overcoming challenges in analytical essay writing, writing a personal essay from the start, schools bet on performance-based salaries for teachers. did it pay off, how to cite evidence.

Image: unsplash.com

Citing textual evidence is critical to academic writing, professional communications, and even everyday discussions where arguments need to be supported by facts. Your ability to reference specific parts of a text improves credibility and strengthens your arguments, allowing you to present a well-rounded and persuasive case. For this reason, we wanted to give you a quick overview of how to cite evidence effectively, using one method in particular – the RACE strategy .

Introduction to Citing Text Evidence

The core reason for citing evidence is to lend credibility to an argument , showing the audience that the points being made are not just based on personal opinion but are backed by solid references. This practice is foundational in academic settings. There, the questions that students need to respond to are often constructed in a way that requires citing of evidence to support their answers. However, how can we make this process more quick and effectice? The answer lies in the RACE strategy, which is a special framework called to streamlines the process of citing textual evidence.

What is the RACE Strategy?

The RACE strategy stands for Restate, Answer, Cite evidence, and Explain. It is a methodical approach designed to help individuals construct well-structured answers that include textual proof. Let’s break down this method a little bit so you have some kind of impression on what we are going to talk about further.

• Restating the question or prompt in the introduction of the answer helps the writer to set the stage for a clear response.
• The direct answer, taht follows afterwards, presents the key point or thesis of the question.
• After we’e given an answer, we can move on to citing evidence, where we will integrate specific examples from the text to support the answer.
• Finally, we can move on to explaining our evidence. Here, it’s important to elaborating on how the cited examples support the argument we made.

This structured approach not only helps in organizing thoughts but also makes sure that the necessary components of a well-supported argument are present. Just like how to cite the constitution you have to be precise and factual. Let’s explore each step with actual examples to better illustrate how this strategy can help you with the process of citing textual evidence.

Restating basically means paraphrasing the original question or statement within your answer. This step demonstrates your understanding of the question and sets the stage for your response.

By answering directly, you respond to the question and therefore briefly present your main argument or thesis. You should stay clear and concise here, providing a straightforward statement of your position or understanding.

Cite Evidence

Citing evidence is where you integrate specific examples from the text to support your answer. This involves quoting or paraphrasing passages and pointing out where in the text your evidence can be found. Don’t forget to use quotation marks appropriately for direct quotes and to provide context for your citations or let a legal citation machine handle it.

For instance, to support the theme of racial injustice, you might cite evidence by saying,

When explaining, you elaborat on how your cited evidence supports your answer. This step connects your evidence back to your main argument, demonstrating a deeper understanding of the text.

After citing evidence, an explanation could be structured the following way,

To put it all together, here’s how an integrated response using the RACE strategy might look:

Response : ⬇

“The novel ‘To Kill a Mockingbird’ primarily explores themes such as racial injustice and the loss of innocence. One of the central themes is racial injustice, which is depicted through the trial of Tom Robinson and its impact on the town of Maycomb. Harper Lee illustrates this theme through the character of Atticus Finch, who states, ‘In our courts, when it’s a white man’s word against a black man’s, the white man always wins.’ (Lee, 1960, p. 295). This quote highlights the deeply ingrained racial biases within the judicial system of Maycomb, underscoring the novel’s critique of racial injustice and its effects on individuals and society as a whole.”

By following the RACE strategy and using actual examples, you can effectively structure clear and relevant responses that add depth to your argumentation. This method not only help in organizing thoughts but also in demonstrating a deep understanding of the text and its main topics.

However, there are a few nuances that you have to be aware of. The first one is the use of quotation marks. Don’t forget them when referencing direct quotes from a text, as they indicate that you took those words verbatim. Furthermore, you have to understand and use citation styles relevant to the discipline or context you write on. This will help you appropriately format your references and avoid unintentional plagiarizing. A quick tip: sentence starters and tags for dialogue can also help with introduction of quoted or paraphrased evidence effectively, as they let the reader or listener easily follow the argument’s progression.

Still not sure? Try our Free Citation Generator

Adapting the race strategy for distance learning.

Even in the case of distance learnign , the RACE strategy remains a valuable tool for teaching students how to cite evidence effectively. Digital resources such as Google Docs often offer collaborative platforms where teachers can share templates, sentence stems, and color-coded examples to guide students through the response building process.

Moreover, interactive activities facilitated through online tools, can further engage students in practicing citing evidence, with digital resources providing immediate feedback and opportunities for revision. This adaptation help develop the skill of citing textual evidence even in a remote learning setting.

It’s hard to argue that citing textual evidence is useful skill that can help you get far in your academic writing as well as in other more professional fields. Following the RACE strategy and using our tips on referencing, you, as students, can create well-structured and compelling responses (which no professor could argue with).

How can I use the RACE strategy to improve my essay writing?

You can use the RACE strategy to structure your paragraphs or entire essays by ensuring that each section includes a restatement of the question (if applicable), a clear answer or thesis statement, cited evidence from your sources, and an explanation of how this evidence supports your argument. This approach can enhance clarity, coherence, and persuasiveness.

What are some tips for effectively citing evidence in my writing?

Some tips for effectively citing evidence are: using direct quotes from the text with proper quotation marks, paraphrasing accurately while maintaining the original meaning, providing specific examples, and ensuring that your citations are relevant and support your argument. Always include page numbers or other locator information if available.

Is the RACE strategy useful for standardized tests or only for classroom assignments?

The RACE strategy is beneficial for a wide range of writing tasks, including standardized tests, classroom assignments, and even professional writing. Its structured approach to constructing responses makes it a valuable tool for any situation requiring evidence-based writing.

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Unit 4: Fundamentals of Academic Essay Writing

29 Steps for Integrating Evidence

A step-by-step guide for including your “voice”.

To integrate evidence, you need to introduce it, paraphrase (or quote in special circumstances), and then connect the evidence to the topic sentence. Below are the steps for “ICE” or the “hamburger analogy.”

Step 1 Introducing evidence: the top bun or “I”

A sentence of introduction before the paraphrase helps the reader know what evidence will follow. You want to provide a preview for the reader of what outside support you will use.

• Example from the model essay: (“I”/top bun) Peer review can increase a student’s interest and confidence in writing. (“C”/meat) Rather than relying on the teacher, the student is actively involved in the writing process (Bijami et al., 2013, p. 94).
• Notice how the introduction of increasing interest and confidence provides a hint of the evidence that will follow; it links to the idea of becoming a more independent and engaged learner.

Step 2 Paraphrasing and citing evidence: the meat or “C”

Typically, in academic writing, you will not simply paraphrase a single sentence; instead, you will often summarize information from more than one sentence – you will read a section of text, such as a part of a paragraph, a whole paragraph, or even more than one paragraph, and you will extract and synthesize information from what you have read. This means you will summarize that information and cite it.

Paraphrase/summarize the evidence and then include a citation with the following information (A more detailed explanation of documentation, including citations, can be found in Unit 44: Documentation.

• The author’s last name (but if you do not know the author’s name, use the article title).
• The publication date.
• The page number.

Formats for introducing evidence (when you know the author)

• Gambino (2015) explains how social networks help foster personal connections (p. 1).
• According to Gambino (2015), social networks help foster personal connections (p. 1).
• Social networks help foster personal connections (Gambino, 2015, p. 1).

Formats for introducing evidence (when you the author is unknown)

• Several tips for college success are explained (“Preparing for College,” 2015, p. 2).
• Example from the model essay: Rather than relying on the teacher, the student is actively involved in the writing process (Bijami et al., 2013, p. 94).
• Here we can see a paraphrase, not a direct quotation, with proper citation format.

Step 3 Connecting evidence: the bottom bun or “E”

In this step, you must explain the significance of the evidence and how it relates to your topic sentence or to previously mentioned information in the paragraph or essay. This connecting explanation could be one or more sentences. This “bottom bun” is NOT a paraphrase; instead, it is your explanation of why you chose the evidence and how it supports your own ideas.

• Example from the model essay: (“I”/top bun) Peer review can increase a student’s interest and confidence in writing . (“C”/meat) Rather than relying on the teacher, the student is actively involved in the writing process (Bijami et al., 2013, p. 94) . (“E”/bottom bun) As students take more responsibility for their writing, from developing their topic to writing drafts, they become more confident and inspired .
• Notice how the “E” or “bottom bun” elaborates on the idea of becoming an independent learner.  

Step 3 Strategies : Questions to ask yourself when analyzing the function of evidence

What “move” is the “E” / bottom bun is making? (e.g. What’s the “function” of the “E” / bottom bun?”)

• Is it interpreting the evidence?
• Is it analyzing the evidence?
• Is it describing an outcome?
• Is it providing an example?
• Is it making a prediction?
• Is it evaluating the evidence?
• Is it challenging the evidence?
• Is it elaborating on evidence that came before in the paragraph/essay?
• Is it comparing the evidence with something else or another piece of evidence?
• Is it connecting the evidence to a previously stated idea in the paragraph/essay?

Choose a function: Evaluate, Compare, Analyze, Connect, Predict

Watch this video: Evidence & Citations

Watch this video on the importance of explaining your evidence and including citations.

From: Ariel Bassett

Language Stems for Integrating Evidence

The sentence stems below can help you develop your command of more complex academic language.

Stems to refer to outside knowledge and/or experts

• It is / has been believed that…
• Researchers have noted that…
• Experts point out that…
• Based on these figures… / These figures show… / The data (seems to) suggest(s)…

Stems for introducing example evidence

• X (year) illustrates this point with an example about… (p. #).
• One of example is…. (X, year, p. #).
• As an example of this/___, ….. (X, year, p. #)
• …. is an illustration / example of… (citation).
• For example, …or For instance, …

Stems to support arguments and claims

• According to X (year), …. (p. #).
• As proof of this, X (year) claims…. (p. #).
• X (year) provides evidence for/that… (p. #).
• X (year) demonstrates that… (p. #).

Stems to draw conclusions (helpful to use in the explanation / bottom bun)

• This suggests / demonstrates / indicates / shows / illustrates…

(In the above examples, you can combine the demonstrative pronoun “this” with a noun. Ex: “these results suggests…” or “this example illustrates…” or “these advantages show….”)

• This means…
• In this way,…
• It is possible that…
• Such evidence seems to suggest… / Such evidence suggests…

Stems to agree with a source (helpful to use in the explanation / bottom bun)

• As X correctly notes…
• As X rightly observes, …
• As X insightfully points out, …

Stems to disagree with a source (helpful to use in the explanation / bottom bun)

• Although X contends that…
• However, it remains unclear whether…
• Critics are quick to point out that…

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Course: 7th grade reading & vocabulary   >   unit 1, citing evidence in literary analysis | reading.

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Video transcript

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Using Evidence: Analysis

Beyond introducing and integrating your paraphrases and quotations, you also need to analyze the evidence in your paragraphs. Analysis is your opportunity to contextualize and explain the evidence for your reader. Your analysis might tell the reader why the evidence is important, what it means, or how it connects to other ideas in your writing.

Note that analysis often leads to synthesis , an extension and more complicated form of analysis. See our synthesis page for more information.

Example 1 of Analysis

Without analysis.

Embryonic stem cell research uses the stem cells from an embryo, causing much ethical debate in the scientific and political communities (Robinson, 2011). "Politicians don't know science" (James, 2010, p. 24). Academic discussion of both should continue (Robinson, 2011).

With Analysis (Added in Bold)

Embryonic stem cell research uses the stem cells from an embryo, causing much ethical debate in the scientific and political communities (Robinson, 2011). However, many politicians use the issue to stir up unnecessary emotion on both sides of the issues. James (2010) explained that "politicians don't know science," (p. 24) so scientists should not be listening to politics. Instead, Robinson (2011) suggested that academic discussion of both embryonic and adult stem cell research should continue in order for scientists to best utilize their resources while being mindful of ethical challenges.

Note that in the first example, the reader cannot know how the quotation fits into the paragraph. Also, note that the word both was unclear. In the revision, however, that the writer clearly (a) explained the quotations as well as the source material, (b) introduced the information sufficiently, and (c) integrated the ideas into the paragraph.

Example 2 of Analysis

Trow (1939) measured the effects of emotional responses on learning and found that student memorization dropped greatly with the introduction of a clock. Errors increased even more when intellectual inferiority regarding grades became a factor (Trow, 1939). The group that was allowed to learn free of restrictions from grades and time limits performed better on all tasks (Trow, 1939).

In this example, the author has successfully paraphrased the key findings from a study. However, there is no conclusion being drawn about those findings. Readers have a difficult time processing the evidence without some sort of ending explanation, an answer to the question so what? So what about this study? Why does it even matter?

Trow (1939) measured the effects of emotional responses on learning and found that student memorization dropped greatly with the introduction of a clock. Errors increased even more when intellectual inferiority regarding grades became a factor (Trow, 1939). The group that was allowed to learn free of restrictions from grades and time limits performed better on all tasks (Trow, 1939). Therefore, negative learning environments and students' emotional reactions can indeed hinder achievement.

Here the meaning becomes clear. The study’s findings support the claim the reader is making: that school environment affects achievement.

Analysis Video Playlist

Note that these videos were created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

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25 Best Transition Words for Providing Evidence

Transition words and phrases for providing evidence include “For example,”, “Evidence shows”, “A study found”, and “To demonstrate this point”.

These transition words and phrases can smooth the transition from one sentence to the next and help guide your reader, as shown below:

“ The scientific community is nearly unanimous about the human-caused impacts of climate change. In fact, a 2021 literature review found that 99% of published scientific papers on climate change agree that humans have caused climate change (Lynas et al, 2021).”

If you have an entire paragraph dedicated to outlining evidence for your argument, you may want a transition word at the start of the paragraph (see examples) that indicates to your reader that you are about to provide evidence for statements made in a previous paragraph.

Shortlist of Transition Words for Evidence

• To illustrate this point…
• As can be seen in…
• To demonstrate,…
• Evidence of this fact can be seen in…
• Proof of this point is found in…
• For instance,…
• For one thing,…
• Compelling evidence shows…
• For a case in point, readers should look no further than…
• In fact, one study finds…
• New evidence has found…
• Evidence shows…
• In view of recent evidence,…
• Notably, one study found…
• A seminal study has found…
• According to…
• In the article…
• Three separate studies have found…
• Research indicates…
• Supporting evidence shows…
• As [Author] demonstrates…
• For example,…
• A study in 2022 found…
• This argument is supported by…
• A key report on this topic uncovered…

Read Also: 6 Best Ways to Provide Evidence in an Essay

Examples of Transitions to Evidence (in Context)

1. For example…

“ The scientific community is nearly unanimous about the human-caused impacts of climate change. For example, a 2021 literature review found that 99% of published scientific papers on climate change agree that humans have caused climate change (Lynas et al, 2021).”

2. As [Author] demonstrates…

“ The scientific community is nearly unanimous about the human-caused impacts of climate change. As Lynas et al. (2021) demonstrate, 99% of published scientific papers on climate change agree that humans have caused climate change (Lynas et al, 2021).”

3. Evidence suggests…

“ The scientific community is nearly unanimous about the human-caused impacts of climate change. Evidence from a 2021 literature review suggests that 99% of published scientific papers on climate change agree that humans have caused climate change (Lynas et al, 2021).”

4. A study in 2021 found…

“ The scientific community is nearly unanimous about the human-caused impacts of climate change. A study in 2021 found that 99% of published scientific papers on climate change agree that humans have caused climate change (Lynas et al, 2021).”

5. This argument is supported by…

“ The scientific community is nearly unanimous about the human-caused impacts of climate change. This argument is supported by a comprehensive literature review in 2021 that found that 99% of published scientific papers on climate change agree that humans have caused climate change (Lynas et al, 2021).”

Transition Words for Explaining Evidence

After you have provided your evidence, it is recommended that you provide a follow-up sentence explaining the evidence, its strength, and its relevance to the reader .

In other words, you may need a subsequent transition word that moves your reader from evidence to explanation.

Some examples of transition words for explaining evidence include:

• “This evidence shows…”
• “As shown above,”
• “The relevance of this point is”
• “These findings demonstrate”
• “This evidence compellingly demonstrates”
• “These findings suggest”
• “With this information, it is reasonable to conclude”

Examples of Transition Words for Explaining Evidence (in Context)

1. “This evidence shows…”

“ The scientific community is nearly unanimous about the human-caused impacts of climate change. As Lynas et al. (2021) demonstrate, 99% of published scientific papers on climate change agree that humans have caused climate change (Lynas et al, 2021). This evidence shows that governments should take climate change very seriously.”

2. “As shown above,”

“ The scientific community is nearly unanimous about the human-caused impacts of climate change. As Lynas et al. (2021) demonstrate, 99% of published scientific papers on climate change agree that humans have caused climate change (Lynas et al, 2021). As shown above, the evidence is compelling. Governments should take climate change very seriously.”

3. “The relevance of this point is”

“ The scientific community is nearly unanimous about the human-caused impacts of climate change. As Lynas et al. (2021) demonstrate, 99% of published scientific papers on climate change agree that humans have caused climate change (Lynas et al, 2021). The relevance of this point is that the time for debate is over. Governments should take climate change very seriously.”

Writing your Paragraph

I have a very simple structure for paragraphs. It’s as follows:

• Aim for 4 to 6 sentences per paragraph
• Use a topic sentence for the first sentence
• Follow up with transition phrases that help link the topic sentence to evidence and explanations that support your topic sentence.

Sometimes people call this the TEEL paragraph: topic, evidence, explanation, linking sentence.

It looks something like this:

For more on how I teach paragraphs, watch my YouTube video below:

(You can also take my essay writing course for all my tips and tricks on essay writing!)

Other Types of Transition Words

1. Emphasis

• “This strongly suggests”
• “To highlight the seriousness of this,”
• “To emphasize this point,”

2. Addition

• “In addition,”
• “Furthermore,”
• “Moreover,”
• “Additionally,”

3. Compare and Contrast

• “By contrast,”
• “However, other evidence contradicts this.”
• “Despite this,”

Go Deeper: Compare and Contrast Essay Examples

• “Firstly”, “secondly”, “thirdly”
• “Following on from the above point,”
• “Next”, “Then”, “Finally”

5. Cause and Effect

• “As a result,”
• “This has caused…”
• “Consequently,”
• “Because of this,”
• “Due to this,”
• “The result of this”

7. Illustration and examples

• “For example,”
• “To illustrate this point,”
• “An illustrative example is…”

8. Transitioning to conclusions

• “In conclusion”
• “This essay has demonstrated”
• “Given the compelling evidence presented in this essay,”

How many are Too many Transition Words?

I generally recommend between 1 and 3 transition words per paragraph, with an average of about 2.

If you have a transition word at the start of each and every sentence, the technique becomes repetitive and loses its value.

While you should use a transition whenever you feel it is necessary and natural, it’s worth checking if you’ve over-used certain words and phrases throughout your essay.

I’ve found the best way to see if your writing has started to sound unnatural is to read it out loud to yourself.

In this process, consider:

• Removing some Transition Words: If you identify a paragraph that has a transition word at the beginning of every single sentence, remove a few so you have one at the start of the paragraph and one in the middle of the paragraph – that’s all.
• Removing Overused Words: People tend to get a single word stuck in their head and they use it over and over again. If you identify overuse of a single word, it’s best to change it up. Consider some synonyms (like some of the words and phrases listed above) to add some more variety to your language.

Related: List of Words to Start a Paragraph

Overall, transition words that show evidence can help guide your reader. They allow you to tell a smooth and logical story. They can enhance the quality of your writing and help demonstrate your command of the topic.

When transitioning from an orientation sentence to your evidence, use transition words like “For example,” and “Evidence demonstrates” to link the two sentences or paragraphs.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Self-Actualization Examples (Maslow's Hierarchy)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Forest Schools Philosophy & Curriculum, Explained!
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How to Introduce Evidence in an Essay

December 28, 2023

Introducing evidence in an essay serves a crucial purpose – it strengthens your arguments and adds credibility to your claims. Without proper evidence, your essay may lack substance and fail to convince your readers. Evidence helps support your statements, providing solid proof of the validity of your ideas. It demonstrates that you have thoroughly researched your topic and have a strong basis for your arguments. Moreover, evidence adds depth to your writing and allows you to present a persuasive case. By including evidence in your essay, you show that you have considered various perspectives and have made informed conclusions. It is essential to understand the importance of evidence and its role in constructing a well-rounded and convincing essay. In the following sections, we will explore different types of evidence and learn how to effectively incorporate them into your writing.

Types of Evidence

When it comes to introducing evidence in an essay, it is important to consider the types of evidence available to you. Here are some commonly used types:

Statistical Evidence

Introducing evidence in an essay is crucial to support your ideas and arguments. One effective way of doing so is by utilizing statistical evidence. Statistics have the power to provide concrete facts and figures, making your essay more objective and credible.

By incorporating statistical evidence, you can back up your claims with well-researched data, lending an air of authority to your work. Whether you’re discussing social issues, scientific phenomena, or economic trends, statistics can showcase patterns, trends, and correlations that further strengthen your arguments.

Additionally, statistical evidence provides a numerical representation of information, making complex ideas more accessible to readers. It can engage your audience and facilitate their understanding, ensuring that your message resonates effectively.

However, it is important to ensure that your statistical evidence is reliable and obtained from reputable sources. This will boost the credibility of your essay, making it more persuasive and compelling. Remember, statistics add substance and impact to your writing, elevating it from a mere collection of words to a well-supported and convincing piece.

Expert Testimony

Introducing expert testimony in an essay can greatly enhance the credibility and persuasiveness of your arguments. Expert testimony involves quoting or referencing professionals, scholars, or individuals knowledgeable in a specific field to support your claims.

By incorporating the opinions and insights of experts, you can lend authority to your essay. Expert testimony adds a layer of validation to your arguments, demonstrating that your ideas are supported by those who possess extensive knowledge and experience in the subject matter.

Citing experts also strengthens your work by showcasing that you have done thorough research and have sought out trusted authorities in the field. This can establish your expertise as a writer and further establish your credibility with the readers.

When utilizing expert testimony, make sure to reference credible sources and provide proper attribution. This will ensure the integrity of your essay and bolster the confidence readers have in your arguments. Remember, expert testimony can provide valuable insights and earn the trust of your audience, making your essay more persuasive and impactful.

Anecdotal Evidence

Introducing anecdotal evidence in an essay allows you to connect with readers on a personal level while still conveying a persuasive message. Anecdotes are brief, relatable stories that provide real-life examples to support your arguments.

Anecdotal evidence adds a human touch to your essay, capturing the attention and interest of your audience. By sharing personal experiences, or those of others, you can create an emotional connection that resonates with readers.

These stories can be used to illustrate the impact of a particular phenomenon or to provide a compelling argument for your thesis. Anecdotes often invoke empathy and can help readers relate to the topic on a deeper level.

However, it’s crucial to use anecdotal evidence selectively and consider its limitations. While it can engage readers and appeal to their emotions, anecdotal evidence is subjective and may not represent the broader picture. Pairing anecdotal evidence with other types of evidence can strengthen your argument and ensure a more balanced and persuasive essay.

Empirical Evidence

Introducing empirical evidence in an essay involves utilizing observation, experimentation, and scientific data to support your arguments. Empirical evidence relies on systematic methods of data collection and analysis, making it a strong and reliable form of evidence.

By incorporating empirical evidence, you can establish a solid foundation for your essay. It allows you to present findings derived from thorough research, ensuring objectivity and credibility. Whether you’re discussing the effects of a medication, the impact of climate change, or the outcomes of a social program, empirical evidence provides tangible results and measurable outcomes.

Empirical evidence also lends itself to replicability, as others can evaluate and reproduce the research to validate the findings. This further strengthens the validity and persuasiveness of your essay.

When including empirical evidence, it is essential to cite the original studies or research articles, ensuring transparency and acknowledging the sources of your data. By incorporating empirical evidence in your essay, you build a persuasive argument supported by scientific rigor, enhancing the impact and credibility of your work.

Utilizing these different types of evidence allows for a well-rounded and convincing essay. It is important to select the type of evidence that best suits your argument and topic. In the following sections, we will delve into how to evaluate the credibility of evidence and effectively incorporate it into your essay.

Evaluating the Credibility of Evidence

When introducing evidence in an essay, it is crucial to evaluate its credibility to ensure the soundness of your arguments. Here are key factors to consider when assessing the reliability of evidence:

• Source credibility: Determine the expertise and authority of the source. Is it from a reputable organization, expert in the field, or peer-reviewed journal?
• Relevance: Assess the relevance of the evidence to your topic. Does it directly address your thesis or support your main points?
• Currency: Consider the recency of the evidence. Is it up-to-date or outdated? Depending on your topic, it may be necessary to prioritize recent information.
• Consistency: Look for consistency among multiple sources. Does the evidence align with other reliable sources, or is it an outlier?
• Sample size: If using statistical evidence, examine the sample size. Larger samples generally provide more representative results.
• Methodology: Evaluate the rigor of the research methods used to gather the evidence. Was it conducted using scientifically accepted practices?
• Bias: Be aware of potential bias in the evidence. Consider the funding sources, ideological leanings, or conflicts of interest that might impact the objectivity of the information.

By critically evaluating the credibility of evidence, you can ensure that your essay is well-supported and persuasive. Remember to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of different types of evidence to create a balanced and convincing argument.

Incorporating Evidence into the Essay

When writing an essay, incorporating evidence is essential to support your arguments and provide credibility to your claims. By seamlessly integrating evidence into your essay, you can enhance its overall quality and convince your readers of the validity of your ideas.

Here are some key strategies to effectively introduce evidence in your essay:

• Provide context: Start by giving your readers contextual information about the evidence. Explain the source, its significance, and how it relates to your argument. This helps your readers understand its relevance and establishes a solid foundation for your evidence.
• Use signal phrases: Use appropriate signal phrases to introduce your evidence. These phrases can indicate that you are about to present evidence, such as “According to,” “For example,” or “As evidence suggests.” Signal phrases create a smooth transition between your own ideas and the evidence you are presenting.
• Blend it into your sentence structure: Rather than dropping evidence abruptly, integrate it seamlessly into your sentence structure. This allows your evidence to flow naturally and become an integral part of your argument. This technique helps avoid the trap of using evidence as standalone sentences or paragraphs.
• Explain the significance: After presenting the evidence, take some time to explain its significance in relation to your argument. Analyze and interpret the evidence, showing your readers how it supports your main thesis and strengthens your overall stance.

By skillfully introducing evidence, you can effectively enhance the credibility and impact of your essay, making it more persuasive and compelling to your readers.

Quoting and Paraphrasing

Quoting and paraphrasing are essential techniques when introducing evidence in an essay. Quoting involves directly using the words of a source to provide support for your argument. It is important to surround the quote with proper punctuation and to cite the source accurately. Paraphrasing, on the other hand, involves restating the information from a source in your own words. This technique allows you to maintain the original meaning while integrating it seamlessly into your essay. When paraphrasing, it is crucial to avoid plagiarism by properly attributing the source. Whether you choose to quote or paraphrase, it is important to select evidence that strengthens your argument and provides credibility to your claims. By mastering the art of quoting and paraphrasing, you can introduce evidence effectively and enhance the overall quality of your essay.

Citing Sources

Citing sources is an essential step when introducing evidence in an essay, as it helps to validate your claims and avoid plagiarism. Here are some key points to keep in mind when citing sources:

• Choose the appropriate citation style: Different disciplines and academic institutions often have specific citation styles they prefer, such as MLA, APA, or Chicago. Understand the requirements and guidelines of the chosen citation style.
• Include all necessary information: When citing a source, provide all relevant details, including the author’s name, title of the work, publication date, and page numbers. The specific requirements may vary depending on the citation style.
• Use in-text citations: Whenever you include evidence or information from a source, make sure to include an in-text citation. This helps your reader identify the source and locate it in the bibliography or works cited page.
• Create a bibliography or works cited page: Compile a list of all the sources you used in your essay, following the formatting guidelines of your chosen citation style. This page should include full bibliographic information for each source.
• Double-check accuracy: Accuracy is crucial when citing sources. Make sure to double-check all the details, such as spelling, dates, and page numbers, to ensure they are correct.

By following these steps, you can effectively cite your sources and provide your essay with the necessary credibility and integrity.

Remember, effectively incorporating evidence into your essay not only adds weight to your arguments but also illustrates your ability to engage critically with the subject matter. By following these guidelines, you will be able to seamlessly integrate evidence and produce a well-supported and persuasive essay.

Connecting Evidence to Main Arguments

Connecting evidence to your main arguments is a crucial aspect of introducing evidence in an essay. It helps to strengthen your claims and provide a clear and logical flow to your work. Here are some strategies to effectively connect evidence to your main arguments:

• Establish relevance: Clearly explain how the evidence you are presenting connects directly to your main argument. Clearly state the relationship between the evidence and the point you are trying to make.
• Provide context: Before introducing the evidence, provide some background or context to help the reader understand its significance. Explain why this particular piece of evidence is relevant to your argument and how it supports your overall thesis.
• Use transitional phrases: Utilize transitional phrases or words to smoothly introduce your evidence. For example, phrases like “according to,” “for example,” or “research has shown” can guide the reader from your argument to the evidence.
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just present evidence without analysis. Take the time to explain how the evidence supports your argument and what conclusions can be drawn from it. Show the reader how the evidence reinforces your main point.
• Use topic sentences and paragraphs: Dedicate specific paragraphs or topic sentences to introduce and discuss each piece of evidence. This helps to clearly organize your essay and ensure that the evidence is effectively connected to your main arguments.

By following these strategies, you can successfully connect evidence to your main arguments, making your essay more convincing and compelling.

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In-Text Citations: The Basics

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style  can be found here .

Reference citations in text are covered on pages 261-268 of the Publication Manual. What follows are some general guidelines for referring to the works of others in your essay.

Note:  On pages 117-118, the Publication Manual suggests that authors of research papers should use the past tense or present perfect tense for signal phrases that occur in the literature review and procedure descriptions (for example, Jones (1998)  found  or Jones (1998)  has found ...). Contexts other than traditionally-structured research writing may permit the simple present tense (for example, Jones (1998)  finds ).

APA Citation Basics

When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, like, for example, (Jones, 1998). One complete reference for each source should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

If you are referring to an idea from another work but  NOT  directly quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication and not the page number in your in-text reference.

On the other hand, if you are directly quoting or borrowing from another work, you should include the page number at the end of the parenthetical citation. Use the abbreviation “p.” (for one page) or “pp.” (for multiple pages) before listing the page number(s). Use an en dash for page ranges. For example, you might write (Jones, 1998, p. 199) or (Jones, 1998, pp. 199–201). This information is reiterated below.

Regardless of how they are referenced, all sources that are cited in the text must appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

In-text citation capitalization, quotes, and italics/underlining

• Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.
• If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source:  Permanence and Change . Exceptions apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs:  Writing New Media ,  There Is Nothing Left to Lose .

( Note:  in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized:  Writing new media .)

• When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word:  Natural-Born Cyborgs .
• Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock's  Vertigo ."
• If the title of the work is italicized in your reference list, italicize it and use title case capitalization in the text:  The Closing of the American Mind ;  The Wizard of Oz ;  Friends .
• If the title of the work is not italicized in your reference list, use double quotation marks and title case capitalization (even though the reference list uses sentence case): "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds;" "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."

Short quotations

If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and page number for the reference (preceded by "p." for a single page and “pp.” for a span of multiple pages, with the page numbers separated by an en dash).

You can introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.

If you do not include the author’s name in the text of the sentence, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.

Long quotations

Place direct quotations that are 40 words or longer in a free-standing block of typewritten lines and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from the left margin, i.e., in the same place you would begin a new paragraph. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation 1/2 inch from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout, but do not add an extra blank line before or after it. The parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark.

Because block quotation formatting is difficult for us to replicate in the OWL's content management system, we have simply provided a screenshot of a generic example below.

Formatting example for block quotations in APA 7 style.

Quotations from sources without pages

Direct quotations from sources that do not contain pages should not reference a page number. Instead, you may reference another logical identifying element: a paragraph, a chapter number, a section number, a table number, or something else. Older works (like religious texts) can also incorporate special location identifiers like verse numbers. In short: pick a substitute for page numbers that makes sense for your source.

Summary or paraphrase

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference and may omit the page numbers. APA guidelines, however, do encourage including a page range for a summary or paraphrase when it will help the reader find the information in a longer work. 

Home / Guides / Citation Guides / MLA Format / How to Cite an Essay in MLA

How to Cite an Essay in MLA

The guidelines for citing an essay in MLA format are similar to those for citing a chapter in a book. Include the author of the essay, the title of the essay, the name of the collection if the essay belongs to one, the editor of the collection or other contributors, the publication information, and the page number(s).

Citing an Essay

Mla essay citation structure.

Last, First M. “Essay Title.” Collection Title, edited by First M. Last, Publisher, year published, page numbers. Website Title , URL (if applicable).

MLA Essay Citation Example

Gupta, Sanjay. “Balancing and Checking.” Essays on Modern Democracy, edited by Bob Towsky, Brook Stone Publishers, 1996, pp. 36-48. Essay Database, www . databaseforessays.org/modern/modern-democracy.

MLA Essay In-text Citation Structure

(Last Name Page #)

MLA Essay In-text Citation Example

Click here to cite an essay via an EasyBib citation form.

MLA Formatting Guide

MLA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Sample Paper
• Works Cited
• MLA 8 Updates
• MLA 9 Updates
• View MLA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all MLA Examples

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To cite your sources in an essay in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the author’s name(s), chapter title, book title, editor(s), publication year, publisher, and page numbers. The templates for in-text citations and a works-cited-list entry for essay sources and some examples are given below:

In-text citation template and example:

For citations in prose, use the first name and surname of the author on the first occurrence. For subsequent citations, use only the surname(s). In parenthetical citations, always use only the surname of the author(s).

Citation in prose:

First mention: Annette Wheeler Cafarelli

Subsequent occurrences: Wheeler Cafarelli

Parenthetical:

….(Wheeler Cafarelli).

Works-cited-list entry template and example:

The title of the chapter is enclosed in double quotation marks and uses title case. The book or collection title is given in italics and uses title case.

Surname, First Name. “Title of the Chapter.” Title of the Book , edited by Editor(s) Name, Publisher, Publication Year, page range.

Cafarelli, Annette Wheeler. “Rousseau and British Romanticism: Women and British Romanticism.” Cultural Interactions in the Romantic Age: Critical Essays in Comparative Literature , edited by Gregory Maertz. State U of New York P, 1998, pp. 125–56.

To cite an essay in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the author(s), the essay title, the book title, editor(s), publication year, publisher, and page numbers. The templates for citations in prose, parenthetical citations, and works-cited-list entries for an essay by multiple authors, and some examples, are given below:

For citations in prose, use the first name and surname of the author (e.g., Mary Strine).

For sources with two authors, use both full author names in prose (e.g., Mary Strine and Beth Radick).

For sources with three or more authors, use the first name and surname of the first author followed by “and others” or “and colleagues” (e.g., Mary Strine and others). In subsequent citations, use only the surname of the first author followed by “and others” or “and colleagues” (e.g., Strine and others).

In parenthetical citations, use only the author’s surname. For sources with two authors, use two surnames (e.g., Strine and Radick). For sources with three or more author names, use the first author’s surname followed by “et al.”

First mention: Mary Strine…

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Strine, Mary M., et al. “Research in Interpretation and Performance Studies: Trends, Issues, Priorities.” Speech Communication: Essays to Commemorate the 75th Anniversary of the Speech Communication Association , edited by Gerald M. Phillips and Julia T. Wood, Southern Illinois UP, 1990, pp. 181–204.

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New York Today

Students walk out over gun violence that is close to home.

In Crown Heights, Brooklyn, middle-school students are protesting gun violence in partnership with a community group.

By James Barron

Good morning. It’s Wednesday. Today we’ll look at a protest by middle-school students in Brooklyn. We’ll also find out about a settlement in a defamation lawsuit about a TV series on the Central Park Five case.

More than 100 middle school students in Crown Heights, Brooklyn, are expected to take part in a walkout this morning.

It will not be a walkout in the usual sense of the word. Their school, the Launch Expeditionary Learning Charter School, is encouraging them to join a protest against gun violence in partnership with Save Our Streets Brooklyn , a community organization.

The students have studied gun violence in recent months. In language arts classes, they read the young-adult novel “Give a Boy a Gun.” In math, they worked out statistics on gun violence. In science, they looked at whether gun violence met the definition of an epidemic.

“The essential question was, Is gun violence considered a health crisis in the U.S.?” said Janeé Wright, a science teacher at the school. “They had their question in the back of their minds through all of this.”

“All of this” included reading up on disease-related outbreaks like the coronavirus pandemic and the influenza pandemic of 1918 to 1920 — and on how epidemiologists classify such occurrences. “When they realized what epidemiologists do, they applied that to gun violence,” she said.

The material they covered in class, like today’s walkout, was planned long before a 12-year-old was arrested Monday in the fatal shooting of a 15-year-old cousin in an apartment less than two miles from the school. Dushoun Almond, who runs the anti-violence group Brownsville In Violence Out , said that family members had told him the boys had been playing with the gun when it went off.

There were at least 15 fatal shootings in or near that block from 2020 to 2023, according to a New York Times interactive map that plotted every fatal gun incident in the United States in that time. ( You can look up your own block here and compare data on gun homicides in your neighborhood with others around the country.)

There were six within a five-minute walk of Wright’s school in the same period.

Gun violence increased with the pandemic: From 2020 to 2023, half of New Yorkers lived near at least one fatal shooting — 12 percentage points above the national average for large cities in the same period. The Times’s analysis found unexpected hot spots in Queens, where one in every three residents lived near at least one fatal shooting from 2020 to 2023, up from just over one in five from 2016 to 2019.

Shooting incidents in New York this year were down nearly 12 percent from 2023, according to police statistics through June 2. But in the precinct that includes Brownsville, there were 24 shooting incidents through Sunday, including the shooting involving the two boys — eight more than in the same period last year.

Mayor Eric Adams announced an ambitious public safety plan in 2022 that included putting more police officers on the streets to remove guns and reviving an anti-gun police unit that had been disbanded in 2020 amid social justice protests. Adams, a former police captain who was elected after promising to crack down on crime, also appointed a “ gun violence czar .” And the Police Department says it has taken close to 2,800 guns off the streets this year — and close to 16,400 since Adams became mayor two and a half years ago.

“The mayor has done some things that I think are remarkably smart,” said Warren Eller, an associate professor at John Jay College of Criminal Justice, citing community programs that he said Adams doesn’t get enough credit for. But he cautioned that those programs take time. “These community programs are going to go a lot further” toward bringing down gun violence, he said, “but they’re probably going to take a lot longer than Mayor Adams’s tenure in office.”

Wright said the students had analyzed shootings using an interactive tool similar to the one that The Times used. They were also assigned to field work. That meant going to different places in Crown Heights and asking people if they had been affected by gun violence.

The students “were surprised how willing people were to tell their stories,” Wright said. “I made the point to them — you see the headlines, the major shootings,” she said, “but sometimes you don’t realize how many are happening in your own neighborhood.”

Expect patchy fog this morning and clouds this afternoon, with temperatures in the high 70s. Showers and possibly a thunderstorm are likely this evening, with lows in the high 60s.

ALTERNATE-SIDE PARKING

In effect until June 12 (Shavuot).

The latest New York news

Legislative priorities : With only one week left for the 2024 session, lawmakers in Albany will try to squeeze in initiatives they did not address in the state budget — such as a measure that would restrict social media companies from using algorithms on minors.

Endorsement politics : In the latest sign of how intensely the conflict in the Middle East is dividing Democrats, the first two Black men to represent Westchester County are at odds. The former congressman Mondaire Jones endorsed Representative Jamaal Bowman’s opponent, George Latimer, in the Democratic primary .

Members only : Zero Bond, the members-only club in Lower Manhattan, is said to want an outpost on the East End of Long Island. Now East Hampton Village has passed an 11 p.m. closing law for its historic district, which could put a damper on Zero Bond’s business .

Linda Fairstein and Netflix settle her defamation lawsuit

The former Manhattan sex crimes prosecutor Linda Fairstein has reached a settlement in the defamation lawsuit she filed over a 2019 Netflix series about the Central Park Five case .

Word of the settlement came in a three-sentence statement from Fairstein and Netflix, along with Ava DuVernay — who directed the four-part series “When They See Us” and was one of its writers — and Attica Locke, a co-writer.

Fairstein led the sex crimes unit in the Manhattan district attorney’s office in 1989, when five Black and Latino teenagers were charged with the rape of a white female jogger in Central Park. They were convicted in part because of false confessions obtained by the police. Their convictions were overturned after the actual assailant confessed in 2002, and they won a $41 million settlement from the city in 2014. One of the five, Yusef Salaam, was elected to the City Council last year .

News of the settlement was followed by dueling statements from Fairstein and her lawyers, and DuVernay and Netflix’s lawyers. The case had been scheduled to go to trial on Monday in Federal District Court in Manhattan.

Fairstein will not get any money as part of the settlement. Netflix will donate $1 million to the Innocence Project, which works to exonerate people who claim they were wrongfully convicted.

She said in her separate statement that the case had not been “about winning’ or about any financial restitution, but about my reputation and that of my colleagues.”

“It was about setting the historical record straight that the villainous caricature invented by the defendants and portrayed onscreen was not me,” she said, noting that Netflix was moving part of a disclaimer — which says that certain characters and events in the series are fictionalized — to the beginning of “When They See Us,” from the closing credits, where it already appeared.

Bart Williams and Natalie Spears, lawyers who represented Netflix, called the outcome “a total victory for Netflix” and for DuVernay and Locke. “Any suggestion by Linda Fairstein that she was vindicated by bringing this lawsuit is ludicrous,” they said in a statement.

DuVernay, in a statement emailed a couple of hours after Fairstein’s, said she hoped that Fairstein “can come to terms with the part she played in this miscarriage of justice.” She also asserted that Fairstein had “walked away” after proposing a cash payout and a disclaimer that would have said that “everything to do with her in the show was fabricated.”

“We refused both,” DuVernay said.

Andrew Miltenberg, a lawyer for Fairstein, pointed to a ruling by the judge last fall that rejected a dismissal motion from Netflix and DuVernay. The judge, P. Kevin Castel, said there was evidence that the series had “reverse-engineered plot points to attribute actions, responsibilities and viewpoints to Fairstein that were not hers” and were not reflected in “the substantial body of research materials” that had been amassed before the series went into production.

METROPOLITAN diary

On the town

Dear Diary:

A talking cat watches a baby pigeon on a stone terrace where a boy rides a unicycle before his real lesson.

A heart-sword balloon and then a heart-sword balloon fight …

The crosstown bus arrives.

A teenager asks his mom, is something happening, there’s so much traffic.

“It’s the Met Gala,” I say, in that helpful New York way.

This was my day.

— Olivia Loving

Illustrated by Agnes Lee. Send submissions here and read more Metropolitan Diary here .

Glad we could get together here. See you tomorrow. — J.B.

P.S. Here’s today’s Mini Crossword and Spelling Bee . You can find all our puzzles here .

Francis Mateo and Ed Shanahan contributed to New York Today. You can reach the team at [email protected].

Sign up here to get this newsletter in your inbox.

James Barron writes the New York Today newsletter, a morning roundup of what’s happening in the city. More about James Barron

Opinion What America owes long covid patients

Plus: How to reduce women’s risk of lung cancer a debate over a federal bill that has played a key role in medical innovation.

Bravo to The Post for the May 29 front-page article “ For people of color with long covid, a ‘huge disparity.’ ” For too long, the long covid experiences of people of color have been under-covered by the media.

The story reaffirmed what Community Catalyst, where I am a public health director, has been hearing from Black and Latinx communities in a series of listening sessions on long covid that we’ve conducted across the country. People suffering from this condition need to be heard and believed. When they are, their insights can improve public health measures to address long covid and provide the care they need. Their stories, whether about their churches’ roles in combating the pandemic or the challenges of paying for oxygen and antibiotics, should be at the center of research, policy and practice solutions geared toward long covid and other changes to our public health system.

All of this research led to the same conclusion: Government officials, public health professionals and private philanthropy organizations across the country need to invest in research, community forums and other avenues to bring people who are most affected by a failing system into the center of conversations about building new pathways to community-first public health.

We can’t pretend covid-19 does not exist anymore. And we can’t ignore the impacts long covid is having on communities of color.

Sheree Keitt , Lanham

The writer directs the vaccine equity and access program at Community Catalyst.

The Post’s May 27 front-page article “ Federal response to covid dwindles ” was helpful and sobering. It’s now abundantly clear that even as the pandemic has abated, the pendulum has swung too far toward complacency on the part of both government and citizens.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention should never have stopped collecting meaningful data on infections and cases, for example. Without such data, an uptick or surge caused by a new variant could go undetected for weeks or even months. Meanwhile, most people who get sick with flu- and covid-like symptoms are not getting tested. That’s a mistake because if people know they have covid-19, they are more likely to be careful about exposing others, especially the elderly, by strictly isolating for three to six days. And if they develop long-term health issues after a bout of covid, they’ll know why and be able to seek and receive appropriate care.

As for vaccination, the continuing decline in rates even among the elderly is a public health failure. The government should mount a high-profile flu, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and covid vaccine campaign this September and October. An updated and newly formulated covid vaccine will be available. One message that still needs constant reinforcement: Covid is not the flu . While the immediate risks posed by successive variants of both diseases change over time, covid sufferers seem to be at higher risk for long-term health problems related to their illnesses.

The pandemic was sheer misery for all, and it’s understandable that we and the government would like to take a break from it. But that’s not the responsible thing to do.

Steven Findlay , Barnesville

It is hard to argue with any of Mikkael A. Sekeres’s recommendations in his May 27 online health essay, “ I’m an oncologist. Here’s what I advised my mom after her cancer diagnosis. ” I would, however, offer one note of caution: Just because one cancer type is frequently misdiagnosed does not mean that is true for all cancer types. Such suggestions further the misconception that cancer is one disease and sows misdirected mistrust of dedicated doctors. Earning the confidence of patients depends on not oversimplifying the information provided.

For example, Dr. Sekeres suggested that patients “insist” that a second pathologist review their biopsy specimen by citing results from a study he and his colleagues conducted showing that “pathologists with expertise in [myelodysplasia syndromes] disagreed with the diagnosis given by pathologists who weren’t experts in the diagnosis 20 percent of the time.”

But a 2018 study found that the likelihood of major discrepancies — meaning those having a potential impact on patient care — between the diagnoses of the pathologists at a National Cancer Institute-designated cancer center and the diagnoses of other pathologists for the far more common lung, colorectal and breast cancers were just 2.0, 2.7 and 1.1 percent, respectively.

The promise of truly personalized oncology includes recognizing and informing patients of our profession’s shortcomings, such as discord among pathologists in identifying myelodysplasia, and our successes, among them near certainty in identifying breast cancer. With honesty, patients can decide which of Dr. Sekeres’s wise suggestions they wish to pursue, based on their resources, personalities and how they wish to spend what is sometimes tragically limited precious time.

Steven Sorscher , Winston-Salem, N.C.

The writer is a retired professor in oncology at the University of California at San Diego and Wake Forest University.

Regarding the May 25 online health article “ Medical Mysteries: She went undiagnosed until almost too late ”:

Ann Malik’s struggle for a diagnosis should remind the public that women who have never smoked are twice as likely to get lung cancer as men who have never smoked. Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in women. It claims more lives than breast and ovarian cancers combined. It is estimated that 164 women die of the disease daily — one woman about every nine minutes. Yet this women’s cancer is underfunded compared with other major cancers.

In other words, given what researchers have learned in the past 10 years, Ms. Malik did fit the profile for her disease, given the fact that her grandfather died of lung cancer and she has a history of mild asthma — two high-risk factors. If we change the perception of who is at risk for lung cancer, and how deadly it is, we can save lives.

We know that lung cancer can run in families and develop in people without exposure to tobacco products. Research launched in 2010 by GO2 for Lung Cancer, the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and the Addario Lung Cancer Medical Institute, and published in the Journal of Clinical Oncology, identified a predisposition for lung cancer in a specific genetic marker.

But even while this research is underway, the results might encourage physicians to request low-dose lung screenings of patients with a family history of cancer. If doctors encounter patients like Ms. Malik, they might be more open to such scans, diagnosing cancers such as hers earlier.

Though we should acknowledge the risk, we must also be clear that lung cancer, when caught early, is more easily treatable. The challenge is getting an early diagnosis since there are rarely symptoms until it’s too late. Patients and the medical community must work together in identifying individuals who are at high risk, and more dollars need to be allocated to lung cancer research, prevention and education.

Laurie Ambrose , Washington

The writer is president and chief executive of GO2 for Lung Cancer.

Peter Arno and Kathryn Ardizzone’s May 30 online op-ed, “ Angry at high drug prices? A letter to The Post is to blame (sort of) .,” mischaracterizes the views of my old boss, Sen. Birch Bayh (D-Ind.), and the march-in powers his namesake Bayh-Dole Act gave the federal government to intervene and license patents derived from government-funded research to new manufacturers, a law that has become a cornerstone of American innovation. And while Mr. Arno has been pursuing the idea that the Bayh-Doyle Act gives the federal government a mandate to regulate drug prices for more than 20 years, certain realities have not changed.

The authors claim that in 1997, Bayh “asked the federal government to use march-in rights to deal with drug prices.” In fact, in 2021, The Post’s own fact-checker debunked this assertion, writing that the march-in petition that Bayh supported “was not, however, a case regarding pricing, but health and safety.” Bayh argued that the government should intervene and re-license a patent to CellPro because the original licensee was not making good-faith efforts to develop a product at all. Making sure a product is being developed and available to the public is the purpose of march-in rights.

And more broadly, The Post’s fact-checker noted that while Mr. Arno’s theory, advanced both in a 2001 law review and in a 2002 op-ed published in The Post , has some supporters, “no administration or court has ever accepted [Arno’s] reasoning.”

As the staffer who helped draft the bill and wrote the Senate Judiciary Committee’s report on it, I know firsthand that the Bayh-Dole Act does not allow Washington to set prices and was not intended to do so. The purpose was to encourage the development of federally funded inventions. And it has done that exceedingly well.

The Economist’s Technology Quarterly called the Bayh-Dole Act “possibly the most inspired piece of legislation to be enacted in America over the past half-century.” Millions globally are alive today because of Sen. Bayh and his legislative co-author, Sen. Robert J. Dole (R-Kan.). They don’t deserve such shabby treatment from those seeking to undo their legacy.

Joseph P. Allen, Bethesda, Ohio

The writer is executive director of the Bayh-Dole Coalition.

About letters to the editor

The Post welcomes letters to the editor on any subject, especially those that expand upon the ideas raised by published pieces and those that raise valuable questions about The Post’s practices and choices. Letters should run no more than 400 words, be submitted only to the Post and must be published under your real name. Submit a letter .