big essay on buddhism

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By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 5, 2024 | Original: October 12, 2017

Buddhism is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama—also known as “the Buddha”—more than 2,500 years ago in India. With an estimated 500 million to one billion followers, scholars consider Buddhism one of the major world religions. As a non-theistic faith with no god or deity to worship, some scholars describe Buddhism as a philosophy or a moral code rather than an organized religion.

Many of the beliefs and practices of Buddhism revolve around the concept of suffering and its causes. Buddhism has historically been most prominent in East and Southeast Asia, but its influence is growing throughout the West. Many Buddhist ideas and philosophies overlap with those of other faiths.

Buddhism Beliefs and Practices

Some key Buddhism beliefs include:

• Followers of Buddhism don’t acknowledge a supreme god or deity. They instead focus on achieving enlightenment—a state of inner peace and wisdom. When followers reach this spiritual echelon, they’re said to have experienced nirvana.
• The religion’s founder, Buddha, is considered an extraordinary being, but not a god. The word Buddha means “enlightened.”
• The path to enlightenment is attained by utilizing morality, meditation and wisdom. Buddhists often meditate because they believe it helps awaken truth.
• There are many philosophies and interpretations within Buddhism, making it a tolerant and evolving religion.
• Some scholars don’t recognize Buddhism as an organized religion, but rather, a “way of life” or a “spiritual tradition.”
• Buddhism encourages its people to avoid self-indulgence but also self-denial.
• Buddha’s most important teachings, known as The Four Noble Truths, are essential to understanding the religion.
• Buddhists embrace the concepts of karma (the law of cause and effect) and reincarnation (the continuous cycle of rebirth).
• Followers of Buddhism can worship in temples or in their own homes.
• Buddhist monks, or bhikkhus, follow a strict code of conduct, which includes celibacy.
• There is no single Buddhist symbol, but a number of images have evolved that represent Buddhist beliefs, including the lotus flower, the eight-spoked dharma wheel, the Bodhi tree and the  swastika  (an ancient symbol whose name means "well-being" or "good fortune" in Sanskrit). 

Who Was the Buddha?

Siddhartha Gautama , the founder of Buddhism who later became known as “the Buddha,” lived during the 5th century B.C. 

Gautama was born into a wealthy family as a prince in present-day Nepal. Although he had an easy life, Gautama was moved by suffering in the world. 

He decided to give up his lavish lifestyle and endure poverty. For nearly six years, he undertook fasting and other austerities, but these techniques proved ineffectual and he abandoned them. He eventually promoted the idea of the “Middle Way,” which means existing between two extremes. Thus, he sought a life without social indulgences but also without deprivation.

After regaining his strength, he seated himself under a Bodhi tree in west-central India and promised not to rise until he had attained the supreme enlightenment. After fighting off Mara, an evil spirit who tempted him with worldly comforts and desires, Siddhartha reached enlightenment, becoming a Buddha at the age of 35. He spent the rest of his life teaching others about how to achieve this spiritual state.

When Gautama passed away around 483 B.C., his followers began to organize a religious movement. Buddha’s teachings became the foundation for what would develop into Buddhism.

In the 3rd century B.C., Ashoka the Great, the Mauryan Indian emperor, made Buddhism the state religion of India. Buddhist monasteries were built, and missionary work was encouraged.

Over the next few centuries, Buddhism began to spread beyond India. The thoughts and philosophies of Buddhists became diverse, with some followers interpreting ideas differently than others.

In the sixth century, the Huns invaded India and destroyed hundreds of Buddhist monasteries, but the intruders were eventually driven out of the country.

Islam began to spread quickly in the region during the Middle Ages , forcing Buddhism into the background. Nonetheless, Buddhism eventually spread to Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, Japan and, in the 20th century, to the West.

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Types of Buddhism

Today, many forms of Buddhism exist around the world. The three main types that represent specific geographical areas include:

• Theravada Buddhism : Prevalent in Thailand, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos and Burma
• Mahayana Buddhism : Prevalent in China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore and Vietnam
• Tibetan Buddhism : Prevalent in Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia, Bhutan, and parts of Russia and northern India
• Zen Buddhism is a form of Mahayana Buddhism that’s practiced in many of the same areas. It emphasizes simplicity and meditation—the word “zen” means meditation—in lieu of religious scripture, ceremonies or doctrines.
• Nirvana Buddhism is closely related to Theravada Buddhism, but the concept of nirvana is also central to many paths of Buddhism. The term nirvana means “blowing out,” as a candle is blown out, thus ending all attachment and desire to achieve a state of pure enlightenment.

Each of these types reveres certain texts and has slightly different interpretations of Buddha’s teachings.

Some forms of Buddhism incorporate ideas of other religions and philosophies, such as Taoism and Bon.

Buddha’s teachings are known as “dharma.” He taught that wisdom, kindness, patience, generosity and compassion were important virtues.

Specifically, all Buddhists live by five moral precepts, which prohibit:

• Killing living things
• Taking what is not given
• Sexual misconduct
• Using drugs or alcohol

Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths, which Buddha taught, are:

• The truth of suffering (dukkha)
• The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya)
• The truth of the end of suffering (nirhodha)
• The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga)

Collectively, these principles explain why humans hurt and how to overcome suffering.

Eightfold Path

The Buddha taught his followers that the end of suffering, as described in the fourth Noble Truths, could be achieved by following an Eightfold Path. 

In no particular order, the Eightfold Path of Buddhism teaches the following ideals for ethical conduct, mental disciple and achieving wisdom:

• Right understanding (Samma ditthi)
• Right thought (Samma sankappa)
• Right speech (Samma vaca)
• Right action (Samma kammanta)
• Right livelihood (Samma ajiva)
• Right effort (Samma vayama)
• Right mindfulness (Samma sati)
• Right concentration (Samma samadhi)

Buddhist Holy Book

Buddhists revere many sacred texts and scriptures. Some of the most important are:

• Tipitaka: These texts, known as the “three baskets,” are thought to be the earliest collection of Buddhist writings.
• Sutras: There are more than 2,000 sutras, which are sacred teachings embraced mainly by Mahayana Buddhists.
• The Book of the Dead : This Tibetan text describes the stages of death in detail.

The Dalai Lama is the leading monk in Tibetan Buddhism. Followers of the religion believe the Dalai Lama is a reincarnation of a past lama that has agreed to be born again to help humanity. There have been 14 Dalai Lamas throughout history.

The Dalai Lama also governed Tibet until the Chinese took control in 1959. The current Dalai Lama, Lhamo Thondup, was born in 1935.

Buddhist Holidays

Every year, Buddhists celebrate Vesak, a festival that commemorates Buddha’s birth, enlightenment and death.

During each quarter of the moon, followers of Buddhism participate in a ceremony called Uposatha. This observance allows Buddhists to renew their commitment to their teachings.

They also celebrate the Buddhist New Year and participate in several other yearly festivals.

Buddhism: An Introduction, PBS . Buddhism, Ancient History Encyclopedia . The History of Buddha, History Cooperative . Demographics of Buddhism, Georgetown University Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, & World Affairs . Religions: Buddhism, BBC . Buddhist Scriptures, Georgetown University Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, & World Affairs . The Noble Eightfold Path: Tricycle . What Is Zen Buddhism and How Do You Practice It? Lion’s Roar .

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Buddhism and buddhist art.

Portrait of Shun'oku Myōha

Unidentified artist Japanese

Fasting Buddha Shakyamuni

Reliquary in the Shape of a Stupa

Standing Buddha Offering Protection

Buddha Maitreya (Mile)

Buddha Maitreya (Mile) Altarpiece

Buddha Offering Protection

Head of Buddha

Buddha, probably Amitabha

Pensive bodhisattva

Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Infinite Compassion

Buddha Shakyamuni or Akshobhya, the Buddha of the East

Enthroned Buddha Attended by the Bodhisattvas Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani

The Bodhisattva Padmapani Lokeshvara

Buddha Vairocana (Dari)

Buddha Amoghasiddhi with Eight Bodhisattvas

Death of the Historical Buddha (Nehan-zu)

Cup Stand with the Eight Buddhist Treasures

Seated Buddha

Vidya Dehejia Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University

February 2007

The fifth and fourth centuries B.C. were a time of worldwide intellectual ferment. It was an age of great thinkers, such as Socrates and Plato, Confucius and Laozi. In India , it was the age of the Buddha, after whose death a religion developed that eventually spread far beyond its homeland.

Siddhartha, the prince who was to become the Buddha, was born into the royal family of Kapilavastu, a small kingdom in the Himalayan foothills. His was a divine conception and miraculous birth, at which sages predicted that he would become a universal conqueror, either of the physical world or of men’s minds. It was the latter conquest that came to pass. Giving up the pleasures of the palace to seek the true purpose of life, Siddhartha first tried the path of severe asceticism, only to abandon it after six years as a futile exercise. He then sat down in yogic meditation beneath a bodhi tree until he achieved enlightenment. He was known henceforth as the Buddha , or “Enlightened One.”

His is the Middle Path, rejecting both luxury and asceticism. Buddhism proposes a life of good thoughts, good intentions, and straight living, all with the ultimate aim of achieving nirvana, release from earthly existence. For most beings, nirvana lies in the distant future, because Buddhism, like other faiths of India, believes in a cycle of rebirth. Humans are born many times on earth, each time with the opportunity to perfect themselves further. And it is their own karma—the sum total of deeds, good and bad—that determines the circumstances of a future birth. The Buddha spent the remaining forty years of his life preaching his faith and making vast numbers of converts. When he died, his body was cremated, as was customary in India.

The cremated relics of the Buddha were divided into several portions and placed in relic caskets that were interred within large hemispherical mounds known as stupas. Such stupas constitute the central monument of Buddhist monastic complexes. They attract pilgrims from far and wide who come to experience the unseen presence of the Buddha. Stupas are enclosed by a railing that provides a path for ritual circumambulation. The sacred area is entered through gateways at the four cardinal points.

In the first century B.C., India’s artists, who had worked in the perishable media of brick, wood, thatch, and bamboo, adopted stone on a very wide scale. Stone railings and gateways, covered with relief sculptures, were added to stupas. Favorite themes were events from the historic life of the Buddha, as well as from his previous lives, which were believed to number 550. The latter tales are called jatakas and often include popular legends adapted to Buddhist teachings.

In the earliest Buddhist art of India, the Buddha was not represented in human form. His presence was indicated instead by a sign, such as a pair of footprints, an empty seat, or an empty space beneath a parasol.

In the first century A.D., the human image of one Buddha came to dominate the artistic scene, and one of the first sites at which this occurred was along India’s northwestern frontier. In the area known as Gandhara , artistic elements from the Hellenistic world combined with the symbolism needed to express Indian Buddhism to create a unique style. Youthful Buddhas with hair arranged in wavy curls resemble Roman statues of Apollo; the monastic robe covering both shoulders and arranged in heavy classical folds is reminiscent of a Roman toga. There are also many representations of Siddhartha as a princely bejeweled figure prior to his renunciation of palace life. Buddhism evolved the concept of a Buddha of the Future, Maitreya, depicted in art both as a Buddha clad in a monastic robe and as a princely bodhisattva before enlightenment. Gandharan artists made use of both stone and stucco to produce such images, which were placed in nichelike shrines around the stupa of a monastery. Contemporaneously, the Kushan-period artists in Mathura, India, produced a different image of the Buddha. His body was expanded by sacred breath ( prana ), and his clinging monastic robe was draped to leave the right shoulder bare.

A third influential Buddha type evolved in Andhra Pradesh, in southern India, where images of substantial proportions, with serious, unsmiling faces, were clad in robes that created a heavy swag at the hem and revealed the left shoulder. These southern sites provided artistic inspiration for the Buddhist land of Sri Lanka, off the southern tip of India, and Sri Lankan monks regularly visited the area. A number of statues in this style have been found as well throughout Southeast Asia.

The succeeding Gupta period, from the fourth to the sixth century A.D., in northern India, sometimes referred to as a Golden Age, witnessed the creation of an “ideal image” of the Buddha. This was achieved by combining selected traits from the Gandharan region with the sensuous form created by Mathura artists. Gupta Buddhas have their hair arranged in tiny individual curls, and the robes have a network of strings to suggest drapery folds (as at Mathura) or are transparent sheaths (as at Sarnath). With their downward glance and spiritual aura, Gupta Buddhas became the model for future generations of artists, whether in post-Gupta and Pala India or in Nepal , Thailand , and Indonesia. Gupta metal images of the Buddha were also taken by pilgrims along the Silk Road to China .

Over the following centuries there emerged a new form of Buddhism that involved an expanding pantheon and more elaborate rituals. This later Buddhism introduced the concept of heavenly bodhisattvas as well as goddesses, of whom the most popular was Tara. In Nepal and Tibet , where exquisite metal images and paintings were produced, new divinities were created and portrayed in both sculpture and painted scrolls. Ferocious deities were introduced in the role of protectors of Buddhism and its believers. Images of a more esoteric nature , depicting god and goddess in embrace, were produced to demonstrate the metaphysical concept that salvation resulted from the union of wisdom (female) and compassion (male). Buddhism had traveled a long way from its simple beginnings.

Dehejia, Vidya. “Buddhism and Buddhist Art.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/budd/hd_budd.htm (February 2007)

Further Reading

Dehejia, Vidya. Indian Art . London: Phaidon, 1997.

Mitter, Partha. Indian Art . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Additional Essays by Vidya Dehejia

• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Hinduism and Hindu Art .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Recognizing the Gods .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ South Asian Art and Culture .” (February 2007)

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Buddhism is one of the world’s largest religions and originated 2,500 years ago in India. Buddhists believe that the human life is one of suffering, and that meditation, spiritual and physical labor, and good behavior are the ways to achieve enlightenment, or nirvana .

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Buddhism is one of the world’s major religions . It originated in South Asia around the 5th century B.C.E. with Siddhartha Gautama, and over the next millennia it spread across Asia and the rest of the world. Buddhists believe that human life is a cycle of suffering and rebirth, but that if one achieves a state of enlightenment ( nirvana ), it is possible to escape this cycle forever. Siddhartha Gautama was the first person to reach this state of enlightenment and was, and is still today, known as the Buddha. Buddhists do not believe in any kind of deity or god, although there are supernatural figures who can help or hinder people on the path towards enlightenment.

Born on the Nepali side of the present day Nepal-India border, Siddhartha Gautama was a prince around the fifth century B.C.E. who, upon seeing people poor and dying, realized that human life is suffering. He renounced his wealth and spent time as a poor beggar, meditating and traveling but ultimately, remaining unsatisfied, settling on something called “the Middle Way.” This idea meant that neither extreme asceticism nor extreme wealth was the path to enlightenment, but rather, a way of life between the two extremes was. Eventually, in a state of deep meditation, he achieved enlightenment, or nirvana, underneath the Bodhi tree (the tree of awakening). The Mahabodhi Temple in Bihar, India—the site of his enlightenment—is now a major Buddhist pilgrimage site.

The Buddha taught about Four Noble Truths. The first truth is called “Suffering ( dukkha ),” which teaches that everyone in life is suffering in some way. The second truth is “Origin of suffering ( samudāya ).” This states that all suffering comes from desire ( tanhā). The third truth is “Cessation of suffering ( nirodha ),” and it says that it is possible to stop suffering and achieve enlightenment. The fourth truth, “Path to the cessation of suffering ( magga )” is about the Middle Way, which is the steps to achieve enlightenment.

Buddhists believe in a wheel of rebirth into different bodies. This is connected to “ karma ,” which refers to how a person’s good or bad actions in the past or in their past lives can impact them in the future.

There are three main schools of Buddhism: Mahayana, Theravada, and Vajrayana. Mahayana Buddhism is common in China, Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea. It emphasizes the role models of bodhisattvas (beings that have achieved enlightenment but return to teach humans). Theravada Buddhism is common in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, and Burma (Myanmar). It emphasizes a monastic lifestyle and meditation as the way to enlightenment. Vajrayana is the major school of Buddhism in the region of Tibet and in Nepal, Bhutan, and Mongolia. It offers followers a faster path to enlightenment than Mahayana or Theravada.

The head of the Tibetan school of Buddhism and traditional leader of Tibet, the Dalai Lama, fled from China-controlled Tibet in 1959 to India in fear of his life. Many Tibetan Buddhists actively resist Chinese control of the region. Recently, the current Dalai Lama, who is understood to be the 14th reincarnation of the first Dalai Lama, has raised questions over whether and where he will choose to reincarnate. The National Geographic Society is making this content available under a Creative Commons CC-BY-NC-SA   license . The License excludes the National Geographic Logo (meaning the words National Geographic + the Yellow Border Logo) and any images that are included as part of each content piece. For clarity the Logo and images may not be removed, altered, or changed in any way.

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The Core Beliefs of Buddhism: an Overview

This essay is about the core beliefs of Buddhism, focusing on the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths outline the existence of suffering, its cause through craving, the possibility of ending suffering, and the path to its cessation. The Noble Eightfold Path provides practical guidance for ethical living, mental discipline, and wisdom, encompassing right understanding, intent, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. The essay also touches on the concepts of Karma and Rebirth, emphasizing their role in ethical behavior and spiritual practice. Compassion and loving-kindness are highlighted as essential qualities for personal and spiritual growth within Buddhism.

How it works

Buddhism, among the earliest and most influential faiths globally, derives from the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, commonly referred to as the Buddha, who existed in the 5th century BCE. The foundational tenets of Buddhism center on comprehending the essence of suffering and the journey toward enlightenment. These fundamental doctrines find expression in the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, furnishing a framework for ethical conduct, cognitive discipline, and sagacity.

At the core of Buddhism lie the Four Noble Truths, offering a diagnosis of humanity’s condition and a resolution to its intrinsic suffering.

The primary truth, often interpreted as “Life is suffering” (Dukkha), acknowledges suffering’s innate existence. This encompasses not only physical agony and psychological distress but also the ephemeral nature of joy and gratification, which are inherently transient.

The second Noble Truth identifies craving or attachment (Tanha) as the root cause of suffering. According to the Buddha, our yearnings for sensory delights, material possessions, and even life itself ensnare us in a cycle of discontent and reincarnation. This yearning engenders a perpetual state of yearning and attachment, inevitably culminating in suffering.

The third Noble Truth offers optimism by asserting the possibility of alleviating suffering (Nirodha). Through relinquishing attachment and craving, individuals can attain Nirvana, a state of emancipation and liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. Nirvana epitomizes the ultimate objective of Buddhist practice, characterized by profound tranquility and unconditioned felicity.

The fourth Noble Truth delineates the pathway to the cessation of suffering, known as the Noble Eightfold Path. This path serves as a pragmatic blueprint for moral and cognitive maturation, subdivided into three principal categories: sagacity, ethical comportment, and cognitive discipline. Each facet of the Eightfold Path harmonizes to nurture a balanced and attentive existence.

Sagacity (Prajna) encompasses Right Understanding and Right Intent. Right Understanding entails discerning the genuine essence of reality and the interconnectedness of all phenomena. Right Intent underscores the significance of nurturing thoughts imbued with benevolence, empathy, and relinquishment.

Ethical Comportment (Sila) comprises Right Speech, Right Action, and Right Livelihood. Right Speech advocates for veracity and abstention from injurious verbal expressions. Right Action promotes ethical conduct, such as refraining from causing harm to living beings, theft, and engaging in illicit sexual conduct. Right Livelihood entails selecting a vocation that upholds ethical standards and avoids causing harm.

Cognitive Discipline (Samadhi) encompasses Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. Right Effort involves cultivating a positive and virtuous mental state while averting negative ones. Right Mindfulness entails sustaining awareness of one’s body, sensations, thoughts, and surroundings. Right Concentration refers to developing profound meditative states that foster lucidity and tranquility.

In addition to these foundational teachings, Buddhism also emphasizes the concepts of Karma and Rebirth. Karma denotes the law of causality, wherein deliberate actions influence future repercussions. Constructive deeds yield favorable outcomes, while detrimental ones result in suffering. This moral tenet urges individuals to act mindfully and responsibly, cognizant of the far-reaching consequences of their conduct.

Rebirth, another pivotal belief in Buddhism, posits that beings traverse successive existences contingent upon their karma. This cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (Samsara) persists until one achieves Nirvana. The notion of rebirth underscores the significance of virtuous living and spiritual endeavor, as one’s actions directly shape subsequent incarnations.

Compassion and benevolence (Metta) occupy a central place in Buddhist practice. The Buddha taught that fostering a compassionate disposition towards all sentient beings is indispensable for personal and spiritual advancement. This entails nurturing empathy, clemency, and a genuine aspiration for others’ well-being. Through practices like meditation and mindfulness, adherents strive to cultivate these virtues within themselves and extend them outwardly.

Buddhism, with its intricate tapestry of teachings and practices, furnishes a profound route to comprehending the essence of suffering and transcending it. Its core beliefs provide a comprehensive blueprint for leading a life characterized by moral rectitude, cognitive clarity, and altruistic conduct. By adhering to the precepts articulated by the Buddha, individuals can strive towards enlightenment and attain the profound peace and happiness it promises.

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258 Buddhism Essay Topics & Examples

Looking for Buddhism essay topics? Being one of the world’s largest and most ancient religions, buddhism is definitely worth exploring!

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In your Buddhism essay, you might want to focus on the history of the religion or Buddhist attitude to controversial social issues. Another option would be to write about Buddhist philosophy or practices. Whether you need to write a short Buddhism essay or a more substantive paper, this article will be helpful. Here you’ll find a collection of 241 Buddhism topics for essays and research papers together with Buddhism essay examples.

🏆 Best Buddhism Essay Examples & Topic Ideas

• Japanese Buddhism vs. Chinese Buddhism: Differences The introduction and spread of Buddhism in Japan depended on the support that was offered by the Japanese rulers. Japanese Buddhist art has relied heavily on the Chinese art since the introduction of Buddhism in […]
• Buddhism and Sikhism Comparison: Four Noble Truths The four are dukkha, the origin of dukkha, the cessation of dukkha, and the path to the cessation of suffering. He forsook the luxuries and other benefits associated with life in the palace to join […]
• Buddhism and Hinduism: Similarities and Differences The most conspicuous similarity is the origin of the two religions in sub-continent India. Some worship and religious practices are similar but there is a profound difference in the style and purpose of life in […]
• ”The History of God” by Karen Armstrong: An Overview of the History of Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism “The History of God” by Karen Armstrong is a comprehensive overview of the history of the development of Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism.
• Judaism and Buddhism: Overview and Comparison If reform Judaism is on one side of the spectrum and orthodox Judaism is on the other one, conservative Jews are in the center.
• Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism Elements Hindus, the last power is discovered in the Vedas and the writing of the religious leaders willing to view the fact nature of reality.
• The Idea Salvation in Buddhism Religion Focusing on the discussion of the concept of salvation in Buddhism, it is important to state that salvation is the emancipation of a person from the attachment to the reality and from the person’s focus […]
• Dharma in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism This essay aims to describe the ideas of dharma in the religions of Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism in terms of their doctrines, rituals, origin tales, and modes of worship.
• Hinduism and Buddhism: Comparative Analysis One of the basic concepts in Indian philosophy: the soul, drowning in the “ocean of samsara,” seeks liberation and deliverance from the results of its past actions, which are part of the “net of samsara”.
• Role of Brahmanism in the Decline of Buddhism In addition to this, the persecution of Bramanical Kings together with the anti-Buddhism propaganda was a heavy hit to the Buddhists.
• Shinto and Its Relationship With China and Buddhism As such, those who identify with the two religions have continued to engage in practices of the Buddhist and Shinto faiths either knowingly or unknowingly.
• Buddhist Allegories in “The Monkey and the Monk” The Monkey and the Monk is not an ordinary story with a list of characters with the ability to develop particular relationships, grow in their specific ways, and demonstrate necessary lessons to the reader.
• Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy Buddhists believe in a higher power and life after death, they have a moral code of ethics, and they perform rituals; these things are the definition of established religion.
• Comparison of Hinduism and Buddhism Rituals Buddhism and Hinduism are some of the popular religions in the world with their origins dating back to the Common Era in India.
• Mahayana Buddhism: Growth and Development of Buddhism The Mahayana elaboration of this concept is unusual in that it uses the term “bodhisattva” to refer to anyone who has the desire to become a Buddha and does not require that this desire be […]
• Comparison of Buddhism and the Baptist Religions The other structure in the Temple is the vihan which is the place where the members of the Temple assemble for prayers.
• Buddhism: The Concept of Death and Dying Life is permanent but death is the transition of a human soul to either one of the six Buddhist realms. The purpose of this paper is to explain the concept of death from the Buddhist […]
• The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism In the third Noble Truth, the Buddha identified a cure to the problem and in the fourth Noble Truth, he identified the prescription to end suffering.
• Reflection on Self in Buddhism and Hinduism The specificity of the Buddhist concept of the human self lies in the acceptance of the distinction between self and general in a spiritual aspect.
• Death and Dying in Christianity and Buddhism Birth and death are part of everybody’s life: birth is the beginning of living, and death is the end of it.
• Daoism’s Influence on Chan Buddhism in China To comprehend the connection between Daoism and Buddhism and the possible influence of the former on the latter, it is expected to identify the main concepts of Taoism in Chinese philosophy and culture first.
• The Zen Temple as the Place of Worship in Japanese Zen Buddhism Each Zen temple is not only a simple building, where Zen Buddhism is taught and explained; it is the place, where the essence of Buddhism is depicted by means of each stone, detail, and color; […]
• Wu Wei in Daoism and Zen Buddhism Therefore, the original ideas and thoughts of Taoism are believed to have influenced the development of Zen Buddhism in China. This discussion shows clearly that emptiness in Buddhism points to dependent origination as the true […]
• Morality in Buddhism The purpose of this paper is to expound on the concept of morality in Buddhism, and how the various Buddhist teachings, such as the Four Noble Truths, have enhanced my morality in me and in […]
• Zhong Kui, the Keeper of Hearth and Home: Japanese Myth With Buddhist Philosophy Zhong Kui, the Demon Queller, or Shoki, as foreigners call this creature, is the keeper of the hearth and home in Japan and one of the most picturesque characters of Japanese legends.
• Buddhism and Christianity Comparison In Buddhism, the ultimate goal is the acquisition of the Nirvana state, a state in which one is relieved of egos, desires, and cravings and saved from the suffering experienced due to reincarnations.
• Concepts of Buddhism At the age of twenty-nine, he left the comforts of the palace and went out to seek the real meaning of life.
• Anatman and Atman Concepts in Buddhism and Hinduism Rendering to the Atman notion, Atman is eventually in the custody of people’s reactions to what happens in the outside world. The idea of the self in assembly to God is where Hinduism and Buddhism […]
• Buddhism in ‘The World’s Religions’ by Huston Smith Although in his The World’s Religions, Huston Smith identifies speculation as one of the religious constants, Buddhism views humans’ endeavors to ascertain the truth as meaningless and fruitless pursuit: It is not on the view […]
• Philosophy of Confucius Compared to That of Buddhism This due to the fact that only the aspect of ethics in the Buddhist philosophy can be significantly likened to the Confucian philosophy.
• Buddhism and Hinduism: A Comparison Both of Hinduism and Buddhism have shared beliefs but they are different in the practice of duties, worshipped, the founders of the religions.
• Three Jewels of Buddhism and Their Role The three jewels of Buddhism which are the main ideals at the heart of Buddhism are together identified as the Three Jewels, or the Three Treasures.
• Buddhism. Allegory in “The Monkey and the Monk” In The Monkey & the Monk: an Abridgment of the Journey to the West, the Monkey is one of the main protagonists of the book, as is apparent from its title.
• Buddhism Spread as Globalization of Knowledge Modern Buddhism has been integrated as a key part of the globalization movement, and it explains why the faith has spread throughout different parts of the world.[3] The correlation between Buddhism and globalization stems from […]
• Buddhism in Different Historical Regions He became Buddha and gathered disciples in the valley of the Ganges who spread the knowledge and contributed to the scripture.
• Descartes’ and Buddhist Ideas of Self-Existence It is the assumption of this paper that Descartes’ perspective and the teachings of Buddha on the self are inherently incompatible due to their different perspectives on what constitutes “the self”.
• Religious Studies: Hinduism and Buddhism Samsara refers to the processor rebirth whereby the individual is reincarnated in a succession of lives. This is what has led to the many differences that arise, causing Buddhism to be viewed as a religious […]
• How Does Mahayana Differ From Early Buddhism? According to Mahayana believers, the rituals and ceremonies are important in affirming their faith and in teaching vital traditions and rules that have to be followed by those who accept to be members of the […]
• Buddhism and Hinduism Thus it is each individuals role to return the soul but this is not possible because of the sins and impurities one becomes exposed to once living in this world and since the process of […]

👍 Good Essay Topics on Buddhism

• Four Noble Truths as Buddhism Fundamentals The first noble truth in Buddhism teachings is the truth of suffering that is frequently referred to as Dukkha. The last interpretation of the Dukkha is the expression of suffering that is inevitable.
• Myanmar Buddhism: Between Controversy and Ecumenism Firstly, the formation of a Buddha through the ritual performance by placing and identifying within a person’s body the traits of the Buddha that, in turn, become the Buddha.
• Buddhist Meditation’s Impact on Health My goal is to determine whether Buddhist meditation can help an individual find a sense of mental, emotional, and spiritual balance in their life.
• Hindu Pathways and Buddhist Noble Truths The Buddha relates life suffering in the Four Noble Truths to that of a physician who identifies the symptoms of the suffering, finds out the causes, identifies ways to stop, and finally administers treatment.
• Paths to Enlightenment in Hinduism and Buddhism This paper will compare the paths to moksha with the Four Noble Truths and argue that raja yoga would best utilize the Buddhist method of the Eightfold Path.
• Distribution Features of Confucianism and Buddhism Confucianism is more a philosophical doctrine than a religion, and its connection with the East is strong due to the specifics of the Asian mentality.
• Ethics in the Buddhist Tradition The concept of ethics and morality is one of the perfection followers of Buddhism must strive to achieve enlightenment. Techniques include entering into the flow and control of the senses, understanding the practice of return, […]
• Health Beliefs in Buddhist Religion Moreover, the body and mind are interdependent; thus, Buddhists consider greed, anger, and ignorance as the main aspects affecting the deterioration of human well-being.
• Indigenous Religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism For example, Confucianism is one of the modern national religions of China, which was formed at the turn of the new era based on the ethical-philosophical teachings of Confucius and his followers.
• Buddhism and Christianity: Comparison and Contrast The principal teachings of the religion are on enlightenment which is thought to be attained through a life of self-deprivation. Christianity is evident in the existence of one supreme being who is the creator of […]
• Analysis of Buddhism Idea and Paradox The most important aspect that attracted me to this film was the authentic depiction of the traditions of old Ceylon and the excellent atmosphere of the festival.
• Buddhism and the Definition of Religion On the one hand, the concepts of ‘laukika’ and ‘lokottara,’ which can be roughly translated as ‘of the world’ and ‘not of the world,’ more or less corresponding to Western ideas of profane and sacred.
• Why Was the Silk Road So Important in the Spread of Buddhism The fundamental importance was the spread of Buddhism from India to the rest of the world. Trade development along the Silk Road resulted in the expansion of Buddhism to Eastern Asia and China.
• Karma and Other Concepts in Buddhism The afflictions that propel rebirth in the wheel of existence are the teachings of new reality after death in a circumstance known as samsara.
• Buddhism and Hinduism: A Comparative Study While in the case of Hinduism, samsara is the cyclical rebirth of the soul that remains unchanged, Buddhism teaches that samsara is the transformation of a person into something else.
• Hinduism, Buddhism, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Ramayana in the News Media It also implies that the government of the country where Hinduism is the predominant religion is concerned because of the mistakes revealed by mass media.
• Architeture and Function in Buddhism, Christianity, and Islamic Religion In Buddhism religion, various architectural structures like Stupas which are oldest in Buddhism and Pagodas which are major form of architectural structures in Buddhism have been used for long time up to date.
• An Introduction to Buddhism The doctrines of suffering and rebirth are contained in dharma which is also the teachings of Buddhism. It is celebrated to remember a historical and important event that took place in the life of Budha.
• A Conversation With a Buddhist The biggest role when discussing Buddhism is often given to the ability to see the light and become one of the sources of it.
• Buddhism: Ancient Wisdom and Modern Times The problem of wanting more and more is often the main reason why people fail to follow the Five Precepts of Buddhism, resort to violence, get lost in indulging themselves, and defy moral principles.
• Healthy Grief: Kübler-Ross, Job, and Buddhist Stages of Grieving The author also recognizes the fact that the five phases of grieving do not necessarily manifest in the same order in everyone. In the ‘anger’ stage, people begin to comprehend the reality of the situation.
• Comprehending Heart Sutra in Mahayana Buddhism The sutra is chanted in Chinese, but the general message is the same regardless of the language or even the version of the verses.
• Buddhism and Sexuality: Restraining Sexual Desires for Enlightenment It is considered to be more honest to refuse to stick to the aforementioned rules than to be a hypocritical member of the community, who consciously violates the codes.
• Buddhist Arts and Visual Culture In contrast, the Gandhara sculptures were usually made of grey sandstone, whereas the ones found in Sarnath are in the buff one.
• Soul Concept in Islam and Buddhism And since this pursuit is ever continual, the soul is therefore eternal.’The Soul’ in Buddhism: One of the most distinct concepts of Buddhism is the assertion that there is no soul.
• Religion. How Buddhism Views the World Evaluating the general information about this religion, it appears that Buddhism is seen as one of the most popular and widespread religions on the earth the reason of its pragmatic and attractive philosophies which are […]
• Animal Ethics From the Buddhist Perspective In biomedical research and ethics, one of the most frequently debated issues regarding the use of animals in healthcare research is the concept of animal rights.
• Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism in America: A Country of Many Religions This paper aims to explore the impact of Islam, Hindu, and Buddhism on the diversity in America today and answer the question what role they are playing in the society.
• Buddhism in China: Yogācāra Buddhism However, the logical structure of the Yogak ra was not mere speculation, and the ultimate scopes of tradition remained the attainment of the Buddhahood and liberation from the Sams ra.
• The Emergence of Tibetan Buddhism According to modern historians, it is widely believed that the religion based on the Buddha’s teachings first came to Tibet in the seventh century of the Common Era, with the period of its most active […]
• China Impact on Transformation of Buddhist Teachings The unique Chinese Buddhist tradition was formed under the impact of the long-established worldview of the Chinese culture on the original ideas of Buddhism.
• No-Self or Anatman Concept in Buddhism In his teachings, the Buddha used the idea of no-self to disprove the logical consistency of seeing people as creatures that are independent in terms of perception and knowledge.
• The Unexamined Life and the Buddhist Four Noble Truths One is happy to see healthy grandkids playing in the green backyard of the beautiful house because the life goals are met and this brings happiness because there have been so many questions and uncertainties […]
• Buddhism: Definition and Origins of Buddhism However, there is admittance to the existence, reality and truth that in one general conscious awareness, Buddhism is man’s inclination to support or be loyal to and to agree to an opinion of the Teaching […]
• Comparing Early Christian and Buddhist Sculpture During his reign, the territory of the Byzantine Empire expanded significantly, having become the largest during the whole history of the Byzantine Empire; it is possible to say that the cult of Justinian existed in […]
• The Place of Buddhism Among Other Religions The purpose of this paper is to analyze the eight fold path in Buddhism and its similarities with other religion. Buddhism is one of the major religions in the world and shares a lot in […]
• Hindu and Buddhism: Concept of Karma Indeed, the teachings tend to create a balance between spirituality and ordinary human life in the sense that, by following the path of attaining knowledge and the quest to understand the oneself as human through […]
• Nature of Self, Death, and Ethics in Buddhism The state of ultimate reality is pervasive and it builds the foundation of being and the source of energy in every atom and the life of every creature.
• Vedic Hinduism, Classical Hinduism, and Buddhism: A Uniting Belief Systems The difference between Vedic and Classical Hinduism is fundamentally approach towards life rather than beliefs or reformation and the progression from the former to latter is not clear in terms of time.

💡 Easy Buddhism Essay Topics

• The Comparison of Buddhism and Taoism Philosophies In Taoism the aim is attain Tao while the Buddhists strive to reach the nirvana and adhere to the four noble truths.
• Nirvana in Buddhism and Atman in Hinduism The Mantras which is the text of the Vedas are the personification of the Brahman and are divided into two forms which are the karma-Kanda and the Jnana-Kanda.
• Buddhist Religion, Its Past and Its Present The first and the foremost form of Buddhism that has long been practiced is known as the Theravada Buddhism, which is also known as Southern Buddhism; sporadically spelled as Therevada has been the governing discipline […]
• Thailand’s Social Investment Project and Buddhist Philosophy According to the World Bank, the first priority area of the Social Investment Project was to respond to the economic and financial crises through the provision of vital social services to the poor and unemployed […]
• World Religions. Buddhism and Its Teaching As per the teachings of this religion, happiness and contentment is possible. The Fourth Noble Truth is all about Noble eightfold path, as being the path leading to the end of suffering.
• How Tibetan Buddhism Is Represented by Hollywood LITTLE BUDDHA is a well-represented film by Hollywood that tells the story of Jesse Conrad and has a major parallels story of a prince Siddhartha in which the story talks about the birth of Buddhism.
• The History of Buddhism in Korea: Origin, Establishment, and Development The Koryo dynasty’s era witnessed the creation of the Korean Tripitaka, this is a collection of all of the Buddhist sacred books or the scriptures and era of the spread of Buddhism also the period […]
• Buddhism. “The Burmese Harp” Drama Film When the Japanese troops are supposed to surrender and a soldier is sent to other Japanese troops to tell them to drop their guns, they deny the orders and continue to fight and thereby, continue […]
• Ways in Which the Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Criticize the Body as a Source of Suffering Yet Use It as Path to Enlighten The level of how weakness and sensibility to pain, adversity is discouraged is shown when the lord Krishna makes it a point to elaborate to Arjuna, that in his position as a warrior he has […]
• Buddhism and Greater Peace: Conflict, Visions of Peace The main reason for this Buddhism teaches is that by encouraging people in the communities to live in peace with neighbors, chances of conflicts would greatly be diminished.
• Middle Path’ in Chinese Buddhism and Zen Buddhism Followers of Mahayana tradition consider their doctrine as the finding of the truth about the nature and teachings of the Buddha in contrast to the Theravada tradition, which they characterize as Lesser Vehicle, known as […]
• The Feminine Aspect of Tibetan Buddhism One of the inspiring stories of the first of enlightened females in the literature is of Princess Yeshe Bawa who was a follower of the Buddha of her time and was determined to become enlightened.
• Emptiness: Buddhism, Dualism, and the Philosophy of Existence To understand the truth of life, the essence of objects, and the meaning of existence, it is necessary to set yourself aside from fixed thoughts.
• Existence Viewed by Modern America, Buddhism, and Christianity Humans of all generations and historical periods seek to find the answer to the cause about the cause of life, the destiny and the role of each human in the life of others.
• Karuna Part of Spiritual Path in Buddhism and Jainism The purpose of this paper is to study the concept of karuna in Buddhism and its relevance to the two major sects in that religion namely Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism.
• Buddhism Studies: A Visit of the Jade Buddha Temple The teachings of the Buddhist are essentially meant to change ourselves and not others like a Christian believer and in the teaching the change occurs when we are “filled with” or we are awaken to […]
• Buddhism: Brief History of Religion From Origin to Modern Days The faith of Buddhism was shaped by a man by the name of Siddhartha Gautama who is supposed to have been imagines by a miraculous conception “in which the future Buddha came to his look […]
• Buddhism in Koryo Analysis Although some of the concepts similar to the teachings Buddhism had spread to Paschke and Koguyo, the places inhabited by the Koryo people, the religion preached by Buddha could not be firmly established in two […]
• Meeting of Buddhist Monks and Nuns The stupa became a symbol of the Buddha, of his final release from the cycle of birth and rebirth – the Parinirvana or the “Final Dying,” the monk explained. He explained that the main Buddha […]
• Teachings of Buddhism as a Means to Alleviate Sadness Buddhism, one of the major religions of the world, provides valuable teachings on how to alleviate sadness in life, among others specifically advocating Contentment, Peace of Mind and Love, all of which lie at the […]
• Presenting Christianity to Buddhism A Buddhist can therefore relate to the phrase ‘kingdom of God’ as the process of living and discovering the heaven that is located within a person’s heart.
• Buddhism and William James’ Theory of Religions It can also be learned from the theory that philosophy is the head of emancipation, and the proletariat is its heart.
• Salvation and Self in Hinduism and Theravada Buddhism The accomplishment of the elevating state of ‘Moksha’ is the final goal of Hinduism, whereas Buddhism aspires to attain the elevating state of ‘Nirvana’ as its final aim.’Moksha’, the final outcome of which is ultimate […]
• Formation and Development of Tibetan Buddhist Canon Kangyur means “translations of the word” of the Buddhas and consists of sutras, tantras, and the root texts attributed to the Buddhas Buddha Shakyamuni and later enlightened beings, like Guru Padmasambhava.
• Buddhist Teachings Allegory in “Monkey” by Lamport The Monkey is one of the masterpieces of literature that contains the ethics, morality, religion, and culture of the Eastern world.
• Monkey Novel as an Allegory of Buddhist Teachings The purpose of this paper is to explain why Monkey is an allegory of Buddhist teachings in the selected novel. The reader also observed that Tripitaka is a representation of the physical outcomes and experiences […]
• Buddhism in Taiwan Then and Now The origin and development of Buddhism is attributed to the life experiences and achievements of the Buddha. 1 The Dutch colonialists and settlers from China presented the teachings of the Buddha to the people.
• Nirvana and Other Buddhism Concepts Different regions have adopted specific ways of being religious that have been influenced by the cultural attributes of the people, influence from other religions, and the ideas associated with various Asian philosophies.
• Buddhism in the 19th and 20th Centuries The 19th and 20th centuries brought challenges and opportunities for Buddhism, as a religious sect, which underlined the need for change from an amorphous and disorganized outfit to the formation of institutions of governance and […]
• Changes to Buddhism in Modern Times Buddhism originated in the middle of the first millennium BC in northern India as an opposition to the religion of Brahmanism that dominated in those days. Tolerance of Buddhism undoubtedly contributes to its attractiveness in […]
• Religion in Japan: Buddhism, Shintoism, and Daoism Unlike in different European and American nations, the citizens of this country uphold unique ideas informed by the concepts of Buddhism and Shintoism.
• The Tibetan Buddhism Lecture On the journey to Nirvana, traditions of donation of money and donation of the body are important, as charity is said to benefit those around you and make the journey easier. Tibetan Buddhism is very […]
• Buddhism in China, Its Spread and Sinification The lack of material concerning the early spread of Buddhism into China and the appearance of a dignified form of Buddhism has suggested a series of factors that contributed to filtering the original Indian doctrine […]
• World Religions: Confucianism and Buddhism Birth as the first stage of human life is supported by rituals that have to protect the woman and her child.
• Religions: Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam In the Bhagavad Gita, three yogas, or paths to liberation, are outlined: jnana yoga, which liberates one via knowledge; karma yoga, which liberates one via actions; and bhakti yoga, which liberates one via devotion.
• Hinduism and Buddhism: Definition and Comparison The only technique required in this context is wouldevotion.’ The followers of this religious group are required to demonstrate outstanding devotion as they strive to serve their religious faiths.
• Buddhism and Christianity: Comparative Religious Analysis The wiremen’s interpretation of the dream was that there was going to be born a son to the royal family. Christ was born of the Virgin Mary, Siddharta was a son to the Queen.
• Jainism and Theravada Buddhism The cause of this violence, according to Jainism, is greed and so for a person to attain the ultimate goal, which is bliss or liberation from karma.
• Buddhism Practices, Theories, Teachings, Rituals The author provides the evolution of Buddhism and the main religious figures that influenced the formation of the Buddhist vision of the world.

⭐ Buddhism Research Paper Topics

• Religious Rituals in Judaism and Buddhism This whole process causes the religious follower to learn that the sacred or the spiritual is a vital part of the human world.
• The Key Features of Buddhist Thought and Practice These three characteristics are always connected with existence as they tend to illuminate the nature of existence as well as helping the faithful to have knowledge of what to do with existence.
• Asian Philosophy: Veddic Period and Early Buddhism In the creation hymn of the Rg Vega, Aditi is acknowledged to be the god of all gods because he is the creator and has equally been granted the status of five men.
• Death of the Historical Buddha in Zen Buddhism The hanging scroll Death of the Historical Buddha is a perfect example of an idiosyncratic subgenre of the nirvana images, which permeated Japanese art in the sixth century after the adoption of Buddhism.[4] The composition […]
• Filial Piety in Zen Buddhist Discursive Paradigm Nevertheless, there appears to have been a phenomenological quality to the development in question, because during the initial phase of Buddhism’s expansion into China this concept used to be commonly regarded contradictory to the religion’s […]
• Buddhism and Confucianism in Modern China In the article “Concepts and Institutions for a New Buddhist Education: Reforming the Sa gha between and within State Agencies,” Stefania Travagnin discusses the opposition between Buddhist education and Western education in China the beginning […]
• The Role of Meditation in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism Some of the claims in the article sound farfetched, but it is apparent that one of the characteristics of the Tibetan Buddhists is the mystical powers possessed by some of the individuals.
• How Enterprises Appropriate the Vocabulary of Buddhism? This popular association that has been created by advertisers for the purposes of commodification has transformed Buddhism into a resource of imagery and concepts for vendors within the context of a modern marketplace.
• Purpose of Meditation in Buddhism One of the key roles of meditation in the Buddhist faith is the relaxation of the mind and the improvement of mental alertness.
• Confucianism and Daoism Influence on Zen Buddhism The concept of “emptiness” and “nothingness” is often mentioned and discussed in Zen philosophy. Together with the concept of ephemerality, Zen and Daoism explain that reality is conceived rather than seen.
• Buddhism and Hinduism: Religious Differences In Hinduism, only representatives of higher varnas, Brahmins, can attain moksha with the help of gods. Hinduists believe in the multitude of gods who can be the manifestations of one Great God.
• Philosophy of Science: Approaches on Buddhism In this view, this research paper aims at understanding the Tibetan monks’ practice of feeding the remains of one of their own to vultures, upon their demise, based on the Durkheim and Wittgensteinian’s approaches to […]
• Denver Buddhist Temple: Cultural Outing In this connection, the paper aims at identifying Buddhist religion that is prevalent in Vietnam focusing on three paramount concepts I learned in class such as the moral policy of the Denver Buddhist Temple, symbolic […]
• How Does Buddhism Explain the Nature of Our Existence? One of the largest world religions, Buddhism is based on the teaching of Siddhartha Gautama who emphasized a significant role of nature in our lives and the importance of personal harmony with nature.
• Nagarjuna’s Buddhist Philosophy Investigation Additionally, it is possible to say that it is not just a religion, however, it is the way of life and philosophy.
• Buddhist Traditional Healing in Mental Health To understand the traditional healing in Buddhist culture in mental health, it is important to start by understanding the origin of Buddhism as a religion.
• Buddhism as the Most Peaceful Religion He is mainly spread on the East of our planet, that is why it is not surprising that it is one of the most popular and recognized religions all over the world, as the majority […]
• Four Noble Truths in Buddhist Teaching The Buddha said that there is dukkha, there is an origin of dukkha, there is an end of dukkha and there is a path that leads to the end of dukkha.
• Buddhism Revitalization in China and Japan The comparison stems from the idea of general similarity between the theological traditions that are valued by the citizens of two countries.
• Zen Buddhism Religion in Japanese Culture The uniqueness of Zen is in rejecting the importance of doctrines and emphasizing the role of the spiritual growth of the person through the practice of meditation.
• The Highest Good of Buddhism: Arahantship This state of awakening is the highest good that a human being can achieve, and all Buddhists are urged to aspire to achieve it.
• Religious Studies Discussion: Hinduism and Buddhism It is believed that Hinduism evolved and later spread to other areas in India. In conclusion, the objectives and practices of Hinduism and Buddhism are similar in many ways.
• Buddhism Studies in the Far East This emanates from the fact that the religion is only popular in one part of the world. Woo writes that it is possible to have many misconceptions about a belief, a religion and a practice […]
• Asian Religions in Practice: Buddhism, Islam and Sikhism This school of thought claims that salvation is possible through believing in the power of Amitabha and the desire to be reborn in a gracious place. This means that it advocates for people to be […]
• Religious Teachings of Buddhist Doctrine To substantiate the validity of his opinion, in this respect, Nagasena came up with the ‘parable of the lamp.’ According to the monk, just as it is the case with the flame of a burning […]
• Religious Teachings: Jainism vs. Buddhism and Hinduism The Jains believe in the existence of a divine being, and they attribute the forces that govern their fate in life to the Supreme Being.
• Religion Comparative Aspects: Hindu and Buddhism The similarities and differences in the ethical teachings of Hinduism and Buddhism include the following. Fourth, the act of lying is unacceptable in both Hinduism and Buddhism.
• Bhagavad Gita: Buddhism and Ancient Indian Philosophy First of all, it should be said that Bhagavad Gita is a part of the great epic of Mahabharata, which is known to be one of the greatest literary works of Ancient India.
• History of Buddhism and the Life of Buddha Buddha took the opportunity of being a member of the loyal family to influence the development of Buddhism. One of the factors that contributed to the speedy development of Buddhism was its inspirational teachings.
• David Hume’s and Buddhism Self Concepts Correlation Hume’s philosophy is based on the ideas that all the knowledge of the world is gained from the interaction of human’s experiences and the thoughts.
• Women and the Buddhist Religion According to Arvandi Sharma, ancient Indian women chose to become Buddhists nuns purely due to the influence of Buddha’s positive ways, teachings and the Buddhism doctrines.
• What Brings Women to Buddhism? Once establishing the source that has the greatest influence on the women and the ways which are most typical of women to be converted into Buddhism, whether it is the doctrinal one, or the one […]
• India’s Women in Buddhism’ Religion Regarding the place of women in Buddhism, it is interesting to note that Buddhism is not attached to any gender despite the fact that Buddha himself has historically been a man.
• Buddhism Religion History in China The differences between the two regions of China led to the advancement of the northern and southern disciplines hence the emergence of the Mahayana Buddhism.
• To What Extent Was China a Buddhist Country? The religion was associated with super powers and the potential to prosper, and thus many people were challenged to learn and experience it since it had compatible aspects with the Chinese Daoism.
• Buddhism Religion in the East Asian Societies This paper explores an argument whether Buddhism was a change for better or worse for the East Asian societies and concludes that even though Buddhism created a lot of discomfort during the period of introduction, […]
• Religious Studies: Morality in Buddhism In this case, much attention should be paid to a collection of restrictions or taboos that should govern the decisions or actions of a person. This is one of the issues that should not be […]
• History: Women in Hinduism and Buddhism For instance, one of the main problems that arise when examining the situation of women in Karimpur is the fact that there is a considerable level of disparity in the survival rates between male and […]
• Buddhism Characteristics and Attributes The readings under analysis focus on the main characteristics and attributes of Buddhism, as well as on schools of thought that emerged due to the spread of this teaching.
• The Comparison of Buddhism and Daoism Principles
• Dalai Lama and Buddhism Tradition
• Anapanasati: As a Method for Reading the Buddhist Goal
• Buddhism in a Post- Han China
• Buddhism Believer’s Practice: Meditation
• The Main Aspects of Buddhism
• Exploring Buddhism: An Introduction to the Chinese Philosophy. In Search for the Enlightenment
• Buddhism Psychology in Changing Negative Behaviors
• Buddhism on Animal Treatment
• Sustainability of Buddhism in the Health System
• How Zen Buddhism Has Influenced the Development of Tea Ceremony
• Thich Nhat Hanh’s Engaged Buddhism
• Christianity vs. Buddhism
• The Journey of One Buddhist Nun: Even Against the Wind
• Comparison Between Hinduism and Buddhism
• Buddhism: The History of Development
• Siddhartha Gautama and Buddhism
• Asian Studies: Confucianism and Buddhism in China
• Tibetan Buddhist and Christian Symbols of Worship
• Buddhism, Sikhism and Baha’ism
• Buddhism in Canada
• Buddhism and Its impact on Japan
• Newspaper Response on Buddhism
• Buddhism in China: Origin and Expansion
• Religion of Christianity and Buddhism – Similarities and Difference
• Anger Emotion and Buddhism
• Padmasambhava’ Effects on Buddhist Beliefs
• Buddhism as a Sacred Tradition
• Buddhism and Christianity
• Buddhism’s Things and Ideas
• Buddhism: Analysis of the Religion’s Faith and Practices
• The Confluence of Buddhism and Hinduism in India
• The Origin of Buddhism
• Zen Buddhism’s Religion
• Misconceptions About Buddhism
• Zen Buddhism and Oneida Community
• Dialogue Over the Interfaith Christian and Buddhist Perspectives
• Buddhism & Hinduism: Comparisons and Contractions

🥇 Most Interesting Buddhism Topics to Write about

• A Brief Comparison of Native American Religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, and Taoism
• A Biography of Buddhism Born From a Single Man Siddhartha Gautama the Buddha in Factors in Achieving Enlightenment
• A Comparative Study between the Teachings of Two World Religions: Islam and Buddhism
• Affirmative Action Confucius Buddhism And Taoism
• An Analysis of Buddhism in Women and World Religions
• A History of Buddhism and an Analysis of the Teachings of the Buddha
• A History of the Influence of Buddhism and Hinduism on the South Asian Culture
• An Analysis of Buddhism First Sermon Which Should be Treated With Circumspection
• The Concept of Buddhism and the Figure of Buddha as a Central Symbol and Reality for Buddhist Monks
• Convergence of Ideas About Christianity and Buddhism in Living Buddha, Living Christ by Thich Nhat Hanh
• Early Life of Buddha, His Enlightenment, Founding of Buddhism and the Buddhist Literature
• An Analysis of Impermanence, Selflessness and Dissatisfaction on Buddhism as a Religion Nor a Philosophy
• Life and Teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), the Founder of Buddhism
• An Argument in Favor of the Quote Life is Dukkha and Explanation of My Opinion on the Goals of Buddhism
• An Examination of Asian Philosophy and the Different Philosophical Schools: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism and Confucianism
• An Overview of the Selflessness in Buddhism and the Works by Buddha in Contrast to the Monks
• Buddhism And Pop Culture Details The Comparison Between The Movies The Matrix And Fight Club And Buddhists Beliefs
• Buddhism: The Discipline and Knowledge for a Spiritual Life of Well-Being and the Path to Awakening the Nirvana
• Enlightened Revolutionary How King Asoka Entrenched Buddhism into Indian
• Reincarnation as an Important Part of the Teachings of Tibetan Buddhism
• Religion and Homosexuality: Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam
• The Growing Popularity of the Tibetan Buddhism and the Suspicion of the Non-Believers
• Zen Buddhism And Its Relationship To The Practical Psychology Of Daily Living

✅ Controversial Buddhism Topics for Essay

• How Buddhism Reflect The Human Understanding Of God?
• How Does Buddhism Relate And Help To Formulate A Local Understanding Of Transsexuals In Thailand?
• How Climate Change is Affecting Human Civilization and the Relationship Between Buddhism and Climate Change in Today’s Society?
• How Buddhism Has Interacted With Nature And Environment?
• What Role Does Karma Play in Buddhism? Who Does It Affect, and How Does It Affect Them in This Life, the Afterlife, and the Next Life?
• What do Buddhism and Christianity Teach About the Significance, Purpose And Value of Human Life?
• What Are The Core Beliefs Of Buddhism? How Do Buddhists View Craving?
• Why Are Experiences of Stillness and Reflection (Meditation) Important to Buddhism?
• Why A Key Part Of The Beliefs Of Tibetan Buddhism Is Reincarnation?

❓ Research Questions about Buddhism

• How Applied Buddhism Affected Peoples Daily Activities?
• What Is the Influence of Shen Hui on Chinese Buddhism?
• How Buddhism and Hinduism Share a Belief That Life Suffering Is Caused by Desire?
• What Are the Similarities and Differences Between Buddhism and Jainism?
• How Has Tibetan Buddhism Been Incorporated Into Modern Psychotherapy?
• What Are the Key Differences Between Christianity and Buddhism?
• How Is Japanese Culture Related to Buddhism?
• What Parallels and Deviations Can Science Learn From Buddhism?
• Precisely How Zen Buddhism Gives Influenced the Progress of Tea Services?
• Why Did the Rise of Buddhism in Britain Come About?
• What Are Buddhist Beliefs and the Role of the Dalai Lama in Tibetan Buddhism?
• How Did Chinese Culture Shape a New Form of Buddhism?
• What Significant Overlap Between Buddhism and Neuroscience Research Work?
• How does Buddhism Affect Chinese Culture History?
• What Is the Middle Way According to Mahayana Buddhism?
• How Did Buddhism Appear and Spread?
• What Are the Similarities Between Buddhism and Christianity?
• How Did Buddhism Spread in Southeast Asia?
• What Are the Differences Between Hinduism and Buddhism?
• What Is the Impact of Buddhism on Western Civilization?
• What Are the Beliefs and Values of Buddhism?
• How Do Buddhists View Craving?
• What Are the Core Beliefs of Buddhism?
• What Does Buddhism Teach?
• Why Did Buddhism Become So Powerful in Ancient History?
• What Role Did Zen Buddhism Play in Shaping the Art of Japan?
• What Role Does Karma Play in Buddhism?
• When Buddhism Was the Dominant Tradition in India?
• Who Were the Founders of Buddhism in Japan?
• Why Did Buddhism Fail To Take Hold in India?
• Christianity Topics
• Jesus Christ Research Ideas
• Baptism Essay Topics
• Judaism Ideas
• God Paper Topics
• Church Paper Topics
• Islam Topics
• Holy Spirit Titles
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Bibliography

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Buddhism as Philosophy: Fundamental Themes

Jeffery D. Long, Discovering Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist Thought (2024)

Andy Karr, Into the Mirror: A Buddhist Journey through Mind, Matter, and the Nature of Reality (2023)

Tyler Dalton McNabb & Erik Daniel Baldwin, Classical Theism and Buddhism: Connecting Metaphysical and Ethical Systems (2023)

Zhihua Yao, Nonexistent Objects in Buddhist Philosophy: On Knowing What There Is Not (2023)

Haidy Geismar et al (eds.), Impermanence: Exploring Continuous Change Across Cultures (2022)

Roger R. Jackson, Rebirth: A Guide to Mind, Karma, and Cosmos in the Buddhist World (2022)

Harrison J. Pemberton, The Buddha Meets Socrates: A Philosopher's Journal (2022)

Rick Repetti (ed.), Routledge Handbook on the Philosophy of Meditation (2022)

Avram Alpert, A Partial Enlightenment: What Modern Literature and Buddhism Can Teach Us about Living Well without Perfection (2021)

Bhikkhu Analayo, Superiority Conceit in Buddhist Traditions: A Historical Perspective (2021)

Zane M. Diamond, Gautama Buddha: Education for Wisdom (2021)

C.W. Huntington, What I Don't Know about Death: Reflections on Buddhism and Mortality (2021)

Jianxun Shi, Mapping the Buddhist Path to Liberation: Diversity and Consistency Based on the Pali Nikayas and the Chinese Agamas (2021)

Mark Siderits, How Things Are: An Introduction to Buddhist Metaphysics (2021)

Peter D. Hershock & Roger T. Ames (eds.), Human Beings or Human Becomings? A Conversation with Confucianism on the Concept of Person (2021)

Y. Karunadasa, The Buddhist Analysis of Matter (2020)

Mark Siderits et al (ed.), Buddhist Philosophy of Consciousness: Tradition and Dialogue (2020)

Jan Westerhoff, The Non-Existence of the Real World (2020)

Graham Priest, The Fifth Corner of Four: An Essay on Buddhist Metaphysics and the Catuskoti (2019)

Vajragupta Staunton, Free Time! From Clock-Watching to Free-Flowing: A Buddhist Guide (2019)

David Burton, Buddhism: A Contemporary Philosophical Investigation (2017)

Steven M. Emmanuel (ed.), Buddhist Philosophy: A Comparative Approach (2017)

Bryan W. Van Norden, Taking Back Philosophy: A Multicultural Manifesto (2017)

Mark Siderits, Studies in Buddhist Philosophy, ed. Jan Westerhoff (2016)

Marcus Boon, Eric M. Cazdyn, & Timothy Morton, Nothing: Three Inquiries in Buddhism (2015)

Jay L. Garfield, Engaging Buddhism: Why It Matters to Philosophy (2015)

JeeLoo Liu & Douglas Berger (eds.), Nothingness in Asian Philosophy (2014)

Steven M. Emmanuel (ed.), A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy (2013)

Cyrus Panjvani, Buddhism: A Philosophical Approach (2013)

Mark Siderits, Evan Thompson, & Dan Zahavi (eds.), Self, No Self? Perspectives from Analytical, Phenomenological, and Indian Traditions (2013)

Robin Cooper (Ratnaprabha), Finding the Mind: A Buddhist View (2012)

John Danvers, Agents of Uncertainty: Mysticism, Scepticism, Buddhism, Art and Poetry (2012)

Louis de La Vallée Poussin, The Way to Nirvana: Six Lectures on Ancient Buddhism as a Discipline of Salvation (2012)

Musashi Tachikawa, Essays in Buddhist Theology (2012)

Johannes Bronkhorst, Karma (2011)

Alf Hiltebeitel, Dharma: Its Early History in Law, Religion, and Narrative (2011)

Dhivan Thomas Jones, This Being, That Becomes: The Buddha's Teaching on Conditionality (2011)

Erich Frauwallner, The Philosophy of Buddhism [Die Philosophie des Buddhismus], trans. Gelong Lodro Sangpo & Jigme Sheldron (2010)

Rodney Smith, Stepping Out of Self-Deception: The Buddha's Liberating Teaching of No-Self (2010)

William Edelglass & Jay Garfield (eds.), Buddhist Philosophy: Essential Readings (2009)

Dan Arnold, Buddhists, Brahmins, and Belief: Epistemology in South Asian Philosophy of Religion (2008)

George Grimm, Buddhist Wisdom: The Mystery of the Self (2008)

Stephen J. Laumakis, An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy (2008)

Sangharakshita, The Meaning of Conversion in Buddhism (2008)

Dharmachari Subhuti, Buddhism and Friendship (2008)

Sangharakshita, The Buddha's Noble Eightfold Path (2007)

Mark Siderits, Buddhism as Philosophy: An Introduction (2007)

Lama Shenpen Hookham, There's More to Dying Than Death: A Buddhist Perspective (2006)

Bruce Matthews, Craving and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Soteriology (2006)

Sangharakshita, The Three Jewels: The Central Ideals of Buddhism (2006)

Jennifer Crawford, Spiritually-Engaged Knowledge: The Attentive Heart (2005)

John Taber (ed. & trans.), A Hindu Critique of Buddhist Epistemology: Kumarila on Perception (2005)

Fernando Tola & Carmen Dragonetti, On Voidness: A Study of Buddhist Nihilism (2005)

David Burton, Buddhism, Knowledge and Liberation: A Philosophical Study (2004)

Richard H. Jones, Mysticism and Morality: A New Look at Old Questions (2004)

Maitreyabandhu, Thicker Than Blood: Friendship on the Buddhist Path (2004)

Nagapriya, Exploring Karma and Rebirth (2004)

Sangharakshita, Buddha Mind (2004)

Sangharakshita, Living with Kindness: The Buddha's Teaching on Metta (2004)

John W. Schroeder, Skillful Means: The Heart of Buddhist Compassion (2004)

Brook Ziporyn, Being and Ambiguity: Philosophical Experiments with Tiantai Buddhism (2004)

Christina Feldman, Compassion: Listening to the Cries of the World (2003)

Vincent L. Wimbush & Richard Valantasis (eds.), Asceticism (2002)

Rupert Gethin, The Buddhist Path to Awakening: A Study of the Bodhi-Pakkhiya Dhamma (2001)

David J. Kalupahana, Buddhist Thought and Ritual (2001)

Michael C. Brannigan, The Pulse of Wisdom: The Philosophies of India, China, and Japan (1999)

Duncan Forbes, The Buddhist Pilgrimage, ed. Alex Wayman (1999)

Roger R. Jackson & John J. Makransky (eds.), Buddhist Theology: Critical Reflections by Contemporary Buddhist Scholars (1999)

Jamie Hubbard & Paul L. Swanson (eds.), Pruning the Bodhi Tree: The Storm over Critical Buddhism (1997)

Alex Wayman, Untying the Knots in Buddhism: Selected Essays (1997)

Newman Robert Glass, Working Emptiness: Toward a Third Reading of Emptiness in Buddhism and Postmodern Thought (1995)

Kaisa Puhakka, Knowledge and Reality: A Comparative Study of Divine and Some Buddhist Logicians (1994)

Robert E. Buswell & Robert M. Gimello (eds.), Paths to Liberation: The Marga and Its Transformations in Buddhist Thought (1992)

Jan Nattier, Once upon a Future Time: Studies in a Buddhist Prophecy of Decline (1992)

John M. Koller & Patricia Koller (eds.), Sourcebook in Asian Philosophy (1991)

Gail Hinich Sutherland, The Disguises of the Demon: The Development of the Yaksa in Hinduism and Buddhism (1991)

Gregory Darling, An Evaluation of the Vedantic Critique of Buddhism (1987)

Martin Willson, Rebirth and the Western Buddhist (1987)

Alphonse Verdu, The Philosophy of Buddhism: A "Totalistic" Synthesis (1981)

John r. carter, dhamma: western academic and sinhalese buddhist interpretations: a study of a religious concept (1978).

W.H. Weeraratne, Individual and Society in Buddhism (1977)

David J. Kalupahana, Buddhist Philosophy: A Historical Analysis (1976)

William M. McGovern, A Manual of Buddhist Philosophy (1976)

David J. Kalupahana, Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism (1975)

Francis Story, Rebirth as Doctrine and Experience: Essays and Case Studies (1975)

Junjiro Takakusu, Wing-Tsit Chan & Charles A. Moore (eds.), The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy (1975)

John E. Blofeld, Beyond the Gods: Taoist and Buddhist Mysticism (1974)

Herbert V. Guenther, Buddhist Philosophy in Theory and Practice (1972)

Daigan L. Matsunaga & Alicia Matsunaga, The Buddhist Concept of Hell (1971)

Ven. nyanaponika & maurice walshe (eds.), pathways of buddhist thought: essays from the wheel (1971).

T. Stcherbatsky, The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word "Dharma" (1961)

This book is a collection of essays by Mark Siderits on topics in Indian Buddhist philosophy. The essays are divided into six main systematic sections, dealing with realism and anti-realism, further problems in metaphysics and logic, philosophy of language, epistemology, ethics, and specific discussions of the interaction between Buddhist and classical Indian philosophy. Each of the essays is followed by a postscript Siderits has written specifically for this volume, which make it possible to connect essays of the volume with each other, showing thematic interrelations, or locating them relative to the development of Siderits’s thought. New works have been published, new translations have come out, and additional connections have been discovered. The postscripts make it possible to acquaint the reader with the most important of these developments.

This book is the most comprehensive single volume on the subject available. It offers the very latest scholarship to create a wide-ranging survey of the most important ideas, problems, and debates in the history of Buddhist philosophy. Encompasses the broadest treatment of Buddhist philosophy available, covering social and political thought, meditation, ecology and contemporary issues and applications Each section contains overviews and cutting-edge scholarship that expands readers understanding of the breadth and diversity of Buddhist thought. Broad coverage of topics allows flexibility to instructors in creating a syllabus. Essays provide valuable alternative philosophical perspectives on topics to those available in Western traditions.

This book examines how the Brahmanical tradition of Purva Mimamsa and the writings of the seventh-century Buddhist Madhyamika philosopher Candrakirti challenged dominant Indian Buddhist views of epistemology. Arnold retrieves these two very different but equally important voices of philosophical dissent, showing them to have developed highly sophisticated and cogent critiques of influential Buddhist epistemologists such as Dignaga and Dharmakirti. His analysis—developed in conversation with modern Western philosophers like William Alston and J.L. Austin—offers an innovative reinterpretation of the Indian philosophical tradition, while suggesting that pre-modern Indian thinkers have much to contribute to contemporary philosophical debates.

Buddhism is essentially a teaching about liberation - from suffering, ignorance, selfishness and continued rebirth. Knowledge of 'the way things really are' is thought by many Buddhists to be vital in bringing about this emancipation. This book is a philosophical study of the notion of liberating knowledge as it occurs in a range of Buddhist sources. Burton assesses the common Buddhist idea that knowledge of the three characteristics of existence (impermanence, not-self and suffering) is the key to liberation. It argues that this claim must be seen in the context of the Buddhist path and training as a whole. Detailed attention is also given to anti-realist, sceptical and mystical strands within the Buddhist tradition, all of which make distinctive claims about liberating knowledge.

Ecology, Economics, Globalization, and the Environment

Susan Bauer-Wu, A Future We Can Love: How We Can Reverse the Climate Crisis with the Power of Our Hearts & Minds (2023)

Susan Murphy, A Fire Runs Through All Things: Zen Koans for Facing the Climate Crisis (2023)

Trine Brox & Elizabeth Williams-Oerberg (eds.), Buddhism and Waste: The Excess, Discard and Afterlife of Buddhist Consumption (2022)

Daniel Capper, Buddhist Ecological Protection of Space: A Guide for Sustainable Off-Earth Travel (2022)

Jeanine M. Canty, Returning the Self to Nature: Undoing Our Collective Narcissism and Healing Our Planet (2022)

Daniel Capper, Roaming Free Like a Deer: Buddhism and the Natural World (2022)

David Hinton, Wild Mind, Wild Earth: Our Place in the Sixth Extinction (2022)

Joel Magnuson, The Dharma and Socially Engaged Buddhist Economics (2022)

Christoph Brumann et al (eds.), Monks, Money, and Morality: The Balancing Act of Contemporary Buddhism (2021)

Josep M. Coll, Buddhist and Taoist Systems Thinking: The Natural Path to Sustainable Transformation (2021)

Sallie B. King, Buddhist Visions of the Good Life for All (2021)

Gábor Kovács, The Value Orientations of Buddhist and Christian Entrepreneurs: A Comparative Perspective on Spirituality and Business Ethics (2021)

Shantigarbha, The Burning House: A Buddhist Response to the Climate and Ecological Emergency (2021)

Trine Brox & Elizabeth Williams-Oerberg, Buddhism and Business: Merit, Material Wealth, and Morality in the Global Market Economy (2020)

Alex John Catanese, Buddha in the Marketplace: The Commodification of Buddhist Objects in Tibet (2020)

Ernest C.H. Ng, Introduction to Buddhist Economics: The Relevance of Buddhist Values in Contemporary Economy and Society (2020)

Geoffrey Barstow (ed.), The Faults of Meat: Tibetan Buddhist Writings on Vegetarianism (2019)

Geoffrey Barstow, Food of Sinful Demons: Meat, Vegetarianism, and the Limits of Buddhism in Tibet (2019)

Candi K. Cann (ed.), Dying to Eat: Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Food, Death, and the Afterlife (2019)

Gergely Hidas, A Buddhist Ritual Manual on Agriculture: A Critical Edition (2019)

Stephanie Kaza, Green Buddhism: Practice and Compassionate Action in Uncertain Times (2019)

Belden C. Lane, The Great Conversation: Nature and the Care of the Soul (2019)

Clair Brown, Buddhist Economics: An Enlightened Approach to the Dismal Science (2018)

Shravasti Dhammika, Nature and the Environment in Early Buddhism (2018)

Karine Gagné, Caring for Glaciers: Land, Animals, and Humanity in the Himalayas (2018)

Willis J. Jenkins, Mary Evelyn Tucker, and John Grim (eds.), Routledge Handbook of Religion and Ecology (2018)

Vajragupta, Wild Awake: Alone, Offline and Aware in Nature (2018)

Whitney Bauman, Richard Bohannon, and Kevin O'Brien (eds.), Grounding Religion: A Field Guide to the Study of Religion and Ecology, 2nd ed. (2017)

Caroline Brazier, Ecotherapy in Practice: A Buddhist Model (2017)

J. Baird Callicott & James McRae (eds.), Japanese Environmental Philosophy (2017)

David E. Cooper & Simon P. James, Buddhism, Virtue and Environment (2017)

Simon P. James, Zen Buddhism and Environmental Ethics (2017)

Bodhipaksa, Vegetarianism: A Buddhist View (2016)

Padmasiri De Silva, Environmental Philosophy and Ethics in Buddhism (2016)

Todd LeVasseur et al (eds.), Religion and Sustainable Agriculture: World Spiritual Traditions and Food Ethics (2016)

Daniel P. Scheid, The Cosmic Common Good: Religious Grounds for Ecological Ethics (2016)

J. Baird Callicott & James McRae (eds.), Environmental Philosophy in Asian Traditions of Thought (2015)

Ugo Dessì, Japanese Religions and Globalization (2015)

Vaddhaka Linn, The Buddha on Wall Street: What's Wrong with Capitalism and What We Can Do About It (2015)

Joan Marques, Business and Buddhism (2015)

James Stewart, Vegetarianism and Animal Ethics in Contemporary Buddhism (2015)

Whitney A. Bauman, Religion and Ecology: Developing a Planetary Ethic (2014)

James Mark Shields (ed.), Buddhist Responses to Globalization (2014)

Susan M. Darlington, The Ordination of a Tree: The Thai Buddhist Environmental Movement (2013)

Tariq Jazeel, Sacred Modernity: Nature, Environment and the Postcolonial Geographies of Sri Lankan Nationhood (2013)

Bhikkhu Nyanasobhano, Landscapes of Wonder: Discovering Buddhist Dhamma in the World Around Us (2013)

Leslie E. Sponsel, Spiritual Ecology: A Quiet Revolution (2012)

Pragati Sahni, Environmental Ethics in Buddhism: A Virtues Approach (2011)

David M. Engel & Jaruwan S. Engel, Tort, Custom, and Karma: Globalization and Legal Consciousness in Thailand (2010)

Roger S. Gottlieb (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Ecology (2010)

Lin Jensen, Deep Down Things: The Earth in Celebration and Dismay (2010)

Richard Payne, How Much is Enough? Buddhism, Consumerism, and the Human Environment (2010)

Thomas Berry, The Sacred Universe: Earth, Spirituality, and Religion, ed. Mary Evelyn Tucker (2009)

Peter D. Hershock, Buddhism in the Public Sphere: Reorienting Global Interdependence (2009)

John Stanley et al (eds.), A Buddhist Response to the Climate Emergency (2009)

Ananda W. P. Guruge, Buddhism, Economics and Science: Further Studies in Socially Engaged Humanistic Buddhism (2008)

Stephanie Kaza, Mindfully Green: A Personal and Spiritual Guide to Whole Earth Thinking (2008)

Bhikkhu Basnagoda Rahula, The Buddha's Teachings on Prosperity: At Home, At Work, in the World (2008)

Lloyd Field, Business and the Buddha: Doing Well by Doing Good (2007)

Bhikkhu Nyanasobhano, Available Truth: Excursions into Buddhist Wisdom and the Natural World (2007)

Lisa Kemmerer, In Search of Consistency: Ethics and Animals (2006)

Kirkpatrick Sale, After Eden: The Evolution of Human Domination (2006)

Paul Waldau & Kimberley Christine Patton (eds.), A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science, and Ethics (2006)

Sulak Sivaraksa, Conflict, Culture, Change: Engaged Buddhism in a Globalizing World (2005)

Stuart Chandler, Establishing a Pure Land on Earth: The Foguang Buddhist Perspective on Modernization and Globalization (2004)

Linda Learman, Buddhist Missionaries in the Era of Globalization (2004)

Roger S. Gottlieb, This Sacred Earth: Religion, Nature, Environment, 2nd ed. (2003)

Joanna Macy, World As Lover, World As Self: Courage for Global Justice and Ecological Renewal (2003)

Paul Waldau, The Specter of Speciesism: Buddhist and Christian Views of Animals (2001)

Stephanie Kaza & Kenneth Kraft (eds.), Dharma Rain: Sources of Buddhist Environmentalism (2000)

Tony Page, Buddhism and Animals: A Buddhist Vision of Humanity's Rightful Relationship with the Animal Kingdom (1999)

Laurel Kearns & Catherine Keller (eds.), Ecospirit: Religions and Philosophies for the Earth (2007)

Mary E. Tucker & Duncan R. Williams (eds.), Buddhism and Ecology: The Interconnection of Dharma and Deeds (1997)

Christopher Key Chapple, Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions (1993)

Martine Batchelor & Kerry Brown (eds.), Buddhism and Ecology (1992)

Allan Hunt Badiner (ed.), Dharma Gaia: A Harvest of Essays in Buddhism and Ecology (1990)

Arne Naess, Ecology, Community, and Lifestyle: Outline of an Ecosophy, trans. David Rothenberg (1989)

In this study of the place of vegetarianism within Tibetan religiosity, Geoffrey Barstow explores the tension between Buddhist ethics and Tibetan cultural norms to offer a novel perspective on the spiritual and social dimensions of meat eating. Barstow offers a detailed analysis of the debates over meat eating and vegetarianism, from the first references to such a diet in the tenth century through the Chinese invasion in the 1950s. He discusses elements of Tibetan Buddhist thought, but also looks beyond religious attitudes to examine the cultural, economic, and environmental factors that oppose the Buddhist critique of meat, including Tibetan concepts of medicine and health, food scarcity, the display of wealth, and idealized male gender roles. Barstow argues that the issue of meat eating was influenced by a complex interplay of factors, with religious perspectives largely supporting vegetarianism while practical concerns and secular ideals pulled in the other direction.

Clair Brown, professor of economics at UC Berkeley and a practicing Buddhist, has developed a holistic model, one based on the notion that quality of life should be measured by more than national income. Brown advocates an approach to organizing the economy that embraces rather than skirts questions of values, sustainability, and equity, and incorporates the Buddhist emphasis on interdependence, shared prosperity, and happiness into her vision for a sustainable and compassionate world. Buddhist economics leads us to think mindfully as we go about our daily activities, and offers a way to appreciate how our actions affect the well-being of those around us. By replacing the endless cycle of desire with more positive collective activities, we can make our lives more meaningful as well as happier. This book represents an enlightened approach to our modern world infused with ancient wisdom, with benefits both personal and global, for generations to come.

This book reflects the growing interest and research in this field. Drawing on a diversity of experience from the counselling and psychotherapy professions, but also from practitioners in community work, mental health and education, this book explores the exciting and innovative possibilities involved in practising outdoors. Brazier brings to bear her experience and knowledge as a psychotherapist, group worker and trainer over several decades to think about therapeutic work outdoors in all its forms. The book presents a model of ecotherapy based on principles drawn from Buddhist psychology and Western psychotherapy which focuses particularly on the relationship between person and environment at three levels, moving from the personal level of individual history to cultural influences, then finally to global circumstances, all of which condition mind-states and psychological well-being. This work will provide refreshing and valuable reading for psychotherapists and counsellors in the field, those interested in Buddhism, and other mental health and health professionals working outdoors.

This work explores alternative ways of leading in the aftermath of the Great Recession and the many stories of fraud and greed that emerged. The book explores shifts in business perspectives as more value is placed on soft skills like emotional intelligence and listening, and introduces the reader to the principles in Buddhist philosophy that can be applied in the workplace. Marques explores the value of applying the positive psychology of Buddhism to work settings. She outlines the ways in which it offers highly effective solutions to addressing important management and organizational behavior related issues, but also flags up critical areas for caution. For example, Buddhism is non-confrontational, and promotes detachment. How can business leaders negotiate these principles in light of the demands of modern day pressures? The book includes end of chapter questions to promote reflection and critical thinking, and examples of Buddhist leaders in action. It will prove a captivating read for students of organizational behavior, management, leadership, diversity and ethics.

Andy Rotman, Hungry Ghosts (2021)

Eric Huntington, Creating the Universe: Depictions of the Cosmos in Himalayan Buddhism (2019)

Rebecca Redwood French, The Golden Yoke: The Legal Cosmology of Buddhist Tibet (2002)

Akira Sadakata, Buddhist Cosmology: Philosophy and Origins (1997)

Jamgon K.L. Taye, Myriad Worlds: Buddhist Cosmology in Abhidharma, Kalacakra, and Dzog-chen (1995)

Randy Kloetzli, Buddhist Cosmology: From Single World System to Pure Land: Science and Theology in the Images of Motion and Light (1983)

Frank E. Reynolds & Mani B. Reynolds (trans.), Three Worlds According to King Ruang: A Thai Buddhist Cosmology (1982)

Peter Singer & Shih Chao-Hwei, The Buddhist and the Ethicist: Conversations on Effective Altruism, Engaged Buddhism, and How to Build a Better World (2023)

Jay L. Garfield, Buddhist Ethics: A Philosophical Exploration (2021)

Daniel Cozort & James Mark Shields (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Buddhist Ethics (2018)

Jake H. Davis (ed.), A Mirror Is for Reflection: Understanding Buddhist Ethics (2017)

The Cowherds, Moonpaths: Ethics and Emptiness (2015)

Dharmachari Subhuti, Mind in Harmony: A Guide to the Psychology of Buddhist Ethics (2015)

Charles Goodman, Consequences of Compassion: An Interpretation and Defense of Buddhist Ethics (2014)

Christopher W. Gowans, Buddhist Moral Philosophy: An Introduction (2014)

Alexus McLeod, Understanding Asian Philosophy: Ethics in the Analects, Zhuangzi, Dhammapada, and the Bhagavad Gita (2014)

Subhadramati, Not About Being Good: A Practical Guide to Buddhist Ethics (2013)

Dale Wright, The Six Perfections: Buddhism and the Cultivation of Character (2011)

Charles S. Prebish (ed.), Destroying Mara Forever: Buddhist Ethics Essays in Honor of Damien Keown (2010)

Susanne Mrozik, Virtuous Bodies: The Physical Dimensions of Morality in Buddhist Ethics (2007)

Hari Shankar Prasad, The Centrality of Ethics in Buddhism: Exploratory Essays (2007)

Pamela Bloom, The Healing Power of Compassion: The Essence of Buddhist Acts (2006)

Karma Lekshe Tsomo, Into the Jaws of Yama, Lord of Death: Buddhism, Bioethics, and Death (2006)

Damien Keown, Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction (2005)

Sangharakshita, Know Your Mind: The Psychological Dimension of Ethics in Buddhism (2004)

Jeffrey Hopkins, Cultivating Compassion: A Buddhist Perspective (2002)

Gananath Obeyesekere, Imagining Karma: Ethical Transformation in Amerindian, Buddhist, and Greek Rebirth (2002)

Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values, and Issues (2000)

Damien Keown (ed.), Contemporary Buddhist Ethics (2000)

Damien Keown (ed.), Buddhism and Abortion (1998)

Hammalawa Saddhatissa, Buddhist Ethics (1997)

Peggy Morgan & Clive Lawton (eds.), Ethical Issues in Six Religious Traditions (1996)

Damien Keown, Buddhism and Bioethics (1995)

Phillip Olson, The Discipline of Freedom: A Kantian View of the Role of Moral Precepts in Zen Practice (1993)

Damien Keown, The Nature of Buddhist Ethics (1992)

William R. LaFleur, Liquid Life: Abortion and Buddhism in Japan (1992)

Charles W. Fu & Sandra A. Wawrytko (eds.), Buddhist Ethics and Modern Society (1991)

Bruce Reichenbach, The Law of Karma: A Philosophical Study (1990)

Russell F. Sizemore & Donald K. Swearer (eds.), Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics (1989)

Toshiichi Endo, Dana: The Development of Its Concept and Practice (1987)

G.S. Misra, The Development of Buddhist Ethics (1984)

Robert Aitken, The Mind of Clover: Essays in Zen Buddhist Ethics (1982)

Roderick Hindery, Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions (1978)

Michael Pye, Skilful Means: A Concept in Mahayana Buddhism (1978)

Unto Tahtinen, Ahimsa: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition (1976)

Shundo Tachibana, The Ethics of Buddhism (1975)

Winston King, In the Hope of Nibbana: An Essay on Theravada Buddhist Ethics (1964)

All the varied forms of Buddhism embody an ethical core that is remarkably consistent. Articulated by the historical Buddha in his first sermon, this moral core is founded on the concept of karma--that intentions and actions have future consequences for an individual--and is summarized as Right Speech, Right Action, and Right Livelihood, three of the elements of the Eightfold Path. Although they were later elaborated and interpreted in a multitude of ways, none of these core principles were ever abandoned. This work provides a comprehensive overview of the field of Buddhist ethics in the twenty-first century. It discusses the foundations of Buddhist ethics, focusing on karma and the precepts for abstinence from harming others, stealing, and intoxication. It considers ethics in the different Buddhist traditions and the similarities they share, and compares Buddhist ethics to Western ethics and the psychology of moral judgments. The volume also investigates Buddhism and society, analysing economics, environmental ethics, and Just War ethics. The final section focuses on contemporary issues surrounding Buddhist ethics, including gender, sexuality, animal rights, and euthanasia.

Here is a lucid, accessible, and inspiring guide to the six perfections--Buddhist teachings about six dimensions of human character that require "perfecting": generosity, morality, tolerance, energy, meditation, and wisdom. Drawing on the Diamond Sutra, the Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom, and other essential Mahayana texts, Dale Wright shows how these teachings were understood and practiced in classical Mahayana Buddhism and how they can be adapted to contemporary life in a global society. What would the perfection of generosity look like today, for example? What would it mean to give with neither ulterior motives nor naiveté? Devoting a separate chapter to each of the six perfections, Wright combines sophisticated analysis with real-life applications. Buddhists have always stressed self-cultivation and the freedom of human beings to shape their own lives. For those interested in ideals of human character and practices of self-cultivation, this work offers invaluable guidance.

This book explores the Buddhist view of death and its implications for contemporary bioethics. Writing primarily from within the Tibetan tradition, Tsomo discusses Buddhist notions of human consciousness and personal identity and how these figure in the Buddhist view of death. Beliefs about death and enlightenment and states between life and death are also discussed. Tsomo goes on to examine such hot-button topics as cloning, abortion, assisted suicide, euthanasia, organ donation, genetic engineering, and stem-cell research within a Buddhist context, introducing new ways of thinking about these highly controversial issues.

With this work, Obeyesekere embarks on the very first comparison of rebirth concepts across a wide range of cultures. Exploring in rich detail the beliefs of small-scale societies of West Africa, Melanesia, traditional Siberia, Canada, and the northwest coast of North America, Obeyesekere compares their ideas with those of the ancient and modern Indic civilizations and with the Greek rebirth theories of Pythagoras, Empedocles, Pindar, and Plato. His groundbreaking and authoritative discussion decenters the popular notion that India was the origin and locus of ideas of rebirth. As he compares responses to the most fundamental questions of human existence, the author challenges readers to reexamine accepted ideas about death, cosmology, morality, and eschatology. Obeyesekere's comprehensive inquiry shows that diverse societies have come through independent invention or borrowing to believe in reincarnation as an integral part of their larger cosmological systems. The author brings together into a coherent methodological framework the thought of such diverse thinkers as Weber, Wittgenstein, and Nietzsche. In a contemporary intellectual context that celebrates difference and cultural relativism, this book makes a case for disciplined comparison, a humane view of human nature, and a theoretical understanding of "family resemblances" and differences across great cultural divides.

Gender, Sexuality, Reproduction, and Children

Toni Pressley-Sanon, Lifting As They Climb: Black Women Buddhists and Collective Liberation (2024)

Megan Bryson & Kevin Buckelew, eds., Buddhist Masculinities (2023)

Vanessa R. Sasson, The Gathering: A Story of the First Buddhist Women (2023)

Bhikkhu Analayo, Daughters of the Buddha: Teachings by Ancient Indian Women (2022)

Jacoby Ballard, A Queer Dharma: Yoga and Meditations for Liberation (2022)

Ute Hüsken, Laughter, Creativity, and Perseverance: Female Agency in Buddhism and Hinduism (2022)

Elisabeth A. Benard, The Sakya Jetsunmas: The Hidden World of Tibetan Female Lamas (2022)

Darcy Flynn (ed.), Buddhism and Women: In the Middle Way (2022)

Kodo Nishimura, This Monk Wears Heels: Be Who You Are (2022)

Rachael Stevens, Red Tara: The Female Buddha of Power and Magnetism (2022)

Stephanie Guyer-Stevens & Françoise Pommaret, Divine Messengers: The Untold Story of Bhutan's Female Shamans (2021)

Alice Collett, I Hear Her Words: An Introduction to Women in Buddhism (2021)

Wendy Garling, The Woman Who Raised the Buddha: The Extraordinary Life of Mahaprajapati (2021)

Carola Roloff, The Buddhist Nun´s Ordination in the Tibetan Canon: Possibilities of the Revival of the Mulasarvastivada Bhiksuni Lineage (2021)

Vanessa R. Sasson, Yasodhara and the Buddha (2021)

Mayumi Oda, Sarasvati's Gift: The Autobiography of Mayumi Oda - Artist, Activist, and Modern Buddhist Revolutionary (2020)

Karma Lekshe Tsomo, Women in Buddhist Traditions (2020)

Matty Weingast, The First Free Women: Poems of the Early Buddhist Nuns (2020)

Jan Willis, Dharma Matters: Women, Race, and Tantra (2020)

Sokthan Yeng, Buddhist Feminism: Transforming Anger Against Patriarchy (2020)

Anne Cushman, The Mama Sutra: A Story of Love, Loss, and the Pain of Motherhood (2019)

Martin Seeger, Gender and the Path to Awakening: Hidden Histories of Nuns in Modern Thai Buddhism (2018)

Karma Lekshe Tsomo (ed.), Buddhist Feminisms and Femininities (2019)

Gendun Chopel, The Passion Book: A Tibetan Guide to Love & Sex, trans. Donald S. Lopez, Jr. (2018)

Pamela Ayo Yetunde, Object Relations, Buddhism, and Relationality in Womanist Practical Theology (2018)

Amy Paris Langenberg, Birth in Buddhism: The Suffering Fetus and Female Freedom (2017)

Karen Muldoon-Hules, Brides of the Buddha: Nuns' Stories from the Avadanasataka (2017)

Bhikkhu Analayo, The Foundation History of the Nuns' Order (2016)

Anna Andreeva & Dominic Steavu (eds.), Transforming the Void: Embryological Discourse and Reproductive Imagery in East Asian Religions (2016)

Wendy Garling, Stars at Dawn: Forgotten Stories of Women in the Buddha's Life (2016)

Kamalamani, Other Than Mother: Choosing Childlessness with Life in Mind (2016)

Ashley Thompson, Engendering the Buddhist State: Territory, Sovereignty and Sexual Difference in the Inventions of Angkor (2016)

Pascale Engelmajer, Women in Pali Buddhism: Walking the Spiritual Paths in Mutual Dependence (2015)

Rosemarie Freeney Harding & Rachel Elizabeth Harding, Remnants: A Memoir of Spirit, Activism, and Mothering (2015)

Jennifer McWeeny & Ashby Butnor (eds.), Asian and Feminist Philosophies in Dialogue: Liberating Traditions (2014)

Andrea Miller (ed.), Buddha's Daughters: Teachings from Women Who Are Shaping Buddhism in the West (2014)

Karma Lekshe Tsomo (ed.), Eminent Buddhist Women (2014)

Kathryn R. Blackstone, Women in the Footsteps of the Buddha: Struggle for Liberation in the Therigatha (2013)

Florence Caplow & Susan Moon (eds.), The Hidden Lamp: Stories from Twenty-Five Centuries of Awakened Women (2013)

Nirmala S. Salgado, Buddhist Nuns and Gendered Practice: In Search of the Female Renunciant (2013)

Bardwell L. Smith, Narratives of Sorrow and Dignity: Japanese Women, Pregnancy Loss, and Modern Rituals of Grieving (2013)

Reiko Ohnuma, Ties That Bind: Maternal Imagery and Discourse in Indian Buddhism (2012)

Vanessa R. Sasson (ed.), Little Buddhas: Children and Childhoods in Buddhist Texts and Traditions (2012)

Paula Arai, Bringing Zen Home: The Healing Heart of Japanese Women's Rituals (2011)

Hsiao-Lan Hu, This-Worldly Nibbana: A Buddhist-Feminist Social Ethic for Peacemaking in the Global Community (2011)

Lori Rachelle Meeks, Hokkeji and the Reemergence of Female Monastic Orders in Premodern Japan (2010)

Thea Mohr & Jampa Tsedroen (eds.), Dignity and Discipline: Reviewing Full Ordination for Buddhist Nuns (2010)

Mohan Wijayaratna, Buddhist Nuns: The Birth and Development of a Women's Monastic Order (2010)

Christina Feldman, Woman Awake: Women Practicing Buddhism (2009)

Rita M. Gross, A Garland of Feminist Reflections: Forty Years of Religious Exploration (2009)

Grace Schireson, Zen Women: Beyond Tea Ladies, Iron Maidens, and Macho Masters (2009)

Andrea Whittaker, Abortion, Sin and the State in Thailand (2009)

Frances Mary Garrett, Religion, Medicine and the Human Embryo in Tibet (2008)

Sara Burns, A Path for Parents: What Buddhism Can Offer (2007)

Peter N. Gregory & Susanne Mrozik (eds.), Women Practicing Buddhism: American Experiences (2007)

Maura O'Halloran, Pure Heart, Enlightened Mind: The Life and Letters of an Irish Zen Saint (2007)

Sallie Tisdale, Women of the Way: Discovering 2,500 Years of Buddhist Wisdom (2007)

Martine Batchelor & Son'gyong Sunim, Women in Korean Zen: Lives and Practices (2006)

Sandy Boucher, Dancing in the Dharma: The Life and Teachings of Ruth Denison (2006)

Wei-Yi Cheng, Buddhist Nuns in Taiwan and Sri Lanka: A Critique of the Feminist Perspective (2006)

Alexandra David-Néel, My Journey to Lhasa: The Classic Story of the Only Western Woman Who Succeeded in Entering the Forbidden City (2005)

Kim Gutschow, Being a Buddhist Nun: The Struggle for Enlightenment in the Himalayas (2004)

Karma Lekshe Tsomo, Buddhist Women and Social Justice: Ideals, Challenges, and Achievements (2004)

Bernard Faure, The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity and Gender (2003)

Beata Grant, Daughters of Emptiness: Poems of Chinese Buddhist Nuns (2003)

Hugh B. Urban, Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics, and Power in the Study of Religion (2003)

Martine Batchelor, Women on the Buddhist Path (2002)

Susan Murcott, First Buddhist Women: Poems and Stories of Awakening (2002)

Sid Brown, The Journey of One Buddhist Nun: Even Against the Wind (2001)

Rita M. Gross & Rosemary Radford Ruether, Religious Feminism and the Future of the Planet: A Christian-Buddhist Conversation (2001)

Ranjini Obeyesekere (trans.), Portraits of Buddhist Women: Stories from the Saddharmaratnaavaliya (2001)

Tsültrim Allione, Women of Wisdom (2000)

Sandy Boucher, Discovering Kwan Yin, Buddhist Goddess of Compassion: A Path Towards Clarity and Peace (2000)

Mandakranta Bose (ed.), Faces of the Feminine in Ancient, Medieval, and Modern India (2000)

Karma Lekshe Tsomo, Innovative Buddhist Women: Swimming Against the Stream (2000)

Karma Lekshe Tsomo, Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations (1999)

Sandy Boucher, Opening the Lotus: A Woman's Guide to Buddhism (1998)

Alan Cole, Mothers and Sons in Chinese Buddhism (1998)

Bernard Faure, The Red Thread: Buddhist Approaches to Sexuality (1998)

Chamindaji gamage, buddhism and sensuality: as recorded in the theravada canon (1998).

Rita M. Gross, Soaring and Settling: Buddhist Perspectives on Contemporary Social and Religious Issues (1998)

Lenore Friedman & Susan Moon (eds.), Being Bodies: Buddhist Women on the Paradox of Embodiment (1997)

Helen Hardacre, Marketing the Menacing Fetus in Japan (1997)

Karma Lekshe Tsomo, Sisters in Solitude: Two Traditions of Buddhist Monastic Ethics for Women (1997)

Martine Batchelor, Walking on Lotus Flowers: Buddhist Women Living, Loving and Meditating (1996)

Marianne Dresser (ed.), Buddhist Women on the Edge: Contemporary Perspectives from the Western Frontier (1996)

Liz Wilson, Charming Cadavers: Horrific Figurations of the Feminine in Indian Buddhist Hagiographic Literature (1996)

Anne C. Klein, Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: Buddhists, Feminists, and the Art of the Self (1995)

Karma Lekshe Tsomo (ed.), Buddhism Through American Women's Eyes (1995)

L.p.n. perera, sexuality in ancient india: a study based on the pali vinayapitaka (1993).

Rita M. Gross, Buddhism after Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, and Reconstruction of Buddhism (1992)

Susan Murcott, The First Buddhist Women (1992)

José Ignacio Cabezón (ed.), Buddhism, Sexuality, and Gender (1991)

I. B. Horner, Women under Primitive Buddhism: Laywomen and Almswomen (1990)

John Stevens, Lust for Enlightenment: Buddhism and Sex (1990)

Janice Willis (ed.), Feminine Ground: Essays on Women and Tibet (1989)

Sandy Boucher, Turning the Wheel: American Women Creating the New Buddhism (1988)

Karma Lekshe Tsomo (ed.), Sakyadhita: Daughters of the Buddha (1988)

Recent decades have seen a transnational agitation for better opportunities for Buddhist women. Many of the main players in this movement self-identify as feminists, but other participants in this movement may not know or use the language of feminism. In fact, many ordained Buddhist women say they seek higher ordination so that they might be better Buddhist practitioners, not for the sake of gender equality. Eschewing the backward projection of secular liberal feminist categories, this book describes the basic features of the Buddhist discourse of the female body, held more or less in common across sectarian lines, and still pertinent to ordained Buddhist women today. The textual focus of the study is an early-first-millennium Sanskrit Buddhist work, the "Descent into the Womb Scripture" or Garbhāvakrānti-sūtra. Drawing out the implications of this text, the author offers innovative arguments about the significance of childbirth and fertility in Buddhism, namely that birth is a master metaphor in Indian Buddhism; that Buddhist gender constructions are centrally shaped by Buddhist birth discourse; and that, by undermining the religious importance of female fertility, the Buddhist construction of an inauspicious, chronically impure, and disgusting femininity constituted a portal to a new, liberated, feminine life for Buddhist monastic women.

Based on extensive research in Sri Lanka and interviews with Theravada and Tibetan nuns from around the world, Salgado's groundbreaking study urges a rethinking of female renunciation. How are scholarly accounts complicit in reinscribing imperialist stories about the subjectivity of Buddhist women? How do key Buddhist "concepts" such as dukkha, samsara, and sila ground female renunciant practice? Salgado's provocative analysis questions the secular notion of the higher ordination of nuns as a political movement for freedom against patriarchal norms. Arguing that the lives of nuns defy translation into a politics of global sisterhood equal before law, she calls for more-nuanced readings of nuns' everyday renunciant practices.

Consideration of children in the academic field of Religious Studies is taking root, but Buddhist Studies has yet to take notice. This book brings together a wide range of scholarship and expertise to address the question of what role children have played in Buddhist literature, in particular historical contexts, and what role they continue to play in specific Buddhist contexts today. The volume is divided into two parts, one addressing the representation of children in Buddhist texts, the other children and childhoods in Buddhist cultures around the world. The ground-breaking contributions in this volume challenge the perception of irreconcilable differences between Buddhist idealism and family ties. This work will be an indispensable resource for students and scholars of Buddhism and Childhood Studies, and a catalyst for further research on the topic.

Rita M. Gross has long been acknowledged as a founder in the field of feminist theology. One of the earliest scholars in religious studies to discover how feminism affects that discipline, she is recognized as preeminent in Buddhist feminist theology. The essays in this book represent the major aspects of her work and provide an overview of her methodology in women's studies in religion and feminism. The introductory article, written specifically for this volume, summarizes the conclusions Gross has reached about gender and feminism after forty years of searching and exploring, and the autobiography, also written for this volume, narrates how those conclusions were reached. These articles reveal the range of scholarship and reflection found in Gross's work and demonstrate how feminist scholars in the 1970s shifted the paradigm away from an androcentric model of humanity and forever changed the way we study religion.

Enlightenment & Enlightened Beings

Dale S. Wright, What Is Buddhist Enlightenment? (2016)

Soon-il Hwang, Metaphor and Literalism in Buddhism: The Doctrinal History of Nirvana (2012)

Alan Sponberg & Helen Hardacre (eds.), Maitreya: The Future Buddha (2011)

Bhikkhu Analayo, The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal (2010)

Steven Collins, Nirvana: Concept, Imagery, Narrative (2010)

Guang Xing, The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory (2010)

Jan Nattier, A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path According to the Inquiry of Ugra (2005)

Sangharakshita, Wisdom Beyond Words: The Buddhist Vision of Ultimate Reality (2004)

Steven Collins, Nirvana and Other Buddhist Felicities: Utopias of the Pali Imaginaire (1998)

Ulrich Pagel, The Bodhisattvapitaka: Its Doctrines, Practices and Their Position in Mahayana Literature (1995)

Cheng Chien, Manifestation of the Tathagata: Buddhahood According to the Avatamsaka Sutra (1993)

Sallie B. King, Buddha Nature (1991)

David Seyfort Ruegg, Buddha-Nature, Mind and the Problem of Gradualism in a Comparative Perspective (1989)

Sung Bae Park, Buddhist Faith and Sudden Enlightenment (1983)

Nathan Katz, Buddhist Images of Human Perfection: The Arahant of the Sutta Pitaka compared with the Bodhisattva and the Mahasiddha (1982)

Leslie Kawamura (ed.), The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhism (1981)

Theodor Stcherbatsky, The Conception of Buddhist Nirvana. With Sanskrit Text of the Madhyamaka-karika, 2nd rev. ed. (1977)

Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature (1970)

Rune E. A. Johansson, The Psychology of Nirvana: A Comparative Study (1970)

G.R. Welbon, The Buddhist Nirvana and Its Western Interpreters (1968)

Robert L. Slater, Paradox and Nirvana: A Study of Religious Ultimates with Special Reference to Burmese Buddhism (1951)

Julius Evola, The Doctrine of Awakening: The Attainment of Self-Mastery According to the Earliest Buddhist Texts (1943)

Law, Politics, War, and Violence

Stephanie Balkwill & James A. Benn (eds.), Buddhist Statecraft in East Asia (2022)

Tom Ginsburg & Benjamin Schonthal (eds.), Buddhism and Comparative Constitutional Law (2022)

William J. Long, A Buddhist Approach to International Relations: Radical Interdependence (2021)

George Yancy & Emily McRae (eds.), Buddhism and Whiteness: Critical Reflections (2019)

Michael Jerryson, If You Meet the Buddha on the Road: Essays on Buddhism, Politics, and Violence (2018)

D. Christian Lammerts, Buddhist Law in Burma: A History of Dhammasattha Texts and Jurisprudence (2018)

Padmasiri de Silva, The Psychology of Buddhism in Conflict Studies (2017)

Hiroko Kawanami (ed.), Buddhism and the Political Process (2016)

Matthew J. Moore, Buddhism and Political Theory (2016)

Wayne R. Husted & Damien Keown (eds.), Buddhism and Human Rights (2015)

Rebecca Redwood French & Mark A. Nathan (eds.), Buddhism and Law: An Introduction (2014)

Hiroko Kawanami & Geoffrey Samuel (eds.), Buddhism, International Relief Work, and Civil Society (2013)

Vincent Eltschinger, Caste and Buddhist Philosophy: Continuity of Some Buddhist Arguments against the Realist Interpretation of Social Denominations (2012)

Melvin McLeod (ed.), Mindful Politics: A Buddhist Guide to Making the World a Better Place (2012)

Vladimir Tikhonov & Torkel Brekke (eds.), Buddhism and Violence: Militarism and Buddhism in Modern Asia (2012)

Michael K. Jerryson & Mark Juergensmeyer (eds.), Buddhist Warfare (2010)

Carmen Meinert, Hans-Bernd Zöllner (eds.), Buddhist Approaches to Human Rights: Dissonances and Resonances (2010)

Brian D. Victoria, Zen at War (2006)

Susan Moon, Not Turning Away: The Practice of Engaged Buddhism (2004)

Brian D. Victoria, Zen War Stories (2003)

Tessa J. Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma: Just-War Ideology in Buddhist Sri Lanka (2002)

Andrew Huxley, Religion, Law and Tradition: Comparative Studies in Religious Law (2002)

Daisaku Ikeda, For the Sake of Peace: Seven Paths to Global Harmony: A Buddhist Perspective (2002)

Ian Harris (ed.), Buddhism and Politics in Twentieth Century Asia (2001)

Jan E.M. Houben & Karel R. Van Kooj (eds.), Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History (1999)

David R. Loy, The Great Awakening: A Buddhist Social Theory (1997)

Kenneth Kraft (ed.), Inner Peace, World Peace: Essays on Buddhism and Nonviolence (1992)

Glenn D. Paige & Sarah Gilliatt, Buddhism and Non-Violent Global Problem-Solving: Ulan Bator Explorations (1991)

Unto tahtinen, non-violent theories of punishment: indian and western (1983).

Burma and neighboring areas of Southeast Asia comprise the only region of the world to have developed a written corpus of Buddhist law claiming jurisdiction over all members of society. Yet in contrast with the extensive scholarship on Islamic and Hindu law, this tradition of Buddhist law has been largely overlooked. In fact, it is commonplace to read that Buddhism gave rise to no law aside from the vinaya, or monastic law. In this book, Lammerts upends this misperception and provides an intellectual and literary history of the dynamic jurisprudence of the dhammasattha legal genre between the thirteenth and nineteenth centuries. Based on a critical study of hundreds of little-known surviving dhammasattha and related manuscripts, the work demonstrates the centrality of law as a crucial discipline of Buddhist knowledge in precolonial Southeast Asia. Lammerts argues that there were multiple, sometimes contentious, modes of reckoning Buddhist jurisprudence and legal authority in the region and assesses these in the context of local cultural, textual, and ritual practices. Over time, the foundational jurisprudence of the genre underwent considerable reformulation in light of arguments raised by its critics, bibliographers, and historians, resulting in a reorientation from a cosmological to a more positivist conception of Buddhist law and legislation that had far-reaching implications for innovative forms of dhammasattha -related discourse on the eve of British colonialism. Lammerts' book shows how, despite such textual and theoretical transformations, late precolonial Burmese jurists continued to promote and justify the dhammasattha genre, and the role of law generally in Buddhism, as a vital aspect of the ongoing effort to protect and preserve the sāsana of Gotama Buddha.

As the first comprehensive study of Buddhism and law in Asia, this interdisciplinary volume challenges the concept of Buddhism as an apolitical religion without implications for law. This collection draws on the expertise of the foremost scholars in Buddhist studies and in law to trace the legal aspects of the religion from the time of the Buddha to the present. In some cases, Buddhism provided the crucial architecture for legal ideologies and secular law codes, while in other cases it had to contend with a preexisting legal system, to which it added a new layer of complexity. The wide-ranging studies in this book reveal a diversity of relationships between Buddhist monastic codes and secular legal systems in terms of substantive rules, factoring, and ritual practices. This volume will be an essential resource for all students and teachers in Buddhist studies, law and religion, and comparative law.

Though traditionally regarded as a peaceful religion, Buddhism has a dark side. On multiple occasions over the past fifteen centuries, Buddhist leaders have sanctioned violence, and even war. The eight essays in this book focus on a variety of Buddhist traditions, from antiquity to the present, and show that Buddhist organizations have used religious images and rhetoric to support military conquest throughout history. Buddhist soldiers in sixth century China were given the illustrious status of Bodhisattva after killing their adversaries. In seventeenth century Tibet, the Fifth Dalai Lama endorsed a Mongol ruler's killing of his rivals. And in modern-day Thailand, Buddhist soldiers carry out their duties undercover, as fully ordained monks armed with guns. This work demonstrates that the discourse on religion and violence, usually applied to Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, can no longer exclude Buddhist traditions. The book examines Buddhist military action in Tibet, China, Korea, Japan, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and shows that even the most unlikely and allegedly pacifist religious traditions are susceptible to the violent tendencies of man.

The "golden yoke" of Buddhist Tibet was the last medieval legal system still in existence in the middle of the twentieth century. This book reconstructs that system as a series of layered narratives from the memories of people who participated in the daily operation of law in the houses and courtyards the offices and courts of Tibet prior to 1959. The practice of law in this unique legal world, which lacked most of our familiar sign posts, ranged from the fantastic use of oracles in the search for evidence to the more mundane presentation of cases in court. Buddhism and law, two topics rarely intertwined in Western consciousness, are at the center of this work. The Tibetan legal system was based on Buddhist philosophy and reflected Buddhist thought in legal practice and decision making. For Tibetans, law is a cosmology, a kaleidoscopic patterning of relations which is constantly changing, recycling, and re-forming even as it integrates the universe and the individual into a timeless mandalic whole. This work causes us to rethink American legal culture. It argues that in the United States, legal matters are segregated into a separate space with rigidly defined categories. The legal cosmology of Buddhist Tibet brings into question both this autonomous framework and most of the presumptions we have about the very nature of law from precedent and res judicata to rule formation and closure.

The Literature of Buddhism

Michihiro Ama, The Awakening of Modern Japanese Fiction: Path Literature and the Interpretation of Buddhism (2021)

John Brehm, The Dharma of Poetry: How Poems Can Deepen Your Spiritual Practice and Open You to Joy (2021)

Karen Derris, Storied Companions: Cancer, Trauma, and Discovering Guides for Living in Buddhist Narratives (2021)

Ven. K.L. Dhammajoti, Reading Buddhist Sanskrit Texts: An Elementary Grammatical Guide, 4th ed. (2021)

Natalie Gummer (ed.), The Language of the Sutras: Essays in Honor of Luis Gómez (2021)

Stefan Larsson & Kristoffer af Edholm, Songs on the Road: Wandering Religious Poets in India, Tibet, and Japan (2021)

Eviatar Shulman, Visions of the Buddha: Creative Dimensions of Early Buddhist Scripture (2021)

Chunwen Hao, Dunhuang Manuscripts: An Introduction to Texts from the Silk Road (2020)

Rafal K. Stepien (ed.), Buddhist Literature as Philosophy, Buddhist Philosophy as Literature (2020)

Dominique Julien, Borges, Buddhism, and World Literature: A Morphology of Renunciation Tales (2019)

Naomi Appleton, Shared Characters in Jain, Buddhist and Hindu Narrative: Gods, Kings and Other Heroes (2016)

Hildegard Diemberger et al (eds.), Tibetan Printing: Comparison, Continuities, and Change (2016)

Naomi Appleton, Narrating Karma and Rebirth: Buddhist and Jain Multi-Life Stories (2015)

Jae-Seong Lee, Postmodern Ethics, Emptiness, and Literature (2015)

Lawrence Normand & Alison Winch (eds.), Encountering Buddhism in Twentieth-Century British and American Literature (2015)

Agnieszka Helman-Wazny, The Archaeology of Tibetan Books (2014)

Kurtis R. Schaeffer, The Culture of the Book in Tibet (2014)

Jinah Kim, Receptacle of the Sacred: Illustrated Manuscripts and the Buddhist Book Cult in South Asia (2013)

Richard S. Cohen, The Splendid Vision: Reading a Buddhist Sutra (2012)

Stephen C. Berkwitz et al (eds.), Buddhist Manuscript Cultures: Knowledge, Ritual, and Art (2011)

John Whalen-Bridge & Gary Storhoff (eds.), Writing as Enlightenment: Buddhist American Literature into the Twenty-First Century (2011)

John Whalen-Bridge & Gary Storhoff (eds.), The Emergence of Buddhist American Literature (2009)

Ralph Flores, Buddhist Scriptures as Literature: Sacred Rhetoric and the Uses of Theory (2008)

Richard F. Gombrich & Cristina Scherrer-Schaub (eds.), Buddhist Studies: Papers of the 12th World Sanskrit Conference, Vol. 8 (2008)

Deborah Klimburg-Salter et al (eds.), Text, Image and Song in Transdisciplinary Dialogue (2007)

Jeff Humphries, Reading Emptiness: Buddhism and Literature (1999)

Milton C. Winternitz, History of Indian Literature, Volume II: Buddhist and Jaina Literature (1999)

Kogen Mizuno, Buddhist Sutras: Origin, Development, Transmission (1989)

Donald S. Lopez (ed.), Buddhist Hermeneutics (1988)

Roy C. Amore & Larry D. Shinn (ed. & trans.), Lustful Maidens and Ascetic Kings: Buddhist and Hindu Stories of Life (1981)

Shinsho Hanayama, Bibliography on Buddhism (1961)

Buddhism and Jainism share the concepts of karma, rebirth, and the desirability of escaping from rebirth. The literature of both traditions contains many stories about past, and sometimes future, lives which reveal much about these foundational doctrines. Naomi Appleton carefully explores how multi-life stories served to construct, communicate, and challenge ideas about karma and rebirth within early South Asia, examining portrayals of the different realms of rebirth, the potential paths and goals of human beings, and the biographies of ideal religious figures. Appleton also deftly surveys the ability of karma to bind individuals together over multiple lives, and the nature of the supernormal memory that makes multi-life stories available in the first place. This original study not only sheds light on the individual preoccupations of Buddhist and Jain tradition, but contributes to a more complete history of religious thought in South Asia.

In considering medieval illustrated Buddhist manuscripts as sacred objects of cultic innovation, this book explores how and why the South Asian Buddhist book-cult has survived for almost two millennia to the present. A book "manuscript" should be understood as a form of sacred space: a temple in microcosm, not only imbued with divine presence but also layered with the memories of many generations of users. Kim argues that illustrating a manuscript with Buddhist imagery not only empowered it as a three-dimensional sacred object, but also made it a suitable tool for the spiritual transformation of medieval Indian practitioners. Through a detailed historical analysis, she suggests that while Buddhism’s disappearance in eastern India was a slow and gradual process, the Buddhist book-cult played an important role in sustaining its identity. In addition, by examining the physical traces left by later Nepalese users and the contemporary ritual use of the book in Nepal, Kim shows how human agency was critical in perpetuating and intensifying the potency of a manuscript as a sacred object throughout time.

This work explores how religious and cultural practices in premodern Asia were shaped by literary and artistic traditions as well as by Buddhist material culture. This study of Buddhist texts focuses on the significance of their material forms rather than their doctrinal contents, and examines how and why they were made. Collectively, the book offers cross-cultural and comparative insights into the transmission of Buddhist knowledge and the use of texts and images as ritual objects in the artistic and aesthetic traditions of Buddhist cultures. Drawing on case studies from India, Gandhara, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Mongolia, China and Nepal, the chapters included investigate the range of interests and values associated with producing and using written texts, and the roles manuscripts and images play in the transmission of Buddhist texts and in fostering devotion among Buddhist communities. Contributions are by reputed scholars in Buddhist Studies and represent diverse disciplinary approaches from religious studies, art history, anthropology, and history.

This work connects ancient Buddhist attitudes and ideas with postmodern theory and aesthetics, concluding that the closest thing in Western culture to the Middle Way of Buddhism is not any sort of theory or philosophy, but the practice of literature. The book draws on scholarship and criticism in literary theory, philosophy, and science to speculate about the possible common ground between literary and Buddhist practices, aiming not so much to elucidate the ancient traditions of Buddhism as to seek ways in which literature might be integrated into a truly Western practice of Buddhism that would remain philosophically true to its Eastern roots.

Language, Logic, and Semiotics

Eun-Su Cho, Language and Meaning: Buddhist Interpretations of the "Buddha's Word" in Indian and East Asian Perspectives (2020)

Manel Herat (ed.), Buddhism and Linguistics: Theory and Philosophy (2017)

Sangharakshita, Metaphors, Magic, and Mystery: An Anthology of Writings and Teachings on Words and Their Relation to the Truth (2015)

Koji Tanaka et al (eds.), The Moon Points Back (2015)

Youxuan Wang, Buddhism and Deconstruction: Towards a Comparative Semiotics (2015)

Jayant Burde, Buddhist Logic and Quantum Dilemma (2012)

The Cowherds, Moonshadows: Conventional Truth in Buddhist Philosophy (2010)

Jay L. Garfield et al (eds.), Pointing at the Moon: Buddhism, Logic, Analytic Philosophy (2009)

Jin Y. Park (ed.), Buddhisms and Deconstructions (2006)

Alex Wayman, A Millennium of Buddhist Logic (1999)

Asanga tilakaratne, nirvana and ineffability: a study of the buddhist theory of reality and language (1993).

R.S.Y. Chi, Buddhist Formal Logic: A Study of Dignaga's Hetucakra and K'uei-chi's Great Commentary on the Nyayapravesa (1990)

Joan Stambaugh, The Real Is Not the Rational (1986)

G.M. Sprung (ed.), The Problem of Two Truths in Buddhism and Vedanta (1973)

T. Stcherbatsky, Buddhist Logic, 2 vols. (1962)

Meditation, Mindfulness, and Insight

David L. McMahan, Rethinking Meditation: Buddhist Meditative Practices in Ancient and Modern Worlds (2023)

Farah Godrej, Freedom Inside? Yoga and Meditation in the Carceral State (2022)

Bhikkhu Analayo, Developments in Buddhist Meditation Traditions: The Interplay Between Theory and Practice (2022)

L.S. Cousins, Meditations of the Pali Tradition: Illuminating Buddhist Doctrine, History, and Practice, ed. Sarah Shaw (2022)

Paul Dennison, Jhana Consciousness: Buddhist Meditation in the Age of Neuroscience (2022)

Geshe YongDong Losar, Calm Breath, Calm Mind: A Guide to the Healing Power of Breath, ed. Bernadette Wyton (2022)

B. Alan Wallace, The Art of Transforming the Mind: A Meditator’s Guide to the Tibetan Practice of Lojong (2022)

Karen O'Brien-Kop, Rethinking 'Classical Yoga' and Buddhism: Meditation, Metaphors and Materiality (2021)

Vajradevi, Uncontrived Mindfulness: Ending Suffering Through Attention, Curiosity, and Wisdom (2021)

B. Alan Wallace, Minding Closely: The Four Applications of Mindfulness (2021)

Bhikkhu Analayo, Introducing Mindfulness: The Buddhist Background and Practical Exercises (2020)

Bhikkhu Analayo, Mindfulness in Early Buddhism: Characteristics and Functions (2020)

Will Johnson, The Posture of Meditation: A Practical Manual for Meditators of All Traditions (2020)

Sarah Shaw, Mindfulness: Where It Comes From and What It Means (2020)

Bhikkhu Analayo, Mindfulness of Breathing: A Practice Guide and Translations (2019)

Tullio Giraldi, Psychotherapy, Mindfulness and Buddhist Meditation (2019)

Michal Pagis, Inward: Vipassana Meditation and the Embodiment of the Self (2019)

Paramananda, The Myth of Meditation: Restoring Imaginal Ground through Embodied Buddhist Practice (2019)

Ronald Purser, McMindfulness: How Mindfulness Became the New Capitalist Spirituality (2019)

Bhikkhu Analayo, Satipatthana Meditation: A Practice Guide (2018)

John Blofeld, Gateway to Wisdom: Taoist and Buddhist Contemplative and Healing Yogas (2018)

Ratnaguna Hennessey, The Art of Reflection: A Guide to Thinking, Contemplation and Insight on the Buddhist Path (2018)

Hyun-soo Jeon, Samatha, Jhana, and Vipassana. Practice at the Pa-Auk Monastery: A Meditator's Experience, trans. HaNul Jun (2018)

Jack Kornfield & Joseph Goldstein, The Path of Insight Meditation (2018)

Jaime Kucinskas, The Mindful Elite: Mobilizing from the Inside Out (2018)

Dharmachari Shantigarbha, I'll Meet You There: A Practical Guide to Empathy, Mindfulness and Communication (2018)

Lenart Skof & Petri Berndtson (eds.), Atmospheres of Breathing (2018)

Henry Vyner, The Healthy Mind: Mindfulness, True Self, and the Stream of Consciousness (2018)

Bhikkhu Analayo, Mindfully Facing Disease and Death: Compassionate Advice from Early Buddhist Texts (2017)

Keren Arbel, Early Buddhist Meditation: The Four Jhanas as the Actualization of Insight (2017)

Guy Armstrong, Emptiness: A Practical Introduction for Meditators (2017)

Peter Doran, A Political Economy of Attention, Mindfulness and Consumption: Reclaiming the Mindful Commons (2017)

Halvor Eifring (ed.), Meditation and Culture: The Interplay of Practice and Context (2017)

Paramabandhu Groves & Jed Shamel, Mindful Emotion: A Short Course in Kindness (2017)

Bhikkhu Phra Khantipalo, Calm and Insight: A Buddhist Manual for Meditators (2017)

Erik Braun, The Birth of Insight: Meditation, Modern Buddhism, and the Burmese Monk Ledi Sayadaw (2016)

Bob Chisholm & Jeff Harrison (eds.), The Wisdom of Not-Knowing: Essays on Psychotherapy, Buddhism, and Life Experience (2016)

Mahasi Sayadaw, Manual of Insight, trans. Steve Armstrong (2016)

Sayadaw U. Tejaniya, When Awareness Becomes Natural: A Guide to Cultivating Mindfulness in Everyday Life (2016)

Bhikkhu Analayo, Compassion and Emptiness in Early Buddhist Meditation (2015)

Richard P. Boyle, Realizing Awakened Consciousness: Interviews with Buddhist Teachers and a New Perspective on the Mind (2015)

Leigh Brasington, Right Concentration: A Practical Guide to the Jhanas (2015)

Bhikkhu Analayo, Perspectives on Satipatthana (2014)

Manu Bazzano (ed.), After Mindfulness: New Perspectives on Psychology and Meditation (2014)

Amanda Ie et al (eds.), The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Mindfulness, 2 vols. (2014)

Sarah Shaw, The Spirit of Buddhist Meditation (2014)

Lama Dudjom Dorjee, Stillness, Insight, and Emptiness: Buddhist Meditation from the Ground Up (2013)

J. Mark G. Williams & Jon Kabat-Zinn (eds.), Mindfulness: Diverse Perspectives on Its Meaning, Origins and Applications (2013)

Jinananda, Meditating: A Buddhist View (2012)

Kamalashila, Buddhist Meditation: Tranquillity, Imagination and Insight (2012)

Joe Loizzo, Sustainable Happiness: The Mind Science of Well-Being, Altruism, and Inspiration (2012)

Sangharakshita, The Purpose and Practice of Buddhist Meditation: A Sourcebook of Teachings (2012)

Shaila Catherine, Wisdom Wide and Deep: A Practical Handbook for Mastering Jhana and Vipassana (2011)

Judith Simmer-Brown & Fran Grace (eds.), Meditation and the Classroom: Contemplative Pedagogy for Religious Studies (2011)

Cynthia Thatcher, Just Seeing: Insight Meditation and Sense-Perception (2011)

Bodhipaksa, Wildmind: A Step-by-Step Guide to Meditation (2010)

Arinna Weisman & Jean Smith, The Beginner's Guide to Insight Meditation (2010)

Thomas Cleary, Minding Mind: A Course in Basic Meditation (2009)

Bhante Henepola Gunaratana, Beyond Mindfulness in Plain English: An Introductory Guide to the Jhanas, ed. John Peddicord (2009)

Maitreyabandhu, Life with Full Attention: A Practical Course in Mindfulness (2009)

Stephen Snyder & Tina Rasmussen, Practicing the Jhanas: Traditional Concentration Meditation As Presented by the Ven. Pa Auk Sayadaw (2009)

Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation (2009)

Richard Shankman, The Experience of Samadhi: An In-Depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation (2008)

Sarah Shaw, Introduction to Buddhist Meditation (2008)

Ajahn Brahmavamso, Ajahn Nyanadhammo, & Dharma Dorje, Walking Meditation: Three Expositions (2007)

Gregory Kramer, Insight Dialogue: The Interpersonal Path to Freedom (2007)

Toni Packer, The Silent Question: Meditating in the Stillness of Not-Knowing (2007)

Paramananda, The Body: The Art of Meditation (2007)

Ajahn Brahm, Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook (2006)

Paramananda, Change Your Mind: A Practical Guide to Buddhist Meditation (2006)

Sarah Shaw, Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pali Canon (2006)

Vessantara, The Heart: The Art of Meditation (2006)

Kathleen McDonald, How to Meditate: A Practical Guide (2005)

Vessantara, The Breath: The Art of Meditation (2005)

Bhikkhu Analayo, Satipatthana: The Direct Path to Realization (2004)

Frits Koster, Liberating Insight: Introduction to Buddhist Psychology and Insight Meditation (2004)

Nagabodhi, Metta: The Practice of Loving Kindness (2004)

Larry Rosenberg, Breath by Breath: The Liberating Practice of Insight Meditation (2004)

Sangharakshita, Living with Awareness: A Guide to the Satipatthana Sutta (2004)

Daniel Odier, Meditation Techniques of the Buddhist and Taoist Masters (2003)

John Daishin Buksbazen, Zen Meditation in Plain English (2002)

Bhante Gunaratana, Eight Mindful Steps to Happiness: Walking the Path of the Buddha (2001)

Lewis Richmond, Work as a Spiritual Practice: A Practical Buddhist Approach to Inner Growth and Satisfaction on the Job (2000)

Mitchell Ginsberg, The Far Shore: Vipassana, the Practice of Insight (1999)

A. Charles Muller (trans.), The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment: Korean Buddhism's Guide to Meditation (1999)

Chih-i, Stopping and Seeing: A Comprehensive Course in Buddhist Meditation trans. Thomas Cleary (1997)

Donald K. Swearer, Secrets of the Lotus: Studies in Buddhist Meditation (1997)

Bhante Henepola Gunaratana, Mindfulness in Plain English (1996)

Sayadaw U. Silananda, The Four Foundations of Mindfulness, ed. Ruth-Inge Heinze (1995)

Claude F. Whitmyer (ed.), Mindfulness and Meaningful Work: Explorations in Right Livelihood (1994)

Johannes Bronkhorst, The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India (1993)

Joseph Goldstein, Insight Meditation: The Practice of Freedom (1993)

Amadeo Sole-Leris, Tranquillity and Insight: An Introduction to the Oldest Form of Buddhist Meditation (1992)

Charles Luk, Secrets of Chinese Meditation: Self-Cultivation by Mind Control As Taught in the Ch'an, Mahayana and Taoist Schools in China (1991)

Chögyam Trungpa, Meditation in Action (1991)

Geshe G. Lodro, Walking Through Walls: A Presentation of Tibetan Meditation (1990)

Joseph Goldstein, The Experience of Insight: A Simple and Direct Guide to Buddhist Meditation (1987)

Bhikkhu Nanamoli, Mindfulness of Breathing: Buddhist Texts from the Pāli Canon and Extracts from the Pali Commentaries (1982)

Nyanaponika Thera (ed. & trans.), The Heart of Buddhist Meditation (1973)

Western society has never been more interested in interiority. Indeed, it seems more and more people are deliberately looking inward—toward the mind, the body, or both. Pagis’s book focuses on one increasingly popular channel for the introverted gaze: vipassana meditation, which has spread from Burma to more than forty countries and counting. Lacing her account with vivid anecdotes and personal stories, Pagis turns our attention not only to the practice of vipassana but to the communities that have sprung up around it. This work is also a social history of the westward diffusion of Eastern religious practices spurred on by the lingering effects of the British colonial presence in India. At the same time Pagis asks knotty questions about what happens when we continually turn inward, as she investigates the complex relations between physical selves, emotional selves, and our larger social worlds. Her book sheds new light on evergreen topics such as globalization, social psychology, and the place of the human body in the enduring process of self-awareness.

Mindful meditation is now embraced in virtually all corners of society today, from K-12 schools to Fortune 100 companies, and its virtues extolled by national and international media almost daily. It is thought to benefit our health and overall well-being, to counter stress, to help children pay attention, and to foster creativity, productivity and emotional intelligence. Yet in the 1960s and 1970s meditation was viewed as a marginal, counter-cultural practice, or a religious ritual for Asian immigrants. How did mindfulness become mainstream? Kucinskas reveals who is behind the mindfulness movement, and the engine they built to propel mindfulness into public consciousness. Drawing on over a hundred first-hand accounts with top scientists, religious leaders, educators, business people and investors, Kucinskas shows how this highly accomplished, affluent group in America transformed meditation into an appealing set of contemplative practices. Rather than relying on confrontation and protest to make their mark and improve society, the contemplatives sought a cultural revolution by building elite networks and advocating the benefits of meditation across professions. But this idealistic myopia came to reinforce some of the problems it originally aspired to solve. A critical look at this Buddhist-inspired movement, this book explores how elite movements can spread and draws larger lessons for other social, cultural, and religious movements across institutions and organizations.

This book offers a new interpretation of the relationship between 'insight practice' (satipatthana) and the attainment of the four jhanas (i.e., right samadhi ), a key problem in the study of Buddhist meditation. The author challenges the traditional Buddhist understanding of the four jhanas as states of absorption, and shows how these states are the actualization and embodiment of insight (vipassana). It proposes that the four jhanas and what we call 'vipassana' are integral dimensions of a single process that leads to awakening. This book demonstrates that the distinction between the 'practice of serenity' (samatha-bhavana) and the 'practice of insight' (vipassana-bhavana) – a fundamental distinction in Buddhist meditation theory – is not applicable to early Buddhist understanding of the meditative path. It seeks to show that the common interpretation of the jhanas as 'altered states of consciousness', absorptions that do not reveal anything about the nature of phenomena, is incompatible with the teachings of the Pali Nikayas. By carefully analyzing the descriptions of the four jhanas in the early Buddhist texts in Pali, their contexts, associations and meanings within the conceptual framework of early Buddhism, the relationship between this central element in the Buddhist path and 'insight meditation' becomes revealed in all its power. This book will be of interest to scholars of Buddhist studies, Asian philosophies and religions, as well as serious practitioners of insight meditation.

Dharma practice comprises a wide range of wise instructions and skillful means. As a result, meditators may be exposed to a diversity of approaches to the core teachings and the meditative path--and that can be confusing at times. In this clear and accessible exploration, Dharma teacher and longtime meditator Richard Shankman unravels the mix of differing, sometimes conflicting, views and traditional teachings on how samadhi (concentration) is understood and taught. In part one, Richard Shankman explores the range of teachings and views about samadhi in the Theravada Pali tradition, examines different approaches, and considers how they can inform and enrich our meditation practice. Part two consists of a series of interviews with prominent contemporary Theravada and vipassana (insight) Buddhist teachers. These discussions focus on the practical experience of samadhi, bringing the theoretical to life and offering a range of applications.

Monasticism

Stephen J. Davis, Monasticism: A Very Short Introduction (2018)

Susan Andrews et al (eds.), Rules of Engagement: Medieval Traditions of Buddhist Monastic Regulation (2017)

Bhikkhu Khantipalo, Banner of the Arahants: Buddhist Monks and Nuns from the Buddha's Time Till Now (2016)

Jeffrey Samuels, Attracting the Heart: Social Relations and the Aesthetics of Emotion in Sri Lankan Monastic Culture (2016)

Malcolm Voyce, Foucault, Buddhism and Disciplinary Rules (2016)

Bhikkhu Nyanatusita, Analysis of the Bhikkhu Patimokkha (2014)

Bhikkhu Nyanatusita (ed. & trans.), The Bhikkhu Patimokkha: A Word by Word Translation (2014)

Tim Ward, What the Buddha Never Taught (2013)

Jonathan A. Silk, Managing Monks: Administrators and Administrative Roles in Indian Buddhist Monasticism (2008)

Jotiya Dhirasekera, Buddhist Monastic Discipline: A Study of Its Origin and Development in Relation to the Sutta and Vinaya Pitakas (2007)

Li Rongxi & Albert A. Dalia (trans.), Lives of Great Monks and Nuns (2006)

Koichi Shinohara & Phyllis Granoff, Speaking of Monks: From Benares to Beijing (2006)

William Bodiford (ed.), Going Forth: Visions of Buddhist Vinaya (2005)

Pierre Pichard & Francois Lagirarde, The Buddhist Monastery: A Cross-Cultural Survey (2003)

Ann Heirman, Rules for Nuns According to the Dharmaguptakavinaya: "The Discipline in Four Parts" (2002)

Venerable Bhikshuni Wu Yin, Choosing Simplicity: A Commentary on the Bhikshuni Pratimoksha, ed. Bhikshuni Thubten Chodron, trans. Bhikshuni Jendy Shih (2001)

W. Pachow, A Comparative Study of the Pratimoksa: On the Basis of its Chinese, Tibetan, Sanskrit, and Pali Versions (2000)

Charles S. Prebish, Buddhist Monastic Discipline: The Sanskrit Pratimoksa Sutras of the Mahasamghikas and Mulasarvastivadins (1996)

Charles S. Prebish, A Survey of Vinaya Literature, Volume One (1996)

Thanissaro Bhikkhu, The Buddhist Monastic Code, 2 vols. (1994)

Charles Wei-hsun Fu & Sandra A. Wawrytko (eds.), Buddhist Behavioral Codes and the Modern World (1994)

Gunaratne Panabokke, History of the Buddhist Sangha in India and Sri Lanka (1993)

Sunanda Putuwar, The Buddhist Sangha: Paradigm of the Ideal Human Society (1991)

Mohan Wijayaratna, Buddhist Monastic Life, according to the Texts of the Theravada Tradition (1990)

Walpola Rahula, The Heritage of the Bhikkhu (1987)

Heinz Bechert & Richard Gombrich (eds.), The World of Buddhism: Buddhist Monks and Nuns in Society and Culture (1984)

John C. Holt, Discipline: The Canonical Buddhism of the Vinayapitaka (1983)

Nandasena ratnapala (ed. & trans.), the katikavatas: laws of the buddhist order of ceylon from the 12th century to the 18th century (1971).

Nalinaksha Dutt, Early Monastic Buddhism, 2 vols. (1960)

Sukumar Dutt, Early Buddhist Monachism (1960)

Erich Frauwallner, The Earliest Vinaya and the Beginnings of Buddhist Literature (1956)

Recent years have seen heightened interest in the ritual, juridical, and generally practical aspects of the Buddhist tradition. The contributions to this edited volume build on this trend while venturing beyond the established boundaries of discourse in specialized academic disciplines, presenting state-of-the-art research on the vinaya in all of its breadth and depth. They do so not only by tracing Buddhist textual traditions but also by showcasing the vast variety of practices that are the object of such regulations and throw a new light on the social implications such protocols have had in South, Central, and East Asia.

Vinaya, one of the three main categories of Buddhist scripture, functions not only as a type of canon law, but also as a founding charter for Buddhist institutional practice in East Asia. In its role as a scriptural charter, vinaya has justified widely dissimilar approaches to religious life as Buddhist orders in different times and places have interpreted it in contradictory ways. In the resulting tension between scripture and practice, certain kinds of ceremonial issues acquire profound social, psychological, doctrinal, and soteriological significance in Buddhism. This collection focuses on these issues over a wide sweep of history--from early fifth-century China to modern Japan--to provide readers with a rich overview of the intersection of doctrinal, ritual, and institutional concerns in the development of East Asian Buddhist practices. Despite the crucial importance of vinaya, especially for understanding Buddhism in East Asia, very little scholarship in Western languages exists on this fascinating topic. The essays presented here, written by senior scholars in the field, address how actual people responded to local social and cultural imperatives by reading scripture in innovative ways to give new life to tradition. They place real people, practices, and institutions at the center of each account, revealing both diversity and unity in Buddhist customs.

This work discusses the precepts and lifestyle of fully ordained nuns within the Buddhist tradition. The ordination vows act as guidelines to promote harmony both within the individual and within the community by regulating and thereby simplifying one's relationships to other sangha members and laypeople, as well as to the needs of daily life. Observing these precepts and practicing the Buddhadharma brings incredible benefit to oneself and others. Since the nuns' precepts include those for monks and have additional rules for nuns, this book is useful for anyone interested in monastic life. As a record of women's struggle not only to achieve a life of self-discipline, but also to create harmonious independent religious communities of women, this volume is a pioneering work.

This book provides a vivid and detailed picture of the daily life and religious practices of Buddhist monks and nuns in the classic period of Theravada Buddhism. The author describes the way in which the Buddha's disciples institutionalized and ritualized his teachings about food, dress, money, chastity, solitude, and discipleship. This tradition represents an ideal of religious life that has been followed in India and South Asia for more than two thousand years. The introduction by Steven Collins describes Theravada Buddhist literature, discusses the issue of the historical reliability of the texts, and offers extensive suggestions for further reading. The book will be of interest to scholars and students in Asian studies, religious studies, anthropology, and history.

Medicine & Health

C. Pierce Salguero, A Global History of Buddhism and Medicine (2022)

C. Pierce Salguero & Andrew Macomber (eds.), Buddhist Healing in Medieval China and Japan (2020)

C. Pierce Salguero (ed.), Buddhism and Medicine: An Anthology of Modern and Contemporary Sources (2019)

Katja Triplett, Buddhism and Medicine in Japan: A Topical Survey (500-1600 CE) of a Complex Relationship (2019)

Thomas N. Patton, The Buddha's Wizards: Magic, Protection, and Healing in Burmese Buddhism (2018)

C. Pierce Salguero, Buddhism and Medicine: An Anthology of Premodern Sources (2017)

C. Pierce Salguero, Traditional Thai Medicine: Buddhism, Animism, Yoga, Ayurveda (2016)

Jan Chozen Bays, Jizo Bodhisattva: Modern Healing & Traditional Buddhist Practice (2015)

Janet Gyatso, Being Human in a Buddhist World: An Intellectual History of Medicine in Early Modern Tibet (2015)

C. Pierce Salguero, Translating Buddhist Medicine in Medieval China (2014)

Andrew E. Goble, Confluences of Medicine in Medieval Japan: Buddhist Healing, Chinese Knowledge, Islamic Formulas, and Wounds of War (2011)

Paul Brenner, Buddha in the Waiting Room: Simple Truths about Health, Illness, and Healing (2007)

Michel Strickmann, Chinese Magical Medicine (2005)

Sharon Cameron, Beautiful Work: A Meditation on Pain (2000)

Raoul Birnbaum, The Healing Buddha (1980)

Pluralism & Tolerance: Buddhism & Other Religions

C.V. Jones (ed.), Buddhism and Its Religious Others: Historical Encounters and Representations (2022)

R. Michael Feener & Anne M. Blackburn (eds.), Buddhist and Islamic Orders in Southern Asia: Comparative Perspectives (2021)

Jijimon Alakkalam Joseph, Christian-Zen Dialogue: Sacred Stories As a Starting Point for Interfaith Dialogue (2021)

Yongho Francis Lee, Mysticism and Intellect in Medieval Christianity and Buddhism (2021)

Monica Sanford, Kalyanamitra: A Model for Buddhist Spiritual Care, Volume 1 (2021)

Douglas S. Duckworth, J. Abraham Vélez de Cea, & Elizabeth J. Harris (eds.), Buddhist Responses to Religious Diversity: Theravada and Tibetan Perspectives (2020)

Pehr Granqvist, Attachment in Religion and Spirituality: A Wider View (2020)

Harold Coward, Word, Chant, and Song: Spiritual Transformation in Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Sikhism (2019)

Peter Harvey, Buddhism and Monotheism (2019)

S. Mark Heim, Crucified Wisdom: Theological Reflection on Christ and the Bodhisattva (2018)

J. Abraham Velez de Cea, The Buddha and Religious Diversity (2017)

Kristin Beise Kiblinger, Buddhist Inclusivism: Attitudes Towards Religious Others (2017)

Anh Q. Tran (ed. & trans.), Gods, Heroes, and Ancestors: An Interreligious Encounter in Eighteenth-Century Vietnam (2017)

Gavin D'Costa & Ross Thompson (eds.), Buddhist-Christian Dual Belonging: Affirmations, Objections, Explorations (2016)

Hugh Nicholson, The Spirit of Contradiction in Christianity and Buddhism (2016)

Corinna Nicolaou, A None's Story: Searching for Meaning Inside Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, and Islam (2016)

John Raymaker, Bernard Lonergan's Third Way of the Heart and Mind: Bridging Some Buddhist-Christian-Muslim-Secularist Misunderstandings with a Global Secularity Ethics (2016)

Perry Schmidt-Leukel, Buddhism, Christianity and the Question of Creation: Karmic or Divine? (2016)

Alan Cole, Fetishizing Tradition: Desire and Reinvention in Buddhist and Christian Narratives (2015)

Gavin Flood, The Truth Within: A History of Inwardness in Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism (2015)

Jan van Bragt, Interreligious Affinities: Encounters with the Kyoto School and the Religions of Japan, ed. James W. Heisig et al (2014)

Donald S. Lopez, Jr. & Peggy McCracken, In Search of the Christian Buddha: How an Asian Sage Became a Medieval Saint (2014)

Paul Gwynne, Buddha, Jesus and Muhammad: A Comparative Study (2013)

Michael Pye & Robert Morgan (eds.), The Cardinal Meaning: Essays in Comparative Hermeneutics. Buddhism and Christianity (2013)

John Ross Carter, In the Company of Friends: Exploring Faith with Buddhists and Christians (2012)

Kari Storstein Haug, Interpreting Proverbs 11:18-31, Psalm 73, and Ecclesiastes 9:1-12 in Light of, and As a Response to, Thai Buddhist Interpretations (2012)

Peter D. Hershock, Valuing Diversity: Buddhist Reflection on Realizing a More Equitable Global Future (2012)

Kazuo Muto, Christianity and the Notion of Nothingness: Contributions to Buddhist-Christian Dialogue from the Kyoto School, ed. Martin Repp, trans. Jan van Bragt (2012)

Perry Schmidt-Leukel (ed.), Buddhism and Religious Diversity: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies (2012)

Amos Yong, Cosmic Breath: Spirit and Nature in the Christianity-Buddhism-Science Trialogue (2012)

Amos Yong, Pneumatology and the Christian-Buddhist Dialogue (2012)

Rose Drew, Buddhist and Christian? An Exploration of Dual Belonging (2011)

Daniel Dubuisson, Wisdoms of Humanity: Buddhism, Paganism, and Christianity (2011)

Eileen Rizo-Patron & Richard Kearney (eds.), Traversing the Heart: Journeys of the Inter-religious Imagination (2010)

Jin Baek, Nothingness: Tadao Ando's Christian Sacred Space (2009)

B. Alan Wallace, Mind in the Balance: Meditation in Science, Buddhism, & Christianity (2009)

Winston L. King, Buddhism and Christianity: Some Bridges of Understanding (2008)

Paul O. Ingram, Buddhist-Christian Dialogue in an Age of Science (2007)

Rita M. Gross & Terry C. Muck (eds.), Christians Talk about Buddhist Meditation, Buddhists Talk about Christian Prayer (2003)

John Raymaker, Empowering the Lonely Crowd: Pope John Paul II, Lonergan, and Japanese Buddhism (2003)

John Raymaker, A Buddhist-Christian Logic of the Heart: Nishida's Kyoto School and Lonergan's "Spiritual Genome" as World Bridge (2002)

J.P. Williams, Denying Divinity: Apophasis in the Patristic Christian and Soto Zen Buddhist Traditions (2001)

Rita M. Gross & Terry C. Muck (eds.), Buddhists Talk about Jesus, Christians Talk about the Buddha (2000)

Sallie B. King & Paul O. Ingram (eds.), The Sound of Liberating Truth: Buddhist-Christian Dialogues in Honor of Frederick J. Streng (1999)

Fritz Buri, The Buddha-Christ As the Lord of the True Self: The Religious Philosophy of the Kyoto School and Christianity, trans. Harold H. Oliver (1997)

Robert R. Magliola, On Deconstructing Life-Worlds: Buddhism, Christianity, Culture (1997)

Donald W. Mitchell & James Wiseman, O.S.B., eds., The Gethsemani Encounter: A Dialogue on the Spiritual Life by Buddhist and Christian Monastics (1997)

Denise Lardner Carmody & John Tully Carmody, In the Path of the Masters: Understanding the Spirituality of Buddha, Confucius, Jesus, and Muhammad (1996)

John Tully Carmody & Denise Lardner Carmody, Serene Compassion: A Christian Appreciation of Buddhist Holiness (1996)

David Loy (ed.), Healing Deconstruction: Postmodern Thought in Buddhism and Christianity (1996)

Masao Abe, Buddhism and Interfaith Dialogue, ed. Steven Heine (1995)

Russell H. Bowers, Someone or Nothing? Nishitani's "Religion and Nothingness" as a Foundation for Christian-Buddhist Dialogue (1995)

John b. cobb, jr., & christopher a. ives (eds.), the emptying god: a buddhist-jewish-christian conversation (1990).

Donald S. Lopez & Steven C. Rockefeller (eds.), The Christ and the Bodhisattva (1987)

Hajime Nakamura, Buddhism in Comparative Light (1986)

Hans waldenfels, absolute nothingness: foundations for a buddhist-christian dialogue, trans. james w. heisig (1980).

Lynn A. De Silva, The Problem of the Self in Buddhism and Christianity (1979)

D.T. Suzuki, Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist (1976)

James W. Boyd, Satan and Māra: Christian and Buddhist Symbols of Evil (1975)

J. Estlin Carpenter, Buddhism and Christianity: A Contrast and Parallel (1922)

Though a minority religion in Vietnam, Christianity has been a significant presence in the country since its arrival in the sixteenth century. In this volume, Tran offers the first English translation of the recently discovered 1752 manuscript Tam Giao Chu Vong (The Errors of the Three Religions). Structured as a dialogue between a Christian priest and a Confucian scholar, this anonymously authored manuscript paints a rich picture of the three traditional Vietnamese religions: Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. The work explains and evaluates several religious beliefs, customs, and rituals of eighteenth-century Vietnam, many of which are still in practice today. In addition, it contains a trove of information on the challenges and struggles that Vietnamese Christian converts had to face in following the new faith.

The cognitive science of religion has shown that abstract religious concepts within many established religious traditions often fail to correspond to what the majority of their adherents actually believe. Yet the cognitive approach to religion is largely silent on the question of how the doctrinal views developed in the first place. Nicholson aims to fill this gap by arguing that such doctrines can be understood as developing out of social identity processes. He focuses on the historical development of the Christian doctrine of consubstantiality, the claim that the Son is of the same substance as the Father, and the Buddhist doctrine of no-self, the claim that the personality is reducible to its impersonal physical and psychological constituents. Nicholson argues that that these doctrines were each the products of intra- and inter-religious rivalry, in which one faction tried to get the upper hand over its ingroup rivals by maximizing the contrast with the dominant outgroup. Thus the theologians of the fourth century developed the concept of consubstantiality in the context of an effort to maximize, against their rivals, the contrast with Christianity's archetypal "other," Judaism. Similarly, the no-self doctrine stemmed from an effort to maximize, against the so-called Personalist schools of Buddhism, the contrast with Brahmanical Hinduism with its doctrine of an unchanging and eternal self. In this way, Nicholson shows how religious traditions can back themselves into doctrinal positions that they must retrospectively justify.

Diversity matters. Whether in the context of ecosystems, education, the workplace, or politics, diversity is now recognized as a fact and as something to be positively affirmed. But what is the value of diversity? What explains its increasing significance? This book is a groundbreaking response to these questions and to the contemporary global dynamics that make them so salient. Peter D. Hershock examines the changes of the last century to show how the successes of Western-style modernity and industrially-powered markets have, ironically, coupled progressive integration and interdependence with the proliferation of political, economic, social, cultural, and environmental differences. Global predicaments like climate change and persistent wealth inequalities compel recognition that we are in the midst of an era-defining shift from the primacy of the technical to that of the ethical. Yet, neither modern liberalism nor its postmodern critiques have offered the resources needed to address such challenges. Making use of Buddhist and ecological insights, Hershock's book develops a qualitatively rich conception of diversity as an emerging value and global relational commons, forwarding an ethics of interdependence and responsive virtuosity that opens prospects for a paradigm shift in our pursuits of equity, freedom, and democratic justice.

Based around an interview with Tadao Ando, this book explores the influence of the Buddhist concept of nothingness on Ando’s Christian architecture, and sheds new light on the cultural significance of the buildings of one of the world’s leading contemporary architects. Specifically, this book situates Ando’s churches, particularly his world-renowned Church of the Light (1989), within the legacy of nothingness expounded by Kitaro Nishida (1870-1945), the father of the Kyoto Philosophical School. Linking Ando’s Christian architecture with a philosophy originating in Mahayana Buddhism illuminates the relationship between the two religious systems, as well as tying Ando’s architecture to the influence of Nishida on post-war Japanese art and culture.

Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy

Laura Burges, The Zen Way of Recovery: An Illuminated Path out of the Darkness of Addiction (2023)

Mark Epstein, The Zen of Therapy: Uncovering a Hidden Kindness in Life (2022)

John Davis, The Diamond Approach: An Introduction to the Teachings of A.H. Almaas (2021)

Hyunsoo Jeon, Buddhist Psychotherapy: Wisdom from Early Buddhist Teaching (2021)

Arnold Kozak, The Buddha Was a Psychologist: A Rational Approach to Buddhist Teachings (2021)

Joseph Bobrow, Zen and Psychotherapy: Partners in Liberation (2020)

Michal Barnea-Astrog, Psychoanalytic and Buddhist Reflections on Gentleness: Sensitivity, Fear, and the Drive Towards Truth (2019)

Ira Helderman, Prescribing the Dharma: Psychotherapists, Buddhist Traditions, and Defining Religion (2019)

Wakoh Shannon Hickey, Mind Cure: From Meditation to Medicine (2019)

Itai Ivtzan (ed.), Handbook of Mindfulness-Based Programmes: Mindfulness Interventions from Education to Health and Therapy (2019)

Christian U. Krägeloh et al, Mindfulness-Based Intervention Research: Characteristics, Approaches, and Developments (2019)

Paul C. Cooper, Zen Insight, Psychoanalytic Action (2018)

Yorai Sella, From Dualism to Oneness in Psychoanalysis: A Zen Perspective on the Mind-Body Question (2018)

Manu Bazzano, Zen and Therapy: Heretical Perspectives (2017)

Pilar Jennings, To Heal a Wounded Heart: The Transformative Power of Buddhism and Psychotherapy in Action (2017)

Peg LeVine, Classic Morita Therapy: Consciousness, Zen, Justice and Trauma (2017)

Joseph Loizzo et al (eds.), Advances in Contemplative Psychotherapy: Accelerating Healing and Transformation (2017)

Padmasiri de Silva, Emotions and the Body in Buddhist Contemplative Practice and Mindfulness-Based Therapy: Pathways of Somatic Intelligence (2017)

Itai Ivtzan & Tim Lomas (eds.), Mindfulness in Positive Psychology: The Science of Meditation and Well-Being (2016)

Richard W. Sears, The Sense of Self: Perspectives from Science and Zen Buddhism (2016)

Erik van den Brink & Frits Koster, Mindfulness-Based Compassionate Living: A New Training Programme to Deepen Mindfulness with Heartfulness (2015)

Mark Epstein, Going to Pieces Without Falling Apart: A Buddhist Perspective on Wholeness (2015)

Padmasiri De Silva, An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology and Counselling: Pathways of Mindfulness-Based Therapies (2014)

Anthony Molino (ed.), Crossroads in Psychoanalysis, Buddhism, and Mindfulness: The Word and the Breath (2013)

Jeffrey B. Rubin, Psychotherapy and Buddhism: Toward an Integration (2013)

Cheryl A. Giles & Willa B. Miller (eds.), The Arts of Contemplative Care: Pioneering Voices in Buddhist Chaplaincy and Pastoral Work (2012)

Barry Magid, Ordinary Mind: Exploring the Common Ground of Zen and Psychoanalysis (2012)

Jeremy D. Safran (ed.), Psychoanalysis and Buddhism: An Unfolding Dialogue (2012)

B. Alan Wallace, The Taboo of Subjectivity: Toward a New Science of Consciousness (2011)

Maurits G.T. Kwee (ed.), New Horizons in Buddhist Psychology: Relational Buddhism for Collaborative Practitioners (2010)

Andrew Olendzki, Unlimiting Mind: The Radically Experiential Psychology of Buddhism (2010)

Anne Maiden Brown et al, The Tibetan Art of Parenting: From Before Conception Through Early Childhood (2009)

Paul C. Cooper, The Zen Impulse and the Psychoanalytic Encounter (2009)

Marvin Levine, The Positive Psychology of Buddhism and Yoga (2009)

Dale Mathers et al (eds.), Self and No-Self: Continuing the Dialogue Between Buddhism and Psychotherapy (2009)

Mark Epstein, Psychotherapy Without the Self: A Buddhist Perspective (2008)

Maurits Kwee et al (eds.), Horizons in Buddhist Psychology (2006)

Robert Langan & Robert Coles, Minding What Matters: Psychotherapy and the Buddha Within (2006)

Dinesh Kumar Nauriyal, Michael S. Drummond, & Y.B. Lal (eds.), Buddhist Thought and Applied Psychological Research: Transcending the Boundaries (2006)

Padmasiri de Silva, An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology, 4th ed. (2005)

Harvey B. Aronson, Buddhist Practice on Western Ground: Reconciling Eastern Ideals and Western Psychology (2004)

Seth Robert Segall (ed.), Encountering Buddhism: Western Psychology and Buddhist Teachings (2003)

David Brazier, The Feeling Buddha: A Buddhist Psychology of Character, Adversity, and Passion (2002)

Radmila Moacanin, The Essence of Jung's Psychology and Tibetan Buddhism: Western and Eastern Paths to the Heart (2002)

Mark Epstein, Going on Being: Buddhism and the Way of Change: A Positive Psychology for the West (2001)

John Welwood, Toward a Psychology of Awakening: Buddhism, Psychotherapy, and the Path of Personal and Spiritual Transformation (2000)

Gay Watson, The Resonance of Emptiness: A Buddhist Inspiration for a Contemporary Psychotherapy (1998)

David Brazier, Zen Therapy: Transcending the Sorrows of the Human Mind (1997)

Christopher deCharms, Two Views of Mind: Abhidharma and Brain Science (1997)

Mark Epstein, Thoughts Without a Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective (1995)

John R. Suler, Contemporary Psychoanalysis and Eastern Thought (1993)

Nathan Katz (ed.), Buddhist and Western Psychology (1983)

Mindfulness and yoga are widely said to improve mental and physical health, and booming industries have emerged to teach them as secular techniques. This movement is typically traced to the 1970s, but it actually began a century earlier. Hickey shows that most of those who first advocated meditation for healing were women: leaders of the "Mind Cure" movement, which emerged during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Instructed by Buddhist and Hindu missionaries, many of these women believed that by transforming consciousness, they could also transform oppressive conditions in which they lived. For women - and many African-American men - "Mind Cure" meant not just happiness, but liberation in concrete political, economic, and legal terms. In response to the perceived threat posed by this movement, white male doctors and clergy with elite academic credentials began to channel key Mind Cure methods into "scientific" psychology and medicine. As mental therapeutics became medicalized and commodified, the religious roots of meditation, like the social-justice agendas of early Mind Curers, fell by the wayside. Although characterized as "universal," mindfulness has very specific historical and cultural roots, and is now largely marketed by and accessible to affluent white people. Hickey examines religious dimensions of the Mindfulness movement and clinical research about its effectiveness. By treating stress-related illness individualistically, she argues, the contemporary movement obscures the roles religious communities can play in fostering civil society and personal well-being, and diverts attention from systemic factors fueling stress-related illness, including racism, sexism, and poverty.

Drawing from original source material, contemporary scholarship, and Wilfred Bion’s psychoanalytic writings, this book introduces the Zen notion of gūjin, or total exertion, and elaborates a realizational perspective that integrates Zen Buddhism and psychoanalysis. Developed by the thirteenth-century Zen teacher and founder of the Japanese Soto Zen school, Eihei Dogen, gūjin finds expression and is referenced in various contemporary scholarly and religious commentaries. This book explains this pivotal Zen concept and addresses themes by drawing from translated source material, academic scholarship, traditional Zen kōans and teaching stories, extensive commentarial literature, interpretive writings by contemporary Soto Zen teachers, psychoanalytic theory, clinical material, and poetry, as well as the author’s thirty years of personal experience as a psychoanalyst, supervisor, psychoanalytic educator, ordained Soto Zen priest, and transmitted Soto Zen teacher. From a realizational perspective that integrates Zen and psychoanalytic concepts, the book extends the scope and increases the effectiveness of clinical work for the psychotherapist, and facilitates deepened experiences for the meditation practitioner.

This collection brings together the latest thinking in these two important disciplines. Positive psychology, the science of well-being and strengths, is the fastest growing branch of psychology, offering an optimal home for the research and application of mindfulness. As we contemplate mindfulness in the context of positive psychology, meaningful insights are being revealed in relation to our mental and physical health. The book features chapters from leading figures from mindfulness and positive psychology, offering an exciting combination of topics. Mindfulness is explored in relation to flow, meaning, parenthood, performance, sports, obesity, depression, pregnancy, spirituality, happiness, mortality, and many other ground-breaking topics. This is an invitation to rethink about mindfulness in ways that truly expands our understanding of well-being. The work will appeal to a readership of students and practitioners, as well as those interested in mindfulness, positive psychology, or other relevant areas such as education, healthcare, clinical psychology, counselling psychology, occupational psychology, and coaching. The contributors explore cutting edge theories, research, and practical exercises, which will be relevant to all people interested in this area, and particularly those who wish to enhance their well-being via mindfulness.

Immersed in Buddhist psychology prior to studying Western psychiatry, Dr. Mark Epstein first viewed Western therapeutic approaches through the lens of the East. This posed something of a challenge. Although both systems promise liberation through self-awareness, the central tenet of Buddha's wisdom is the notion of no-self, while the central focus of Western psychotherapy is the self. This book, which includes writings from the past twenty-five years, wrestles with the complex relationship between Buddhism and psychotherapy and offers nuanced reflections on therapy, meditation, and psychological and spiritual development. A best-selling author and popular speaker, Epstein has long been at the forefront of the effort to introduce Buddhist psychology to the West. His unique background enables him to serve as a bridge between the two traditions, which he has found to be more compatible than at first thought. Engaging with the teachings of the Buddha as well as those of Freud and Winnicott, he offers a compelling look at desire, anger, and insight and helps reinterpret the Buddha's Four Noble Truths and central concepts such as egolessness and emptiness in the psychoanalytic language of our time.

Philosophical Psychology & Philosophy of Mind

John Peacock & Martine Batchelor (eds.), The Definition, Practice and Psychology of Vedana: Knowing How It Feels (2019)

Philip J. Ivanhoe et al (eds.), The Oneness Hypothesis: Beyond the Boundary of Self (2018)

Rick Repetti, Buddhism, Meditation, and Free Will: A Theory of Mental Freedom (2018)

Padmasiri de Silva, The Psychology of Emotions and Humour in Buddhism (2018)

Gert Hofmann & Snježana Zorić (eds.), Presence of the Body: Awareness in and beyond Experience (2016)

Irina Kuznetsova et al (eds.), Hindu and Buddhist Ideas in Dialogue: Self and No-Self (2016)

Rick Repetti (ed.), Buddhist Perspectives on Free Will: Agentless Agency (2016)

Mark Siderits, Personal Identity and Buddhist Philosophy: Empty Persons, 2nd ed. (2016)

Christian Coseru, Perceiving Reality: Consciousness, Intentionality, and Cognition in Buddhist Philosophy (2015)

Zhihua Yao, The Buddhist Theory of Self-Cognition (2014)

John Pickering, The Authority of Experience: Essays on Buddhism and Psychology (2013)

Miri Albahari, Analytical Buddhism: The Two-Tiered Illusion of Self (2006)

Stephanie Kaza (ed.), Hooked! Buddhist Writings on Greed, Desire, and the Urge to Consume (2005)

Joan Stambaugh, The Formless Self (1999)

R. S. Khare (ed.), The Eternal Food: Gastronomic Ideas and Experiences of Hindus and Buddhists (1992)

David J. Kalupahana, Principles of Buddhist Psychology (1987)

Yasuo Yuasa, The Body: Toward an Eastern Mind-Body Theory, ed. & trans. Thomas P. Kasulis & Shigenori Nagatomo (1987)

Paul Griffiths, On Being Mindless: Buddhist Meditation and the Mind-Body Problem (1986)

E.R. Sarachchandra, Buddhist Psychology of Perception (1958)

The idea that the self is inextricably intertwined with the rest of the world―the “oneness hypothesis”―can be found in many of the world’s philosophical and religious traditions. Oneness provides ways to imagine and achieve a more expansive conception of the self as fundamentally connected with other people, creatures, and things. Such views present profound challenges to Western hyperindividualism and its excessive concern with self-interest and tendency toward self-centered behavior. This anthology presents a wide-ranging, interdisciplinary exploration of the nature and implications of the oneness hypothesis. While fundamentally inspired by East and South Asian traditions, in which such a view is often critical to their philosophical approach, this collection also draws upon religious studies, psychology, and Western philosophy, as well as sociology, evolutionary theory, and cognitive neuroscience. Contributors trace the oneness hypothesis through the works of East Asian and Western schools, including Confucianism, Mohism, Daoism, Buddhism, and Platonism and such thinkers as Zhuangzi, Kant, James, and Dewey. They intervene in debates over ethics, cultural difference, identity, group solidarity, and the positive and negative implications of metaphors of organic unity. Challenging dominant views that presume that the proper scope of the mind stops at the boundaries of skin and skull, this work shows that a more relational conception of the self is not only consistent with contemporary science but has the potential to lead to greater happiness and well-being for both individuals and the larger wholes of which they are parts.

Since the publication of Mark Siderits' important book in 2003, much has changed in the field of Buddhist philosophy. There has been unprecedented growth in analytic metaphysics, and a considerable amount of new work on Indian theories of the self and personal identity has emerged. Fully revised and updated, and drawing on these changes as well as on developments in the author's own thinking, the second edition explores the conversation between Buddhist and Western Philosophy showing how concepts and tools drawn from one philosophical tradition can help solve problems arising in another. Siderits discusses afresh areas involved in the philosophical investigation of persons, including vagueness and its implications for personal identity, recent attempts by scholars of Buddhist philosophy to defend the attribution of an emergentist account of personhood to at least some Buddhists, and whether a distinctively Buddhist antirealism can avoid problems that beset other forms of ontological anti-foundationalism.

What turns the continuous flow of experience into perceptually distinct objects? Can our verbal descriptions unambiguously capture what it is like to see, hear, or feel? How might we reason about the testimony that perception alone discloses? Coseru proposes a rigorous and highly original way to answer these questions by developing a framework for understanding perception as a mode of apprehension that is intentionally constituted, pragmatically oriented, and causally effective. By engaging with recent discussions in phenomenology and analytic philosophy of mind, but also by drawing on the work of Husserl and Merleau-Ponty, Coseru offers a sustained argument that Buddhist philosophers, in particular those who follow the tradition of inquiry initiated by Dignaga and Dharmakirti, have much to offer when it comes to explaining why epistemological disputes about the evidential role of perceptual experience cannot satisfactorily be resolved without taking into account the structure of our cognitive awareness. This work examines the function of perception and its relation to attention, language, and discursive thought, and provides new ways of conceptualizing the Buddhist defense of the reflexivity thesis of consciousness--namely, that each cognitive event is to be understood as involving a pre-reflective implicit awareness of its own occurrence. Coseru advances an innovative approach to Buddhist philosophy of mind in the form of phenomenological naturalism, and moves beyond comparative approaches to philosophy by emphasizing the continuity of concerns between Buddhist and Western philosophical accounts of the nature of perceptual content and the character of perceptual consciousness.

Gathering and interpreting material that is not readily available elsewhere, this book discusses the thought of the Japanese Buddhist philosophers Dogen, Hisamatsu, and Nishitani. Stambaugh develops ideas about the self culminating in the concept of the Formless Self as formulated by Hisamatsu in his book The Fullness of Nothingness and the essay "The Characteristics of Oriental Nothingness," and further explicated by Nishitani in his book Religion and Nothingness. These works show that Oriental nothingness has nothing to do with the 19th- and 20th-century Western concept of nihilism; rather, it is a positive phenomenon: enabling things to be.

Science: Mind & Universe

Thupten Jinpa (ed.), Science and Philosophy in the Indian Buddhist Classics, Volume 2: The Mind, trans. Dechen Rochard & John D. Dunne (2020)

David Presti et al, Mind Beyond Brain: Buddhism, Science, and the Paranormal (2019)

Robert Wright, Why Buddhism Is True: The Science and Philosophy of Meditation and Enlightenment (2018)

Dusana Dorjee, Neuroscience and Psychology of Meditation in Everyday Life: Searching for the Essence of Mind (2017)

Arri Eisen & Yungdrung Konchok, The Enlightened Gene: Biology, Buddhism, and the Convergence that Explains the World (2017)

Wendy Hasenkamp & Janna R. White (eds.), The Monastery and the Microscope: Conversations with the Dalai Lama on Mind, Mindfulness, and the Nature of Reality (2017)

Thupten Jinpa (ed.), Science and Philosophy in the Indian Buddhist Classics, Volume 1: The Physical World (2017)

David L. McMahan & Erik Braun, Meditation, Buddhism, and Science (2017)

Matthieu Ricard & Wolf Singer, Beyond the Self: Conversations Between Buddhism and Neuroscience (2017)

Francisca Cho & Richard Squier, Religion and Science in the Mirror of Buddhism (2015)

Erik J. Hammerstrom, The Science of Chinese Buddhism: Early Twentieth-Century Engagements (2015)

Evan Thompson, Waking, Dreaming, Being: Self and Consciousness in Neuroscience, Meditation, and Philosophy (2014)

David P. Barash, Buddhist Biology: Ancient Eastern Wisdom Meets Modern Western Science (2013)

Dusana Dorjee, Mind, Brain and the Path to Happiness: A Guide to Buddhist Mind Training and the Neuroscience of Meditation (2013)

Owen Flanagan, The Bodhisattva's Brain: Buddhism Naturalized (2013)

B. Alan Wallace, Meditations of a Buddhist Skeptic: A Manifesto for the Mind Sciences and Contemplative Practice (2013)

Donald S. Lopez, Jr., The Scientific Buddha: His Short and Happy Life (2012)

Donald S. Lopez, Jr., Buddhism and Science: A Guide for the Perplexed (2011)

Vic Mansfield, Tibetan Buddhism and Modern Physics: Toward a Union of Love and Knowledge (2008)

B. Alan Wallace, Hidden Dimensions: The Unification of Physics and Consciousness (2007)

B. Alan Wallace, Contemplative Science: Where Buddhism and Neuroscience Converge (2006)

His Holiness the Dalai Lama, The New Physics and Cosmology: Dialogues with the Dalai Lama, ed. Arthur Zajonc & Zara Houshmand (2004)

B. Alan Wallace, Choosing Reality: A Buddhist View of Physics and the Mind (2003)

B. Alan Wallace (ed.), Buddhism and Science: Breaking New Ground (2003)

Richard J. Davidson & Anne Harrington (eds.), Visions of Compassion: Western Scientists and Tibetan Buddhists Examine Human Nature (2001)

Matthieu Ricard & Trinh Xuan Thuan, The Quantum and the Lotus: A Journey to the Frontiers Where Science and Buddhism Meet (2001)

Daniel Goleman & Robert A.F. Thurman (eds.), MindScience: An East-West Dialogue (1999)

Buddhadasa P. Kirthisinghe, Buddhism and Science (1999)

Robin Cooper, The Evolving Mind: Buddhism, Biology, and Consciousness (1996)

Joanna Macy, Mutual Causality in Buddhism and General Systems Theory: The Dharma of Natural Systems (1995)

Luang suriyabongs, buddhism in the light of modern scientific ideas, rev. ed. (1960).

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Essays are short pieces of writing that were published independently, for example on a blog.

For essays published in periodicals, see articles . For essays published in collections of various authors, see papers . For essays published as part of a book, see excerpts . For long essays, see booklets .

We, moderns but especially Americans, have a fundamental misunderstanding of cognitive development: we assume that higher-level functioning is always desired and so disparage and neglect fundamental cognitive skills.

Featured in the course, " Nibbāna: The Goal of Buddhist Practice "

Following is a summation of the extraordinary story, as explicated in the Aitken letters , of a Zen master teaching in America for some 35 years, who has been accused of sexual misconduct numerous times and yet was never called to task nor properly investigated.

Featured in the course, " An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy "

Featured in the course, " Buddhism as a Religion "

I would say that the Nikāyas and Āgamas give us a “historical-realistic perspective” on the Buddha, while the Mahāyāna sūtras give us a “cosmic-metaphysical perspective.”

In meditation one lets go of the complex world outside in order to reach the serene world inside. In all types of mysticism and in many traditions, this is known as the path to the pure and powerful mind.

A good sutta is one that inspires you to stop reading it.

… an overview of how bhikkhunis, or fully ordained nuns, came into being, disappeared and are now reappearing again

… some see in viññāṇa anidassana a kind of consciousness essentially equal to nibbāna . But there are many problems with this

Featured in the course, " The Buddha's Words "

Featured in the course, " The Buddha "

Featured in the course, " Buddhism 101 "

A tour of pre-modern, Buddhist bridges and a comment on the deeper roots of engaged Buddhism.

… he believed in nothing but himself. Actually, this is neither Buddhism nor Chan

Featured in the course, " Buddhist Ethics "

Bodhisattvas who genuinely take the bodhisattva vow of ethical discipline do nothing but act for the benefit of beings, either directly or indirectly, but unless one is skilful in benefiting these beings, no matter how much one does, it might not benefit beings, but could actually be a direct or indirect cause of harm.

… and now the geneticists say I may have 2% Neanderthal DNA, which presumably changes the status of Neanderthals, or the [definition] of species, or [possibly] both.

You might wish to drink the nectar of calm abiding…

What impresses me most about that encounter is how unimpressive it was.

… it may be America’s destiny not to make Buddhism perfect but to make it banal

Featured in the course, " The Practice of Buddhism "

Ajahn Geoff explains how the monastic institution works by creating an economy of gifts.

A short essay on what the path is to become a Theravada Monastic.

Within the framework of experience, there is no quantum enigma; the boxed cat, being outside of one’s experiential frame of reference, doesn’t exist. Once I observe the cat, then it exists

… the time for discovering Buddha directly, you must remain alone

Only a few have heard that “painted rice cakes do not satisfy hunger” and none have really understood what it meant. I’ve asked several of these skin bags about it and everybody was quite certain without even bothering to look into it.

…when these people meditate they’re awfully grim.

A beautiful sermon on the value of monasticism.

All beings by nature are Buddha, As ice by nature is water.

It’s interesting to walk through the graveyards of towns, and see that for the first few years after a person dies there may be a head stone, maybe someone remembers, but after twenty, thirty, or forty years, they could bulldoze the graves because the land is so valuable and plant somebody else in there. So even your head stone just crumbles to dust. All record of you living here is gone, because no one remembers who you were or what you did. Isn’t that beautiful? So why not do that right now? Bulldoze this idea of who you are

Just as I was talking about the unhindered Light, In rolled the morning fog

If a sensation of itchiness intervenes and the yogi desires to scratch because it is hard to bear, both the sensation and the desire to get rid of it should be noted, without immediately getting rid of the sensation by scratching.

We wouldn’t say “this is proof of reincarnation,” but I would say it’s strong evidence of something like it.

The inspiring (and frustrating) story of one modern, South Indian reformer who turned towards Buddhism as a refuge from exploitation.

… this paper aims for a philosophically more nuanced discussion of the case for and against eating locally. I assess, in turn, locavore arguments based on environmental preservation, human health, community support, agrarian values and political concerns

In the end money did come, from a most unexpected and unusual source

Mansplaining is not a universal flaw of the gender, just the intersection between overconfidence and cluelessness where some portion of that gender gets stuck.

There is no single “swiss-army knife” technique that works equally well at all times; instead, we must carefully examine our present conditions and determine what practice is most relevant.

Doctor, if only you could see how heaven pulls earth into its arms and how infinitely the heart expands to claim this world

An intriguing (re)definition of religion, science, and culture.

Furtwängler’s Bach is no smug or mindless adaptation of Bach to the style of Wagner. It is a reaffirmation of the presence of Bach in Wagner and the simultaneous, reciprocal presence of Wagner in Bach.

Therapy assumes that someone is sick and that there is a cure, e.g., a personal solution. I am greatly offended that I or any other woman is thought to need therapy in the first place. Women are messed over, not messed up! We need to change the objective conditions, not adjust to them.

The precariousness of intimate speech adds to its power and the power of the reader, through whose agency the voice is encouraged in its urgent plea or confidence.

It is inescapable that, whatever the reading, according to the early texts the Buddha did not have “normal” genitals. And the only reading actually supported by a canonical text is that the Buddha was intersex, and his genitals looked like a woman’s.

During my first weeks with my teacher, Ajaan Fuang, I began to realize that he had psychic powers.

Kammaṭṭhāna meditation should be practised so as to reach Nibbāna , thereby escaping from all kinds of misery

A short prayer of confession and rededication to the path.

… while the Theravādins have preserved the clearest and best-understood early texts referring to the in-between state, their philosophical posture prevented them from investigating and describing this in any detail. For that we shall have to listen to the other schools, starting with the Puggalavādins and Sarvāstivādins, as passed down through the Chinese and Tibetan traditions.

I swear, you will wake– & mistake these walls for skin.

Reverend Sirs, I would like the reverend bhikkhus and bhikkhunis—as well as the laymen and laywomen—to listen to these passages frequently and to ponder on them.

For the time being stand on top of the highest peak. For the time being proceed along the bottom of the deepest ocean. For the time being three heads and eight arms. For the time being an eight- or sixteen-foot body.

Human born. Faculties intact. Full of youth. To encounter the Dharma is marvelous!

A fascinating series of open letters between Ajahn Geoff and Bhikkhu Bodhi on the subject of “just war.”

To defend the innocent is a bright deed. To kill is a dark deed. To kill in defense of the innocent is a deed both bright and dark

Forget you. This is about waiting

A defense of abortion and IVF rights from the Buddhist perspective.

I give you back 1948.

Essay Curve

Essay on Buddhism – Examples, 10 Lines to 1200 Words

Essay on Buddhism: Buddhism is a spiritual tradition that originated in ancient India and has since spread across the globe, influencing millions of people with its teachings on compassion, mindfulness, and enlightenment. In this essay, we will explore the core beliefs and practices of Buddhism, as well as its impact on individuals and societies. From the life of the Buddha to the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, we will delve into the rich history and philosophy of this profound and transformative faith.

Buddhism Essay Writing Tips

1. Begin by introducing the topic of Buddhism and its significance in the world today. Explain that Buddhism is a major world religion that originated in India and has spread to many countries around the world.

2. Provide a brief overview of the history of Buddhism, including the life of Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, and the development of the religion over time.

3. Discuss the key beliefs and teachings of Buddhism, such as the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and the concept of karma and rebirth. Explain how these teachings guide the lives of Buddhists and help them achieve enlightenment.

4. Explore the different branches of Buddhism, such as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana, and explain how they differ in their beliefs and practices.

5. Discuss the role of meditation in Buddhism and how it is used as a tool for achieving mindfulness and inner peace. Explain how meditation is central to the practice of Buddhism and is used to cultivate wisdom and compassion.

6. Consider the ethical principles of Buddhism, such as the Five Precepts, which guide Buddhists in their moral conduct and interactions with others. Discuss how these principles help Buddhists live a virtuous and compassionate life.

7. Reflect on the impact of Buddhism on society and culture, both historically and in the present day. Discuss how Buddhism has influenced art, literature, philosophy, and social movements around the world.

8. Consider the challenges and criticisms that Buddhism faces in the modern world, such as accusations of sexism and discrimination within Buddhist institutions. Discuss how Buddhists are working to address these issues and promote greater inclusivity and equality.

9. Conclude by reflecting on the enduring appeal of Buddhism and its ability to offer solace, guidance, and wisdom to people of all backgrounds. Emphasize the importance of understanding and respecting different religious traditions in our increasingly diverse and interconnected world.

10. Remember to proofread and edit your essay for clarity, coherence, and grammar before submitting it for evaluation. Make sure to cite any sources you used in your research to give credit to the original authors and avoid plagiarism.

Essay on Buddhism in 10 Lines – Examples

1. Buddhism is a major world religion that originated in India around 2,500 years ago. 2. The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama, is also known as the Buddha, which means “enlightened one.” 3. The central teachings of Buddhism revolve around the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. 4. The Four Noble Truths are the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of the end of suffering, and the truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering. 5. The Eightfold Path consists of eight principles that followers of Buddhism strive to follow in order to achieve enlightenment. 6. Buddhism emphasizes the importance of meditation, mindfulness, and ethical conduct in achieving spiritual growth. 7. There are three major branches of Buddhism: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. 8. Buddhism teaches the concept of karma, the belief that one’s actions have consequences in this life and future lives. 9. The ultimate goal of Buddhism is to reach Nirvana, a state of complete liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth. 10. Buddhism has spread to many parts of the world and has influenced art, culture, and philosophy in various societies.

Sample Essay on Buddhism in 100-180 Words

Buddhism is a major world religion that originated in ancient India and is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha. The central tenets of Buddhism include the Four Noble Truths, which outline the nature of suffering and the path to liberation from it through the Eightfold Path.

Buddhism emphasizes the importance of mindfulness, compassion, and non-attachment to material possessions. Followers of Buddhism seek to achieve enlightenment, or Nirvana, by following the teachings of the Buddha and practicing meditation and mindfulness.

Buddhism has spread throughout Asia and beyond, with different schools and traditions emerging over time. Today, Buddhism is practiced by millions of people around the world and continues to be a source of spiritual guidance and inspiration for many.

Short Essay on Buddhism in 200-500 Words

Buddhism is a major world religion that originated in ancient India and has spread to many parts of the world. It is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who became known as the Buddha, which means “enlightened one.” The core teachings of Buddhism revolve around the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which provide a guide for living a moral and ethical life.

The Four Noble Truths are the foundation of Buddhist philosophy. They state that life is filled with suffering, that suffering is caused by desire and attachment, that suffering can be overcome, and that the way to overcome suffering is through following the Eightfold Path. These truths emphasize the impermanence of life and the importance of letting go of attachments in order to find true happiness and peace.

The Eightfold Path is a set of guidelines for ethical and moral living that are meant to help individuals achieve enlightenment. It includes principles such as right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. By following these principles, Buddhists believe they can cultivate wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline in order to reach a state of enlightenment.

One of the key concepts in Buddhism is the idea of karma, which is the belief that our actions have consequences that affect our future lives. Buddhists believe that by living a moral and ethical life, they can accumulate positive karma that will lead to a better rebirth in their next life. Conversely, negative actions will result in negative karma and a less favorable rebirth. This belief in karma encourages Buddhists to act with compassion and kindness towards others in order to create positive outcomes for themselves and others.

Another important aspect of Buddhism is the practice of meditation. Meditation is a way for individuals to quiet their minds, cultivate mindfulness, and develop insight into the nature of reality. By meditating regularly, Buddhists believe they can achieve a state of inner peace and clarity that allows them to see the world more clearly and live with greater compassion and wisdom.

In addition to these core teachings, Buddhism also encompasses a rich tradition of rituals, ceremonies, and practices that vary depending on the cultural and geographical context in which it is practiced. For example, in Tibetan Buddhism, practitioners may engage in elaborate rituals involving chanting, visualization, and the use of sacred objects such as prayer beads and mandalas. In Zen Buddhism, practitioners focus on the practice of sitting meditation (zazen) as a means of achieving enlightenment.

Overall, Buddhism offers a comprehensive and profound path to spiritual growth and self-discovery. Its teachings on suffering, impermanence, and the nature of reality provide valuable insights into the human condition and offer practical guidance for living a meaningful and fulfilling life. By following the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and engaging in practices such as meditation and mindfulness, individuals can cultivate wisdom, compassion, and inner peace that can lead to a deeper understanding of themselves and the world around them.

Essay on Buddhism in 1000-1500 Words

Buddhism is one of the oldest and most widespread religions in the world, with over 500 million followers worldwide. It originated in India around the 6th century BCE and was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as the Buddha, or the Enlightened One. Buddhism is based on the teachings of the Buddha, which emphasize the importance of self-awareness, compassion, and the pursuit of enlightenment.

One of the key teachings of Buddhism is the Four Noble Truths, which are the foundation of the Buddha’s teachings. The first Noble Truth is the truth of suffering, which states that all beings experience suffering in their lives. The second Noble Truth is the truth of the cause of suffering, which is desire and attachment. The third Noble Truth is the truth of the cessation of suffering, which is achieved through the elimination of desire and attachment. The fourth Noble Truth is the truth of the path to the cessation of suffering, which is the Eightfold Path.

The Eightfold Path is a set of guidelines for living a meaningful and fulfilling life, which includes right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. By following the Eightfold Path, Buddhists believe that they can achieve enlightenment and liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth known as samsara.

Another important concept in Buddhism is the idea of karma, which is the belief that our actions have consequences, both in this life and in future lives. According to the law of karma, good actions lead to positive outcomes, while bad actions lead to negative outcomes. By practicing good deeds and cultivating positive qualities such as compassion, generosity, and wisdom, Buddhists believe that they can create positive karma and improve their future lives.

One of the key practices in Buddhism is meditation, which is a way to cultivate mindfulness and awareness. By meditating regularly, Buddhists can develop a deeper understanding of themselves and the world around them, as well as cultivate inner peace and tranquility. There are many different forms of meditation in Buddhism, including mindfulness meditation, loving-kindness meditation, and insight meditation, all of which are aimed at developing different aspects of the mind and spirit.

In addition to meditation, Buddhists also engage in rituals and ceremonies as a way to honor the Buddha and his teachings. One of the most important rituals in Buddhism is the practice of making offerings to the Buddha, which is a way to show respect and gratitude for his teachings. Buddhists also participate in ceremonies such as chanting, reciting sutras, and performing rituals to purify the mind and spirit.

Buddhism is a diverse religion with many different schools and traditions, each with its own unique practices and beliefs. Some of the major schools of Buddhism include Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana, each of which has its own unique teachings and practices. Theravada Buddhism is the oldest and most traditional form of Buddhism, which emphasizes the importance of individual enlightenment and self-reliance. Mahayana Buddhism, on the other hand, is more focused on compassion and the idea of the bodhisattva, or enlightened being, who vows to help all beings achieve enlightenment. Vajrayana Buddhism is a form of Buddhism that is practiced mainly in Tibet and emphasizes the use of rituals, mantras, and visualizations to achieve enlightenment.

In conclusion, Buddhism is a rich and diverse religion that offers a path to enlightenment and liberation from suffering. Through the teachings of the Buddha, the practice of meditation, and the cultivation of positive qualities such as compassion and wisdom, Buddhists believe that they can achieve inner peace and happiness. With its emphasis on self-awareness, compassion, and the pursuit of enlightenment, Buddhism continues to be a source of inspiration and guidance for millions of people around the world.

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11 Buddhist Idealism

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This chapter surveys some of the most influential Buddhist arguments in defense of idealism. It begins by clarifying the central theses under dispute and rationally reconstructs arguments from four major Buddhist figures in defense of some or all of these theses. It engages arguments from Vasubandhu’s Viṃśikā and Triṃśikā; Dignāga’s Ālambanaparīkṣā; the sahopalambhaniyama inference developed by Dharmakīrti; and Xuanzang’s logical argument. It aims to clarify what is being argued and motivate these arguments in terms of their presuppositions. These presuppositions range from views about the nature of mind and metaphysics to epistemology and logic. By making this context explicit, this chapter introduces central ideas in Buddhist philosophy and suggests ways in which they were mobilized in support of an idealist conclusion.

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Essay on Buddhism

Students are often asked to write an essay on Buddhism in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Buddhism

Introduction to buddhism.

Buddhism is a religion and philosophy that emerged from the teachings of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) around 2,500 years ago in India. It emphasizes personal spiritual development and the attainment of a deep insight into the true nature of life.

Key Beliefs of Buddhism

Buddhism’s main beliefs include the Four Noble Truths, which explain suffering and how to overcome it, and the Noble Eightfold Path, a guide to moral and mindful living.

Buddhist Practices

Buddhist practices like meditation and mindfulness help followers to understand themselves and the world. It encourages love, kindness, and compassion towards all beings.

Impact of Buddhism

Buddhism has greatly influenced cultures worldwide, promoting peace, non-violence, and harmony. It’s a path of practice and spiritual development leading to insight into the true nature of reality.

250 Words Essay on Buddhism

Buddhism, a major world religion, emerged from the profound teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a prince from the Indian subcontinent, around the 5th century BCE. It is not merely a religion but a philosophy and a way of life, focusing on the alleviation of suffering.

The Four Noble Truths

At the heart of Buddhism lie the Four Noble Truths. The first truth recognizes the existence of suffering (Dukkha). The second identifies the cause of suffering, primarily desire or attachment (Samudaya). The third truth, cessation (Nirodha), asserts that ending this desire eliminates suffering. The fourth, the path (Magga), outlines the Eightfold Path as a guide to achieve this cessation.

The Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path, as prescribed by Buddha, is a practical guideline to ethical and mental development with the goal of freeing individuals from attachments and delusions; ultimately leading to understanding, compassion, and enlightenment (Nirvana). The path includes Right Understanding, Right Intent, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

Buddhists practice meditation and mindfulness to achieve clarity and tranquility of mind. They follow the Five Precepts, basic ethical guidelines to refrain from harming living beings, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxication.

Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to insight into the true nature of reality. It encourages individuals to lead a moral life, be mindful and aware of thoughts and actions, and to develop wisdom and understanding. The ultimate goal is the attainment of enlightenment and liberation from the cycle of rebirth and death.

500 Words Essay on Buddhism

Introduction.

Buddhism, a religion and philosophy that emerged from the teachings of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), has become a spiritual path followed by millions worldwide. It is a system of thought that offers practical methodologies and profound insights into the nature of existence.

The Life of Buddha

The Buddha, born in the 5th century BCE in Lumbini (present-day Nepal), was a prince who renounced his royal comforts in search of truth. After years of rigorous ascetic practices and meditation, he attained ‘Enlightenment’ under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India. His teachings, known as ‘Dhamma,’ are centered around the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, providing a roadmap to end suffering and achieve Nirvana.

The Four Noble Truths are the cornerstone of Buddhism. They outline the nature of suffering (Dukkha), its origin (Samudaya), its cessation (Nirodha), and the path leading to its cessation (Magga). These truths present a pragmatic approach, asserting that suffering is an inherent part of existence, but it can be overcome by following the Eightfold Path.

The Eightfold Path, as taught by Buddha, is a practical guideline to ethical and mental development with the goal of freeing individuals from attachments and delusions, ultimately leading to understanding, compassion, and enlightenment. It includes Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

Buddhist Schools of Thought

Buddhism evolved into various schools of thought, each interpreting Buddha’s teachings differently. The two main branches are Theravada, often considered the closest to the original teachings, and Mahayana, which includes Zen, Pure Land, and Tibetan Buddhism. Vajrayana, often considered part of Mahayana, incorporates esoteric practices and is dominant in Tibet.

Buddhism and Modern Science

The compatibility of Buddhism with modern science has been a topic of interest in recent years. Concepts like impermanence, interconnectedness, and the nature of consciousness in Buddhism resonate with findings in quantum physics, neuroscience, and psychology. This convergence has led to the development of fields like neurodharma and contemplative science, exploring the impact of meditation and mindfulness on the human brain.

Buddhism, with its profound philosophical insights and practical methodologies, continues to influence millions of people worldwide. Its teachings provide a framework for understanding the nature of existence, leading to compassion, wisdom, and ultimately, liberation. As we delve deeper into the realms of modern science, the Buddhist worldview continues to offer valuable perspectives, underscoring its enduring relevance in our contemporary world.

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Essay on Gautam Buddha

An Introduction

Gautam Buddha is popularly called Lord Buddha or The Buddha. He was a great and religious leader of ancient India. He is regarded as the founder of Buddhism, which is one of the most followed religions in the world today.

The followers of Buddha are now called Buddhists which means the enlightened beings, the ones who have rediscovered the path to freedom starting from ignorance, craving to the cycle of rebirth and suffering. Buddha himself propagated it for nearly 45 years.

His teachings are based on his insights of suffering and dissatisfaction ending in a state called Nirvana.

Gautam Buddha is considered to be one of the greatest religious preachers in the world. He was the preacher of peace and harmony. In this Gautam Buddha essay, you will find one long and one short piece about the epic religious guru followed by many. Studying this piece will help you learn who Gautama Buddha was and what made him choose the path of spirituality. The long and short essay on Gautam Buddha will help students of Class 5 and above to write one on their own. These essays are specially designed so that you can have all the needed information about Gautam Buddha. This essay will help you to understand the life of Gautam Buddha in minimum words. Basically in a few words, this essay gives you a brief detail about Buddha.

Gautam Buddha, the messenger of peace, equality, and fraternity, was born in Lumbini in the 6th Century BC, the Terai region of Nepal. His real name was Siddhartha Gautam. He belonged to the royal family of Kapilavastu. His father was Suddhodhana, the ruler. Maya Devi, Gautam’s mother, died soon after giving birth to him. He was a thoughtful child with a broad mind. He was very disciplined and liked to question contemporary concepts to understand and gather more knowledge.

He wanted to devote his life to spirituality and meditation. This was what his father did not like about him. He went against his father’s wishes to find spirituality. His father was worried that someday, Gautam will leave his family to pursue his wishes. For this, Suddhodhana always guarded his son against the harshness surrounding him. He never let his son leave the palace anytime. When he was 18 years of age, Gautam was married to Yashodhara, a princess with magnificent beauty. They had a son named ‘Rahul’. Even though Siddhartha’s family was complete and happy, he did not find peace. His mind always urged him intending to find the truth beyond the walls.

As per the Buddhist manuscripts, when Siddhartha saw an old man, an ailing person, and a corpse, he understood that nothing in this material world is permanent. All the pleasures he enjoyed were temporary and someday, he had to leave them behind. His mind startled from the realization. He left his family, the throne, and the kingdom behind and started roaming in the forests and places aimlessly. All he wanted was to find the real truth and purpose of life. In his journey, he met with scholars and saints but nobody was able to quench his thirst for truth.

He then commenced meditation with the aim to suffer and then realized the ultimate truth sitting under a huge banyan tree after 6 years. It was in Bodh Gaya in Bihar. He turned 35 and was enlightened. His wisdom knew no boundaries. The tree was named Bodhi Vriksha. He was very satisfied with his newly found knowledge and gave his first speech on enlightenment in Sarnath. He found the ultimate truth behind the sorrows and troubles people face in the world. It was all due to their desires and attraction to earthly things.

A couple of centuries after he died, he came to be known as the Buddha which means the enlightened one. All the teachings of Buddha were compiled in the Vinaya. His teachings were passed to the Indo-Aryan community through oral traditions.

In his lecture, he mentioned the Noble Eightfold Path to conquer desires and attain full control. The first 3 paths described how one can gain physical control. The next 2 paths showed us how to achieve the fullest mental control. The last 2 paths were described to help people attain the highest level of intellect. These paths are described as Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration synchronously.

The title “Buddha” was used by several ancient groups and for each group, it had its meaning. The word Buddhism refers to a living being who has got enlightened and just got up from his phase of ignorance. Buddhism believes that there have been Buddhas in the past before Gautam Buddha and there will be Buddhas in the future also. The Buddhists celebrate the life of Gautam Buddha starting from his birth to his enlightenment and passage into Nirvana stage as well.

In his life, Gautam Buddha had done a lot of spiritual things and lived his life by going through so much. Each suffering and each liberation of his has turned into teachings.

Some of them are explained below:

Finding Liberation: the ultimate motive of our soul is to find liberation.

The Noble truth of Life: for salvation, you need to know about all the four Noble truths of your life.

Suffering is not a Joke:   each suffering leads you to experience a new you.

There are noble eightfold paths that you need to follow.

Death is final, the one who has taken birth will die surely and everything in life is impermeable, you are not going to have anything that will be permanent so focus on salvation rather than pleasing others.

He preached that only sacrifice cannot make a person happy and free from all the bonds he has in the world. He also defined the final goal as Nirvana. Even to this day, his preaching finds meaning and can be related to our sorrows. According to his teachings, the right way of thinking, acting, living, concentrating, etc can lead to such a state. He never asked anyone to sacrifice or pray all day to achieve such a state. This is not the way to gain such a mindful state.

He didn’t mention any god or an almighty controlling our fate. His teachings are the best philosophical thoughts one can follow. Gautam Buddha was his new name after gaining Nirvana and knowing the truth. He was sure that no religion can lead to Nirvana. Only the Noble Eightfold Path can be the way to achieve such a state. He breathed last in 483 BC in Kushinagar, now situated in Uttar Pradesh and his life became an inspiration.

Even after being in a happy family with a loving wife and son, he left his royal kingdom in search of the truth. No one was able to satisfy him with knowledge. He then attained his enlightenment under a banyan tree in Bodh Gaya. He described the Noble Eightfold Path that everyone should follow to get rid of sorrow and unhappiness. He died in 483 BC but his preaching is found to be still relevant to this date. This tells us how Siddhartha became Gautam Buddha. It also tells us about his valuable preaching and shows us the way to achieve Nirvana.

FAQs on Essay on Gautam Buddha

1. What made Siddhartha realize pleasures are Temporary?

When he first saw an ailing person, a corpse, and an old man, he realized worldly pleasures are temporary. He realized that all the pleasures that this world is running behind are fake. Nothing will stay forever, even the ones whom you love the most will leave you sooner or later, so you should not run behind these material pleasures. Focus on attaining salvation. Everyone who has taken birth will definitely leave one day, the thing that you have today will not be there tomorrow. There is only one soul for yourself. The body or the material things that you are proud of today will leave you tomorrow. Everything is not going to be the same.

2. What did he do to achieve Knowledge and Peace?

Gautam Buddha was more focused on achieving salvation, he wanted to know the truth of life. He wanted to have knowledge of all the things and peace along with Moksha. To receive knowledge and peace, Gautam Buddha left his home and his family behind. He wandered here and there aimlessly just to find peace in his life. Not only this, he talked with many scholars and saints so that he could receive the knowledge of everything that he was searching for. 

3. What did he Preach?

Gautam Buddha was the preacher of peace. In this essay, we are introduced to the preaching of Gautam Buddha. He has taught all about how to receive salvation and attain Nirvana without following any particular religion. Some of his preachings are :

Have respect for your life.

No lying and respect for honesty.

No sexual misconduct and at least you should respect the people of the same community and respect women as well. 

The path of sufferings, truth of causes; these factors will create a path of salvation for you. You need to believe in the reality of life and then move towards attaining the ultimate.

4. Does Gautam Buddha believe in God?

Buddhists actually don't believe in any dainty figure or God but according to them, there are some supernatural powers present in this universe that can help people or they can even encourage people to move toward enlightenment. Gautam Buddha, on seeing people dying and crying, realized that human life is nothing but suffering and all you need to do is get over this materialistic world and lead your life towards attaining salvation. Nothing is permanent nor even this body, so enlighten yourself towards the path of salvation.

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Ideas Buddhism

The Buddhism of Schopenhauer

The famed German philosopher did not become acquainted with Eastern thought until after writing his magnum opus. Yet in Buddhism, he found reflection—and validation—of his own genius.

In a particularly harrowing passage from his 1819 discourse The World as Will and Representation , German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer cites an account from one of botanist and geologist Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn’s expeditions to the Indonesian island of Java.

“Junghuhn,” Schopenhauer writes, “saw an immense field entirely covered with skeletons, and took it to be a battlefield. However, they were nothing but skeletons of large turtles, five feet long, three feet broad, and of equal height. These turtles come this way from the sea, in order to lay their eggs, and are then seized by wild dogs ( Canis rutilans ); with their united strength, these dogs lay them on their backs, tear open their lower armor, the small scales of the belly, and devour them alive. But then a tiger often pounces on the dogs. Now all this misery is repeated thousands and thousands of times, year in, year out. For this then, are these turtles born. For what offense must they suffer this agony? What is the point of the whole scene of horror?”

To readers familiar with Buddhist scriptures, this passage inevitably echoes the story of Siddhartha Gautama , whose shocking encounter with the overabundance of death and suffering outside his princely palace propelled him on his path to Buddhahood. This is not a coincidence, as Schopenhauer, who lived from 1788 to 1860, is widely recognized as one of the first Western philosophers to develop a serious interest in Eastern thought. Financed by an inheritance from his merchant father, he spent most of his adult life secluded at home, at his own princely palace of sorts, reading and rereading the Vedas and Upanishads, accompanied by a succession of white poodles all named Atman, after the Hindu and Buddhist concept of the true or eternal Self or witness-consciousness.

Many wrongly assume that Schopenhauer was aware of these ancient texts before writing World as Will . In truth, the philosopher completed his magnum opus well before ever diving into them. They did not serve as an inspiration so much as they seemed to confirm what he had already discovered through independent study. Ignored by the academic community of his time, Schopenhauer—who, like Franz Kafka or Vincent van Gogh, did not become a household name until after his death—found quiet comfort in the fact that his work seemed somehow connected to one of the oldest and greatest philosophical traditions on the planet.

In an article titled “Buddhism and Nineteenth-Century German Philosophy,” the German theologian Heinrich Dumoulin notes that, while scholars from Southeast Asian countries had readily consumed Western philosophy since the 1700s, “Asian ideas and cultural values were slower to gain entry into Europe.” Asian philosophy traveled westward not through professors but Jesuit missionaries who saw traces of their own Christian worldview reflected in Buddhism and Confucianism.

Germany’s first introduction to Indian thought came from Polish philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), who—after translating the Bhagavad Gita from Sanskrit into German—went on to write that “in India, the human mind acquired its first form of wisdom and virtue, with a depth, strength, and sublimity which … has no equal in our cold, European, philosophical world.” Further steps were taken by August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767–1845), who occupied the first chair in Sanskrit at the University of Bonn, and his younger brother Friedrich (1772–1829), author of an influential essay titled “On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians.”

Aside from a small but steadily growing class of Buddhist scholars in the West, Buddhism also caught the attention of a handful of leading German philosophers who, though they did not understand its history to the extent of their specialized peers, found its teachings to be relevant to their own writing. 

Despite never leaving his hometown of Konigsberg, Immanuel Kant was fascinated with foreign cultures. For over forty years he taught a course on “Physical Geography,” one of the first in the country, compiling material from travel literature. He talked about Buddhism in lectures on Tibet, India, China, and Japan, and, according to Dumoulin, “was sympathetic to the Buddhist belief in [the] transmigration of souls.” Kant, whose concept of the categorical imperative outlines a series of ethical laws all people should follow regardless of their circumstances, was also impressed by what he perceived to be Buddhism’s distinct moral character, with karma promising to punish evil and reward good when earthly institutions failed. 

Kant’s contemporary Georg W. F. Hegel, Schopenhauer’s nemesis, also devoted space to Buddhism, albeit in a different context. Arguing that “world history moves from East to West,” the great dialectician concerned himself with the Far East only insofar as—in Dumoulin’s words—he “sought to integrate all the [world’s] religions into his own grandiose metaphysical system.”

Schopenhauer differed from Hegel in that he viewed Eastern thought as different from and arguably superior to its Western counterpart. Letters reveal that he first encountered Eastern spiritual wisdom in 1813, when his friend Friedrich Maier, an Indologist and author of a book titled Brahma, or the Religion of the Hindus , gifted him a Latin translation of the Upanishads.

Letters also reveal that Schopenhauer had already made significant progress on World as Will before he was able to sit down with this translation. “The agreement with my own teachings is especially wonderful,” he later told an acquaintance, “since I wrote the first volume [from] 1814 [to] 1818 and did not know anything about all that, not having been able to acquire all that knowledge.” Schopenhauer’s pursuit of the Upanishads really took off after he resigned from his post at the University of Berlin and devoted himself entirely to independent study.

The deeper he dove into Eastern thought, the more similarities he discovered between it and his own. This was especially true of Buddhist scriptures, which, like World as Will , proposed that what we commonly regard as “reality” is in fact an illusion, a pale imitation of a higher, invisible truth. Juxtaposed against this false reality—a duality Schopenhauer had originally inherited from Kant, who was in turn indebted to Plato and his allegory of the cave—was what Kant termed the “thing-in-itself” ( Ding an sich ) and what Schopenhauer came to refer to as the Will: an essential energy that animates and unites all living entities: the “this” in the “For this then, are these turtles born.” 

In a line of reasoning that closely follows the Buddha’s four noble truths, Schopenhauer argued that the Will—expressed in animals as the need to exist, grow, and reproduce, and in humans as desire in all its various, complicated forms—was the cause of all suffering, since desire can never be satiated. Because the Will is the essential energy of the universe, Schopenhauer also argued that suffering was an inseparable aspect of existence, escapable only through the renunciation of desire and, by extension, existence itself.

He supposed that the rejection of the Will—through the consumption of art or an ascetic lifestyle—would lead to a state of bliss not unlike what we conceive of when we hear the word nirvana :

“Then nothing can trouble a man more, nothing can move him, for he has cut all the thousand cords of will which hold us bound to the world and, as desire, fear, envy, anger, drag us hither and thither in constant pain, He now looks back smiling and at rest on the delusions of this world which once were able to move and agonize his spirit also, but which now stand before him as utterly indifferent to him as the chessman when the game is ended, or as in the morning the cast-off masquerading dress which worried and disquieted us in the night in carnival. Life and its forms now pass before him as a fleeting illusion, as a light morning dream before half waking eyes, the real world already shining through it so that it can no longer deceive, and like this morning dream they finally vanish altogether without any violent transition.”

In a preface added to a later edition of World as Will , a more educated Schopenhauer addressed the ancient sagacious wisdom he now perceived in his 1819 book:

“If he [the reader] is a partaker of the benefit conferred by the Vedas, the access to which, opened to us through the Upanishads, is in my eyes the greatest advantage which this still young century enjoys over previous ones, because I believe that the influence of the Sanskrit literature will penetrate not less deeply than did the revival of Greek literature in the fifteenth century: if, I say, the reader has also already received and assimilated the sacred… Indian wisdom, then is he best of all prepared to hear what I have to say to him…”

Like Siddhartha Gautama, Schopenhauer’s philosophy about suffering, desire, and renunciation was informed by an at times tragic, at other times unsatisfying life—a life the Indian scholar of Bengali and English literature Rabindra Kumar Das Gupta once summed up as a string of “failures and disappointments.” Born in Danzig, Schopenhauer was just 5 years old when the Polish city lost its status as a Polish exclave in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and was made a part of Prussia. At 17, his father was found dead in a canal. Those close to the family speculated that Heinrich, a shrewd but struggling businessman, must have slipped, but Schopenhauer was convinced that his father—his melancholic tendencies worsened by financial trouble—had actually committed suicide. 

Although the future philosopher had never been close to his father, he actively despised his mother. Johanna Schopenhauer, a successful writer and professional bohemian who kept an entourage of artists and intellectuals, including Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, felt the exact same way about her son, calling him “unbearable and burdensome” and “very hard to live with.” The lukewarm reception of World as Will , which Schopenhauer had secretly hoped would place him at the pinnacle of German academia, only worsened their relationship. Their quarrels became more and more frequent until, one day, Johanna pushed Arthur down the stairs, prompting the latter to declare—as Dumoulin put it—that “posterity would remember her only through his reputation.”

Schopenhauer argued that suffering was an inseparable aspect of existence, escapable only through the renunciation of desire and, by extension, existence itself

This declaration proved prophetic only in retrospect. With unsold copies of his manuscript collecting dust, Schopenhauer acknowledged and even embraced the then-likely possibility of his name fading into obscurity. As his personal life crumbled, so did his career. In less than a year after accepting his professorship at the University of Berlin, Schopenhauer resigned from the institution when his class—scheduled at the same time as Hegel’s—failed to attract a sufficient number of students.

In light of such biographical details, one cannot help but wonder whether Schopenhauer’s pessimism was logical or pathological in nature, whether the philosopher arrived at his bleak worldview through sincere, unbiased introspection, or whether he was pushed in this direction by the frustration of his many unfulfilled desires. 

Friedrich Nietzsche, an early admirer of Schopenhauer, supported the first of these two hypotheses, arguing the philosopher’s isolation from society offered the same clarity and insight that he himself enjoyed in chronic illness. He described Schopenhauer as “absolutely alone, with not a single friend,” arguing that “between one and none there lies an infinity.” 

Accepting his own mortality, Schopenhauer became willing to acknowledge uncomfortable yet obvious truths that others—shielded by a lover’s embrace or intoxicated by alcohol—ignored. Proof of the world’s inherent cruelty did not have to be uncovered or elucidated; it was evident in the most basic functions of nature, in which, Schopenhauer once wrote, “the agony of the devoured animal is always far greater than the pleasure of the devourer.” 

Just as his pessimism stemmed from rational observation rather than emotional trauma, so too was it motivated by compassion rather than disdain. As he wrote in World as Will : 

“If you led the most unrepentant optimist through the hospitals, military wards, and surgical theatres, through the prisons [and] torture chambers … through battlefields and places of judgment, and then open for him all the dark dwellings of misery that hide from cold curiosity, then he too would surely come to see the nature of this best of all possible worlds.”

Interpreting Schopenhauer as a 19th-century incel who blames his unhappiness on an indifferent universe not only misses the point of World as Will , but also of the Eastern thinkers he came to identify himself with. Dumoulin notes that, as a result of systemic misreading, both “Schopenhauerism” and Buddhism are viewed in the West as philosophies of death, of rejecting a painful, meaningless existence in favor of painless but equally meaningless nonexistence. In truth, Schopenhauer’s philosophy was fueled by a deep love and care for the world that had supposedly mistreated him, just as his conception of overcoming the Will—much like the nirvana that it evokes—was neither negative nor nihilistic. As with Sisyphus, or the Buddha, we must imagine Schopenhauer happy. 

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Paragraph on Buddhism

Buddhism is a way of life; it is one of the oldest beliefs practiced by a large population. Religions and beliefs are faith in society. For a better understanding of this ancient religion and belief, we have created some of the important paragraphs mentioned in the below section. Kindly read it as per your need.

Short and Long Paragraphs on Buddhism

Paragraph 1 – 100 words.

Buddhism is one of the oldest religions of the world. It’s a faith, a way of life, and a religion of peace. Buddhism was founded before more than 2,500 years ago in India. Lord Buddha was the founder of Buddhism, it is said that his teachings were the foundation of Buddhism. The path of self-enlightenment can be achieved by meditation and insight.

Lord Buddha showed the world path of spirituality and self-help. He was born as Siddhartha. After his spiritual awakening and a journey of enlightenment he called “Buddha”. The Buddhist devotees focus on the path of enlightenment. They mediate and remind the Buddha and his sermons. Buddhism is an old religion that was evolved in modern-day.

Paragraph 2 – 120 Words

Buddhism is lenient religion; the teachings of Buddha are the base of religion. The Logical teachings given by Lord Buddha is worldwide famous. The devotees of Buddhism practice deep meditation.

Buddhism is different from other religions, as Buddhists believe that there is no personal creator. The individuals should make their own path for their best they can. The Buddhist teachings for life say that:

There are three marks of existence i.e., the concept of impermanent, unsatisfactory, and interdependent. It means that nothing is permanent, nothing can make human tendency truly happy and all things are related to each other. The concept of the Middle way, meditation, Nirvana is the base of Buddhism. Buddhists believe in the path of self-enlightenment and thus they worship Lord Buddha and remember his teachings. However, most of Buddhism ideas are very similar to Hinduism.

Paragraph 3 – 150 Words

Buddhism is predicated on the teachings of Lord Buddha. The roots of Buddhism are from India. It is widely practiced in the Asian region. Buddhism evolved from the ancient period to modern-day. Buddhism is a philosophy a sect that covers the way of spiritual awakening. In Asian subcontinent countries, people follow it religiously. The way of practicing religion might differ in countries.

Lord Buddha was born as Siddhartha Gautama in the royal family of Kapilvastu (current day Indo-Nepalese Border). When prince Siddhartha (Young Buddha) confronted the realities of the world like old age, sickness, birth, death, and rebirth, he concluded that these are the reality of humankind. He became curious to find these answers of truth.

He also felt that the caste system and ruling of the upper caste in society slowly taking over humanity. He decided to leave the luxurious life for finding these answers of truth. He spent 45 years of life in exile.

Paragraph 4 – 200 Words

Buddhism is a belief of self-awakening and spirituality. Buddhists believe that there are three jewels of life that are the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. “Buddha” means the awakened one. Buddhist devotees say “I take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha”. They find calmness in these jewels.

Tripitaka is the religious Book of Buddhism. It is written in ancient Indian language Pali. Pali is similar to the language that Buddha used to speak. Buddhists worship in temples, Pagodas, or in Buddhist Monastery. Devotees also worship in homes in front of Lord Buddha statue. They meditate in front of the Lord Buddha statue. Wheel, White lotus, and Lord Buddha images are the symbo0ls of Buddhism.

Buddhism followers worship Lord Buddha and meditate. They make floral offerings, candles, incense sticks, holy water at Buddhist temples. They prefer meditating in peace and they chant verses from their holy book. Buddhists visit temples often on Full Moon day (Purnima).

Vesak or Buddha Purnima is the most important festival of Buddhism. Lord Buddha has a divine aura; he was an extraordinary man who was born for a special purpose. According to scholars, Buddhism is not actually a religion or sect but it is a way of life or a spiritual tradition.

Paragraph 5 – 250 Words

Buddhism is predicated on the teachings of Lord Buddha. He was born in the 6th century in an aristocratic family of Kapilvastu. When he was 21 years old, he left his family and went to spend the rest of life in exile. He traveled across India for finding the real meaning of truth, happiness, and the path of self-awakening. After spending six years in exile, He attained self-enlightenment while meditating under Mahabodhi tree. Gautama Buddha attains Nirvana; his disciples began a religious movement across the world.

There are three types of Buddhism, divided by the cultures of different countries. Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Tibetan Buddhism are the type of Buddhism practiced in the world. Buddhism prohibits the killing of living things, lying, consuming drugs or alcohol, etc.

Common Buddhist Practices includes the hearing and learning the Dharma. Buddhism tells us that one should follow the path of humanity and concentrate on the path of self-enlightenment. Buddhism says that anyone can be Buddha, who is achieved enlightenment. The teachings of Buddhism are different and interpreted differently in different parts of the world. Buddhism states that the sufferings of the world are unavoidable.

By following the noble path, one can found a way from these sufferings of the world. The wheel of Dharma represented in Buddhism depicts the eightfold paths of Buddhism i.e. “Right View, Right Thinking, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Diligence, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration”. By that specialize in these paths one should attain enlightenment. Buddhism also says that everyone has an eternal power that can lead them to be their own enlightenment.

FAQs: Frequently Asked Questions

Ans. Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama.

Ans. Buddhism was founded in the late 6th century.

Ans. The population of Buddhists in the World is 535 millions.

Ans. Buddha gave his first sermon in Sarnath Varanasi?

Ans. Bodhi tree is named after Buddha.

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Essay on buddhism.

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Read this essay to learn about Buddhism. After reading this essay you will learn about:- 1. Concept of Buddhism 2. Four Noble Truths of Buddha 3. Impermanence (Anityavada) 4. Schools 5. Causality: Dependent Origination (Pratltyasamutpada) 6. Wheel of Existence (Bhavacakra) 7. Doctrine of No-Self (Anatmavada, Nairatmyavada) 8. Karma 9. Transmigration 10. Atheism 11. Non-Materialism and Other Details.

List of Essays on Buddhism

Essay Contents:

• Essay on the Religion of Buddhism

Essay # 1. Concept of Buddhism:

The Upanishads teach that the eternal Atman or Brahman alone is real. It is the transcendental reality, consciousness and bliss. The Buddha teaches the opposite truth. Everything is impermanent; there is no permanent self. The self is an impermanent mind-body-complex. There is no God as creator of the world. It is self-existent and without beginning or end. It is unsubstantial and soulless.

There are no permanent substances, but only impermanent qualities or phenomena. They are subject to the inexorable law of becoming or depen­dent origination. They are produced by their causes and conditions. The law of causation is subservient to the Moral Law or the Law of Karma.

Life is full of suffering. Suffering is due to craving or will-to-live. Will-to-live is due to ignorance. Ignorance is false knowledge of the impermanent as the permanent. It is delusion of individuality which is the root of the cycle of birth and death.

It cannot be killed by philosophical knowledge. The Buddha adopts anti-metaphysical attitude. There are ten indeterminable questions which are insoluble. Philosophical wrangling is unavailing, for it generates self-conceit and scepticism.

The Buddha’s teachings aim at the total extinction of suffering and attainment of nirvana here on earth. Nirvana is the cooling of passions, perfect peace and perfect enlightenment. The way to nirvana is the eightfold path of right conduct, concentration, and insight.

The delusion of individuality or egoism should be extirpated. When egoism is eradicated, will-to-live or craving is destroyed. When craving is destroyed the round of birth and death is ended, and nirvana is attained. Non-injury (ahimsa) in thought, word, and deed, is the comer-stone of moral life.

Religion of animal sacrifice, ritualism, and ceremonialism condemned. The Buddha teaches neither Being nor Non-Being, but Becoming. He teaches neither self-indulgence nor self-mortification, but the middle path of moderation—right view, right speech, and right conduct. He teaches the religion of ahimsa and self-help.

Essay # 2. Four Noble Truths of Buddha:

The whole of the teachings of the Buddha is summed in the four noble truths:

(i) There is suffering;

(ii) It has a cause;

(iii) It can be stopped;

(iv) There is way to stop it.

Siddhartha or Gautama ( 567 B.C.—487 B.C. ) was over­whelmed with grief at the sight of disease, old age, and death. He was overpowered by abundant misery in the world. He renounced the world to find out the remedy for suffering. He discovered its cause and the way to stop it. He found the way to peace on earth, and preached it to the world. He became enlightened or Buddha.

The first noble truth is suffering. ‘Birth is attended with pain; decay is painful; disease is painful; death is painful. Union with the unpleasant is painful, painful is separation from the pleasant; any craving that is unsatisfied, that too is painful.

In brief, the five aggregates which spring from attachment are painful. The cause and conditions of indivi­duality are painful. The whole world is on fire; where is the scope for merry-making.’ Sensual pleasure is transitory and followed by pain. ‘Sorrow comes from merriment.

Fear comes from merriment.’ The loss of objects of sensual pleasure leads to sorrow. The world is completely unsubstantial, void of being and perpetual becoming. It is afflicted with death and decay, and full of suffering.

Therefore the wise do not grieve, knowing the nature of the world. Mere grieving is unavailing. When a house is on fire it must be extinguished by water. A man, who is pierced by the arrow of grief, must draw it out.

The second noble truth is concerning the origin of suffer­ing. Graving which generates the cycle of birth and death is the cause of suffering. It is threefold:

(i) Craving for sensual pleasures,

(ii) Craving for being, and

(iii) Craving for wealth and power.

‘Verily, it is craving, causing the renewal of existence, accompanied by sensual delight, seeking satisfaction now here, now; there—that is to say, the craving for the gratification of passions, or the craving for a future life, or the craving for success in this present life.

This is the noble truth concerning the origin of suffering. Craving or will-to-live is the cause of suffering. All pain arises from individuality which is due to ignorance (avidya). Ignorance is due to will-to-live which is the root cause of suffering.

The third noble truth is the extinction of suffering. It is complete destruction of craving or will-to-live. Delusion of individuality, desire for mind-body-complex, and egoism are the causes of suffering.

Destruction of egoism and will-to- live leads to extinction of attachment, aversion, delusion, and suffering. Nibbana is the extinction of desire, doubt, and sensual pleasures based on the reflection on nothingness. It is total extinction of suffering, decay, and death. It is grasping at nothing, and possessing nothing.

It is perfect calm and tranquillity undisturbed by desires and passions. it is complete desirelessness. All desires for this life and the next life are extinguished in it. Non-grasping is attained by the knowledge of impermanence and voidness. Nibbana is insuperable, unchangeable, matchless.

The fourth noble truth is the way to the extinction of suffering.

It is the eightfold path:

(i) Right Belief,

(ii) Right Resolve,

(iii) Right Speech,

(iv) Right Conduct,

(v) Right Livelihood,

(vi) Right effort,

(vii) Right mindfulness, and

(viii) Right Concentration.

When the four noble truths are grasped, and craving or will-to-live is extirpated, there is no more birth. The four noble truths are suffering, the origin of suffering, the destruction of suffering, and the eightfold way of destruction of suffering. The eightfold path consists of moral conduct, concentration, and insight. It leads every aspirant to the complete extinction of suffering.

Essay # 3. Impermanence (Anityavada) on Buddhism:

Existence is impermanent. All things, mental and physical, are transitory. Impermanence is the inexorable law of all existence. There are five things which are inevitable. What is subject to old age must grow old.

What is subject to sick­ness must be sick. What is subject to death must die. What is subject to decay must decay. What is liable to pass away must pass away. These cannot be over-ruled by supra-mundane God or by any mundane agency.

There is neither being nor non-being but becoming. Every­thing is becoming, change, flux. It is a phenomenon enduring for a moment and then passing away. It is produced by preceding phenomena, and produces succeeding phenomena. The world is a succession of transient phenomena.

All subs­tances are mere aggregates of impermanent qualities. They are devoid of permanence and substantiality. The world of Becoming is governed by the Law of Causality (pratityasamutpada). It is without beginning or end.

All individuals are series of momentary states of cons­ciousness. There is no permanent soul behind the series of momentary psychoses. There is only succession of momentary mental processes. A past mental process has lived, but it neither lives, nor will it live. A future mental process will live, but it neither lives nor has it lived. A present mental process lives, but it has neither lived, nor will it live.

The life of an individual lasts only while a mental process lasts. An in­dividual is a child, a boy, a youth, a man, an old man. He is a succession of changes with no identity in his body and mind. His body continually changes from one state to another.

His mind also continually changes from one mental process to another. There is continuity but no identity. The changes are causally connected with one another. Each component state is determined by its antecedent conditions.

All existences are essence less and impermanent. This is the universal law. The physical world and the psychical world are devoid of self or essence. They are unsubstantial, transient, and void. All component things are impermanent, unstable, and disintegrating. They are without substance and temporary. Form is impermanent.

The eye is impermanent. Cognition is impermanent. Qualities are impermanent. All conscious and unconscious components are impermanent. They come together, take individual forms, and break up. All components and composite things are impermanent. Animals, gods, men, plants, and inorganic things are all impermanent.

Essay # 4. Schools of Buddhism:

The Hinayana Buddhism gave rise to two main schools, the Vaibhasikas and the Sautrantikas. The Mahayana Buddhism gave rise to two main schools, the Yogacars and the Madhya­mikas. The Vaibhasikas and the Sautrantikas sprang out of the Sarvastivadins. The Sarvastivadins hold that everything exists. The elements, mental and physical, are real.

The Vaibhasikas hold that external objects are real and perceptible. The Sautrantikas hold that external objects are real and inferable. The Yogacaras hold that external objects are non­existent, and are mere cognitions. The Madhyamikas deny the absolute reality of external objects and subjective cognitions, and regard them as essenceless, but they affirm the reality of the Sunya.

The Sunya is not void or nothing, but predicate-less Absolute. The Vaibhasikas and the Sautrantikas are realists. The Yogacaras are idealists (vijnavadins). The Madhyamikas are Sunyavadins. They are not Nihilists but phenomena-lists and Absolutists.

Vaibhasika:

The Vaibhasikas recognize the reality of mind and matter. Mind is composed of elements. Matter is composed of elements. There is no permanent soul. Existence is either transient or eternal. Space and Nirvana are eternal. The elements of matter, mind, and forces are transient and pheno­menal. The elements of phenomenal reality are past, present, and future. The past and the future elements are as real as the present ones.

There are only four elements—earth, water, fire, and air. Earth is hard; water is cool; fire is warm; and air is mobile. Ether is not recognized as an element. External objects are aggregates of atoms. An atom has six sides. It is invisible, inaudible, intangible, untestable, and indivisible. Atoms cannot penetrate one another. The perceptible atom is an aggregate of imperceptible atoms.

The Vaibhasikas criticize the Sautrantika doctrine of infer-ability of external objects from their cognitions as contra a External objects are interred from their cognitions, then there are no objects of perception.

There is therefore no observation of invariable concomitance (vyapti) of the middle term with the major term, which is the ground of inference. Hence inference is not possible. This contradicts all actual experience.

The Sautrantika position is not tenable. There are two kinds of objects. Some are apprehended by indeterminate perception, and others are apprehended by determinate perception. Indeterminate perception is free from conceptual construction.

Determinate perception is perception wrought up by conceptual construction, which is therefore not valid. The validity of inference can be tested by fruitful action. The Vaibhasikas recognize the reality of external objects, and regard them as objects of perception. They advocate direct realism.

Sautrantika:

The sautrantikas are representationists. They advocate indirect realism. They recognize the reality of external objects.

But they regard them as objects of inference on the following grounds:

(i) External objects produce their cognitions, and imprint their forms on them. The forms of cognitions are similar to those of external objects. When cognitions come into being, their objects have ceased to be. Present cognitions cannot perceive past objects.

Therefore external objects are inferred from their cognitions. The forms of objects are inferred from those of their cognitions. Cognitions are copies or representations of their objects, which are their archetypes.

(ii) Cognitions are formless and homogeneous. They are diversified by their objects. Different external objects produce different cognitions, and impress their forms on them, which are perceived. The internal forms of cognitions are representations of the external forms of objects. We infer external objects from their cognitions. If there were no objects, there would be no diversity of cognitions.

(iii) The object-cognitions appear at certain times only, while the subject-cognitions are uniformly present. The Alayavijnana is of the nature of subject-cognitions. But the object-cognitions are of the nature of ‘this’. The stream of subject-cognitions is uniformly present. But the object-cognitions appear and disappear at certain times. Therefore they must be produced by external objects.

(iv) External objects exist and produce perceptions of colours, sounds, tastes, odours, temperatures, pressures, pleasure and pain. Perceptions are produced by external objects, which are their basic condition.

The Sautrantika criticizes the Yogacara Vijnanavada in the following manner. The Yogacara denies the reality of external objects, and reduces them to cognitions. This position is not tenable.

(i) The Yogacara argues that an external object (e.g., blue) and its cognition (e.g., cognition of blue) are invariably perceived at the same time. The external object can never be perceived apart from its dognition. So the object is identical with its cognition.

But this argument is wrong. A cognition and its object are necessarily experienced together. The cognition is the experience of its object. But this does not prove that cognition is identical with its object.

(ii) An object is different from its cognition. The cognition is internal or subjective, while the object is external or objective. The object is independent of its cognition. They cannot always be referred to the same time and the same space. Therefore they are different from each other.

(iii) If an object were a mere cognition, it would be apprehended as T, and not as ‘this’, But a blue object is never perceived as ‘I am blue’, but as ‘this is blue’. It is ‘given’ or not-self. It is not a mode of the self.

(iv) The Yogacara argues that an internal cognition appears to be an external object owing to illusion, though it does not exist. The distinction of cognition and object is illusory. Cognition alone is real. The Sautrantika urges that if external objects are absolutely non-existent, an internal cognition cannot appear to be an external object. It would be as absurd as to say ‘Vasubandhu looks like the son of a barren mother.’ The illusion of external it presupposes valid knowledge of externality somewhere. The sense of externality can never be produced by mere subjective cognitions.

(v) The Yogacara argues that an object is identical with its cognition because the appearance of distinction between them is illusory. Again, the distinction between cognition and its object is illusory because they are, in reality, identical with each other. The argument involves vicious circle.

(vi) External objects are actually perceived by us. We undoubtedly perceive them, and react to them. We pass over the cognitions of external objects. So it is wrong to argue that internal cognitions appear to be external objects.

(vii) The Yogacara argues that a variety of object-cognitions is due to the variety subconscious impressions (vasana) within the stream of cognitions. The instinctive roots of ignorance imbedded in the subject-cognitions from beginning less time generate a variety of perceptions of sense-data.

The beginning-less uninterrupted stream of impressions of difference is the cause of the variety of perceptions of difference. But subcons­cious impressions can produce recollections only.

They cannot produce perceptions of external objects. The series of subject- cognitions in an individual is always present with impressions deposited in it. The subject-cognitions with the impressions being always present, the perceptions of objects would be al­ways present. But in fact, object-cognitions appear at certain times and disappear at other times. Therefore they cannot be generated by impressions.

Doctrine of Momentariness:

The Sautrantika developed the doctrine of impermanence into the ontological doctrine of momentariness. All schools of later Buddhism believed in the doctrine of momentariness.

The Vaibhasikas believed in the reality of the eternal elements and their momentary manifestations. The Sautrantikas rejected the eternal elements and advanced the following arguments to prove the momentariness of all existence. Whatever is existent is momentary like a mass of clouds.

Existence consists in causal efficiency or production of effects. Causes produce their effects either simultaneously or successively. Only moment­ary causes can produce their effects either simultaneously or successively.

Permanent entities are not capable of simultane­ous or successive production of effects, since the alternatives cannot be proved. When a permanent entity produces its effects at the present time, it has capacity of producing its effects in the past and the future. If it has the capacity, it must produce past and future effects in the present moment, since what is capable of producing an effect at a particular time must produce it at that time.

If it has not the capacity, it can never produce past and future effects, for what does not produce an effect at a particular time is not capable of produc­ing it at that time. A piece of stone can never produce a sprout.

A permanent entity does not produce past and future effects at the present moment. So it is not capable of producing them at present. Capacity of production and production of effects must go together. Causal efficiency cannot exist without pro­duction.

If a permanent entity is said to produce its effects in succession with the help of concomitant conditions, the latter render an aid to the permanent entity or not. If they do not, they are unnecessary, and can be dispensed with. If they do, the aid is different or non-different from the permanent’ entity.

If the aid is different from it, then the adventitious aid should be regarded as the cause, and not the permanent entity, because wherever the adventitious aid is present the effect is present and wherever it is absent the effect is absent.

If it is urged that a per­manent entity by its very nature produces its effect only when the concomitant conditions co-operate with it, then it can never be separated from the concomitant conditions in order to produce its effect because it can never be divested of its nature.

Further, the aid (atisaya) produced by the concomitant conditions produces another aid or not. If it produces another aid, it will require other concomitant conditions, and so on, and aid, then the permanent entity in co-operation with the con­comitant conditions acquires an aid and produces an effect.

If the permanent entity does not require the help of concomitant conditions, then the aid will always be present, and will always produce the effect. But it is contradicted by experience.

Then the aid, though it depends on the permanent entity for the production of the effect, produces the effect independently of the permanent cause (e.g., a seed) or as dependent on it. On the first alternative, the seed would not be the cause of a sprout. On the second alternative, there will be infinite regress.

The aid will produce another aid in the permanent cause, and so on to infinity. If the aid is non-different from the perma­nent cause, then the so-called permanent cause ceases to be permanent, since it was devoid of aid before and it now acquires aid. A permanent cause is incapable of causal efficiency.

A permanent entity cannot produce its effect simultane­ously. If it produces its effect simultaneously, it persists after production of its effect or does not. If it persists in future, then it will continue to produce the effect which it has already produced. But the effect which has already been produced need not be produced again.

If the permanent cause does not persist after production of its effect, then it cannot be said to be permanent. Those entities are different from each other, which are endued with contradictory attributes like heat and cold.

It cannot be argued that a permanent entity has capacity to produce its effect at one time, and has no capacity to pro­duce it at another time, since what produces an effect at a particular time possesses the capacity to produce it at that time, and what is incapable of producing an effect at a parti­cular time does not produce it at that time.

A stone can never produce a sprout at any time. Thus a permanent entity cannot produce its effect simultaneously or in succession. Only momentary entities are capable of causal efficiency. All existence is momentary, and consists in causal efficiency, which exists in momentary entities only. Permanent entities are incapable of causal efficiency.

We attribute identity to a continuous series of similar momentary things. Identity is an illusion produced by similarity and continuity of a series of momentary entities. There is no identity or permanence of an external thing.

The flame of a lamp appears to be the same, though it changes from moment to moment. The stream of water appears to be the same, though it changes every moment. All objects of the world are undergoing destruction every moment. But they appear to persist owing to illusion.

‘The Sautrantikas laid stress on the conception of the self as a series of momentary cognitions. There is no permanent self behind the continuous series of momentary cognitions. The preceding cognition leaves an impression which modifies the succeeding cognition.

There is transference of impression from one cognition to another, which accounts for memory. Memory does not require a permanent self which is the substratum of impressions, and which recollects an object perceived in the past.

A future member of the same series of cognitions remembers a past momentary object perceived by a past member of the same series. Recognition is a collection of perception and recollection.

It does not presuppose a permanent self; nor does it apprehend a permanent object such as ‘this is that Devadatta’. The stream of momentary cognitions can account for memory and recognition both. Thus neither the self nor an external object is permanent and identical. Both are series of momentary entities.

Yogacara Vijnana Vada:

The Yogacaras do not recognize the reality of external objects. They reduce them to cognitions. Therefore they are called Vijnanavadins. The Lankavatarasutra regards external objects as unreal and false like dreams, day-dreams, illusions, and hallucinations. It regards them as transformations of the Alayavijnana, the cosmic mind, which is stirred up into the waves of mental modes.

Object-cognitions are the modes of the cosmic mind. There are no objects apart from cognitions. When they are examined by the intellect, they are found to be indefinable and essenceless. Object-cognilions arise from the Alayavijnana or receptacle consciousness.

Vasubandhu (500 A.D.) recognizes the reality of conscious­ness (vijnapti) only, which manifests non-existent objects like the illusory hair and double moon. Objects are self-creations of thought. The cosmic mind transforms itself, on the one hand, into different subjects, and into different objects, on the other.

All dharma’s, subjective and objective, are fruitions of the seeds or dispositions conserved in the Alayavijnana. One pure consciousness (vijnapti matra) is the ground of the all-conser­ving mind. There are no external objects. They are transfor­mations of the Alayavijnana into the form of knowable objects.

Dharmakirti reduces the so-called external objects to sense- data which are nothing but sensations. When we perceive an object, we perceive only its colour, length, breadth, thickness, weight, smoothness and the like sensible qualities. We can never perceive or infer the object apart from the sense-data.

We never perceive it as an external object. We perceive only colours, sounds, tastes, smells, temperatures and pressures through the sense-organs. These sense-cognitions are elaborated by the mind (manas) which reflects upon them.

Neither the mind nor the sense-organs perceive the external objects. They are nothing but cognitions. When we examine them thoroughly, they disappear into nothingness; only their cognitions are left behind.

Feelings of pleasure and pain are felt by the mind as subjective mental modes. Even the so-called external objects are forms of cognitions. The apprehending cognition and the apprehended object, subject and object, are the forms of cognition which is one and self-identical.

The distinction of subject and object falls within cognition. The object is not outside cognition. Subject does not exist without object. Object does not exist without subject. They are inseparable from each other. They are forms or aspects of the same cognition. Cognition is the only reality. It is in its essential nature formless. But it assumes the forms of subject and object, cognitional forms and object-forms.

Object-cognitions are due to the revival of the subconscious impressions deposited in the mind. They are not excited by external objects. Vijnana is the only reality. The inner and the outer are its forms. The distinction of subject and object is illusory. We stick to it for the practical purposes of our life. The distinction is not real.

Santaraksita gives the following arguments for the non­existence of external objects:

(i) A cognition is self-aware. Its essential nature consists in self-awareness. It reveals itself and does not apprehend an external object. It is not apprehended by the permanent self, since it is non-existent. There is neither a permanent self nor an external object. There is only a series of self-aware cognitions. Cognitions manifest themselves as cognitions of blue, yellow, and the like, though there are no external objects.

(ii) An object is said to be unconscious, and material, while a cognition is conscious and mental. There is no relation of identity or causation between them. A cognition is not identical with an object. It cannot generate an object; nor can an object generate a cognition. Hence a cognition can never apprehend an external object.

(iii) Illusory cognitions arise .owing to ignorance (avidya), which reveal unreal forms, though there are no external objects corresponding to them.

(iv) The Sautrantika holds that an external object imprints its form on the cognition produced by it so that there is similarity between the form of the cognition and the form of the object. If there is complete similarity between them, the cognition is unconscious like its object. If there is partial similarity between them, the part of the cognition which is not similar to its object apprehends it.

Therefore every cognition can apprehend every object. Further, a uniform cognition apprehends a multiform object. An un­expended cognition apprehends an extended object. Therefore there is no correspondence between a cognition and its object Even a cognition with a form cannot apprehend an external object.

(v) A cognition with a different form cannot appre­hend an external object. If a cognition with one form appre­hended an object with another form, then every cognition would apprehend every object, and a particular cognition would not be necessary to apprehend a particular object. There­fore a cognition can never apprehend an external object either with or without its form or with another form. So the cogni­tion alone is the only reality.

(vi) The cognized object (‘blue’) and the cognition (of ‘blue’) are invariably apprehended together. Therefore they are identical with each other.

(vii) There is no evidence for the existence of an external object. It cannot be perceived by a formless cognition or by a cognition with a form. A formless cognition cannot come into relation with an object. A cognition invested with the form of an object perceives its own form. It does not perceive the form of its object. So an external object cannot be perceived.

Nor can it be inferred from the harmony between it and the cognition. Harmony means either the capacity for leading to the attain­ment of the object or the capacity for fruitful actions. The external object can never be attained because it is non-existent. Cognitions can lead to fruitful actions. Therefore an external object cannot be inferred.

(vii) Even if an external object exists, it must be perceived either as an aggregate of atoms or as a complex whole made of atoms or as a gross object not composed of atoms. The first alternative is not tenable. Atoms are imperceptible. Only gross objects are perceived.’ Atoms cannot produce the cognition of a gross object.

The second alternative cannot be maintained. The external object cannot be a complex whole made of atoms. The relation between the whole and the parts cannot be explained. The third alternative also is untenable. The external object cannot be a gross object not composed of atoms. Its nature cannot be defined. So it does not exist. It is an unreal appearance. Hence cognition is the only reality.

All the arguments mentioned above tend to show that the Yogacara Vijnanavada was subjective idealism. But some Vijnanavadins believed in Tathata, Sunyata, or the Absolute, and the Alayavijnana. The Alayavijnana is the cosmic mind, which is expressed in individual minds also. Cognitions and objects are transformations of the cosmic mind, Alayavijnana.

Vasuvandhu recognized the reality of one eternal pure con­sciousness (vijnaptimatrata). The Alayavijnana is superimposed on it. Subjective cognitions and objective phenomena are its transformations. Vasubandhu’s Vijnanavada is absolute idealism.

Asanga ( 500 A.D. ) believed in Suchness ( Tathata ). It is the eternal reality, and exists in the past, the present, and the future. It is neither born nor modified. It is unchangeable, immutable, and eternal. It is the supreme reality, the essence of all beings. It is uncaused, unconditioned, necessary, and absolute. It is the essence of the whole universe, its noume­non.

It is inseparable from the empirical world of phenomena which are its manifestations. Phenomena cannot exist apart from their noumenon or Suchness. It is grasped by absolute knowledge which is supernormal. The Yogacara Vijnana-vadin believed in the existence of the absolute reality, Tathata, and advocated absolutistic monism.

Madhyamika Sunyavada:

The Madhyamikas regard external objects and subjective cognitions to be equally essenceless with the Sunya as their eternal basis. The Yogacaras recognize the existence of Tathata, and identify it with Sunyata. They stress the sub­jectivity of the external world.

Therefore they are called Vijnanavadins. The Madhyamikas regard subjects and objects as relative and conditional, and therefore essenceless. They posit the reality of the Sunya which is the eternal and absolute reality. It is predicate-less and not void or nothingness.

Nagarjuna ( 200 A.D. ) was one of the greatest philosophers in ancient India. He was a great dialectician, and showed by his dialectics that all categories of thought were self-discrepant and therefore relative, essenceless, or ultimately unreal.

Subject and object, substance and quality, whole and part, cause and effect, time, space, relation, compounded and uncompounded dharma’s, change, motion, rest, self-nature, other-nature, knowledge, self, God, samsara, and nirvana are self-discrepant and therefore relative or ultimately unreal. The nature of substance, relation and self is considered here.

Substance does not exist apart from qualities. Qualities do not exist apart from substance. Substance is a mere aggregate of qualities. Substance and qualities are correlative to each other. Colour, sound, taste, smell, heat and cold are mere sensations which depend upon the eyes, the ears, the tongue, the nose, and the skin. They are meaningless apart from the sense-organs.

They are mere sense experiences. We do not know the real nature of a substance. Substance is a mere relation that harmonizes its qualities with one another. All relations are transient and unreal. Substance and quality are relative to each other, and therefore unreal. Substance is regarded as a mere collection of qualities from the conventional point of view. It is not an ontological reality.

The world is said to be a net-work of relations. But relations are unintelligible. Relation can exist between two distinct things. But they are not distinct from each other. A thing which is produced by another thing, cannot exist apart from it. A sprout cannot exist apart from a seed. The sprout is not therefore distinct from the seed. They are not distinct from each other.

So they cannot be related to each other. No two things are ultimately distinct from each other. There­fore they cannot be related to each other. If, again, two things are distinct from each other, they cannot be related to each other.

Two self-existent and unrelated things cannot be related to each other. If the distinctness of A is independent of B, then the distinctness of B also is indepen­dent of A. A and B are independent of each other.

If two things are identical with each other, they cannot be related to each other. Identity and relation cannot exist together. Therefore there are no relations and relative. Relations are unintelligible and phenomenal. They are not ultimately real.

Is the self identical with, or different from, the five aggregates? If the self is identical with the five aggregates, then it is subject to origin and destruction. If it is different from them, then it cannot be characterized by the five aggre­gates.

The self and the aggregates are related to each other as subject and object, and therefore cannot be identical with each other. Subject and object must be distinct from each other. If the self does not exist, the mental aggregates cannot be said to belong to it.

The aggregates are due to egoism which is not absolutely real. Egoism is destroyed when the aggregates are known to be unreal. When egoism is destroyed, the aggregates are no longer generated. The consciousness is not the self; the self is not endued with consciousness; there is no self in consciousness; there is no consciousness in the self.

Body, perception, feeling, disposition, and consciousness cannot exist in the self; nor can the self-exist in them. The aggregates are soulless. The self is soulless. They have no core of reality in them. The Buddha has taught neither the existence nor the non-existence of the self or ego.

The Madhyamika rejects the plurality of external objects and internal cognitions because of their relativity, and posits the existence of the unique, indefinable Essence of Being, the One-without-a-second. All the elements have relative and contingent reality.

The Sunya only has absolute reality. Nagarjuna’s doctrine is the middle path between existence and non-existence, between essencelessness and essence of being. Sunyata is not produced by other causes; it is absolute calm; it is one and apprehended by supra-intellectual intuition.

All dharma’s are essenceless, relative and contin­gent. They are in their essence inexpressible. They are manifested as calm and pure in the state of enlightenment. The reality has been called Sunya in order to refute all other views.

But those who cling to the view of Sunyata are incurable. Nagarjuna uses the word Sunyata in two senses the relative and the Absolute. All dharma’s are relative (sunya) but they are grounded in the Absolute (sunya).

Relativism is not the absolute truth. The relative is the way to the Absolute, which cannot be attained without the help of the relative. Nirvana cannot be attained without knowing the Absolute. Though the relative has been branded as unreal like an illusion, yet it has some reality.

It has contingent and empirical reality which can serve the practical purposes of our life. It is unreal in relation to the Absolute. The Absolute is inexpressible. It can be described by imputed characters only.

All relative and contingent pheno­mena become extinct in the Absolute. It cannot be called sunya or asunya, or both, or neither; but it is called sunya in order to indicate its nature. The Absolute is neither existent, nor non-existent, nor both, nor neither. It is beyond these four empirical categories .

It is the transcen­dent, unconditioned, absolute ground of the empirical world of phenomena. Nagarjuna is not a mere relativist, pheno­menalism or sceptic. He is an Absolutist, monist, mystic and intuitionist. Intellect gives an empirical world of relativity and plurality.

Intuition gives the noumenon or the Absolute One which is the ultimate truth of all phenomena. Nagarjuna is not a negativist or a nihilist. Only he does not in any way characterize the Absolute.

Essay # 5. Causality: Dependent Origination (Pratltyasamutpada) of Buddhism:

‘Whatever exists arises from causes and conditions, and is in every respect impermanent’. All existence is impermanent becoming. All becoming is subject to the Law of Causation. Causation is dependent origination. “I will teach you the Dhamma,” says the Buddha, “that being present, this becomes; from the arising of that, this arises. That being absent, this does not become; from the cessation of that, this ceases.”

Pratltyasamutpada means arising (samutpada) after getting (pratitya). It means the production of an effect out of a com­plement of cause and conditions. When the cause and condi­tions disappear, the effect appears. The effect emerges from effect emerges.

The cause cannot continue in the effect. They cannot be synchronous. The cause must be prior to the effect. The effect arises from an aggregate of cause and conditions. A seed is the cause of a plant. But soil, water, light, and manure are its conditions.

A distinction is made between a cause (hetu) and a condition (pratyaya). The former is the principal cause, and the latter is a concomitant condition. One cause cannot produce an effect. It must be aided by other concomitant conditions to produce it. An effect arises from a cause and a complement of co-operating conditions.

The law of causality or dependent origination applies to the past, the present, and the future. It is without beginning or end. It is applicable to all composite entities, mental and physical. It is not applicable to non-composite entities like space, since they are eternal. The cause transmits its causal energy to its effect.

Causation is development or transformation. There is no immanent causality, in which a substance appears to be manifested as its qualities. Causation is dynamic, not static. Static view of causation is erroneous. The world-process is an active self- development.

The doctrine of dependent origination is opposed to acci­dentalism which denies the law of causality, and regards an event as an accidental happening. It is opposed to naturalism which ascribes an effect to its own inherent nature. It is opposed to fatalism which regards all things, good and bad, as pre-determined by Fate. It is opposed to supernaturalism. An event is not generated by the supernatural intervention of God.

It is produced by an antecedent natural event. Accidentalism and naturalism were advocated by materialists. Supernaturalism was advocated by Brahmanism. All existences, physical and psychical, according to Buddhism, are subject to the law of universal causation.

All that exist, are produced. Existence is becoming or production. Nothing is uncaused and eternal. All are in the grip of causality/There is no transcendental cause or first cause of the world.

Essay # 6. Wheel of Existence (Bhavacakra) on Buddhism:

The Buddha says, “He who knows dependent origination, knows dharma. He who knows dharma, knows dependent origination. The five aggregates of material form or body, feeling, perception, disposition, and self-consciousness originate from their causes and conditions”.

An empirical individual is an aggregate of five groups of body, feeling, perception, disposition, and self-consciousness. The mind-body-complex is produced by ailments. ‘Ailment is caused by craving. Craving is caused by feeling. Feeling is caused by contact. Contact is caused by five sense-organs and mind. They are caused by mind and body.

They are caused by consciousness. Consciousness is caused by dispositions. Dispositions are caused by ignorance. The twelve members in the chain of causation are stated thus: ‘By reason of ignorance dispositions by reason of dispositions consciousness; by reason of cons­ciousness mind-body-complex; by reason of mind-body-complex contact; by reason of contact feeling; by reason of feeling craving ; by reason of craving grasping ; by reason of grasping becoming ; by reason of becoming birth ; by reason of birth old age and death and grief.’

By the destruction of ignorance, the dispositions are destroyed; by the destruction of the dispositions, consciousness is destroyed; by the destruction of consciousness, mind- body-complex is destroyed; by the destruction of mind- body-complex, the six sense-organs are destroyed; by the destruction of the six sense-organs, contact is destroyed; by the destruction of contact, feeling is destroyed ; by the destruction of feeling, craving is destroyed; by the destruction of craving grasping is destroyed; by the destruction of grasp­ing, becoming or will-to-be-born is destroyed; by the destruc­tion of becoming, birth is destroyed; by the destruction of birth, old age and death and; grief are destroyed.

(i) Ignorance,

(ii) Disposition,

(iii) Consciousness,

(iv) Mind body-complex,

(v) Six sense-organs,

(vi) Contact,

(vii) Feeling,

(viii) Craving,

(ix) Grasping,

(x) Becoming,

(xi) Birth, and

(xii) Old age and death are the twelve links in the chain of causation.

Ignorance (avidya) is the root cause of suffering. It gives rise to birth and death. It is the false sense of individuality. It is knowledge of the impermanent series of mental and bodily processes as the permanent self. It generates dispositions. The dispositions of ignorance in the past life produce an initial consciousness in the embryo. This cons­ciousness generates the new mind-body-complex.

If consciousness did not enter into the womb, mind-body-complex would not arise in the womb. The mind-body-complex produces the five external sense-organs and the internal organ or mind. They produce sense-contact with sensible objects or qualities.

The sense-contact produces feeling due to sense-experience. The feeling produces craving. Craving produces grasping or clinging to objects. Grasping produces becoming or will-to-be-born. The will-to-be-born in the present life produces rebirth in the future life. Rebirth produces old age and death.

The “cycle of birth and death moves in this manner. The twelve links in the chain of causation are:

(i) Ignorance, and

(ii) Dispositions belonging to the past life,

(iii) Initial consciousness,

(iv) Mind-body- complex,

(ix) Grasping, and

(x) Will-to-be-born belonging to the present life,

(xi) Rebirth,

(xii) Old age and death belonging to the future life. Thus the twelve links extend to three lives, the past, the present, and the future.”

Essay # 7. Doctrine of No-Self (Anatmavada, Nairatmyavada) on Buddhism:

“Look upon the world,” says the Buddha, “as void, having destroyed the view of oneself as really existing, so one may overcome death; the king of death will not see him who thus regards the world.”

The doctrine of No-self means two things:

(i) The self is an aggregate of impermanent mental and bodily processes;

(ii) The world is unsubstantial and void; it is an aggregate of impermanent qualities devoid of substances.

The self is impermanent. It is an aggregate. It is a series of successive mental and bodily processes which are imperma­nent. There is no permanent self. The self is a stream of cognitions (vijanasantana). There is a continuity of constantly changing mental processes in it. Sometimes they are intermittent.

So the self is sometimes compared to sleep and dream. The course of organic life is compared to dreamless sleep, in which consciousness is evoked by external stimuli, which is compared to dream. Conscious processes break in upon the stream of the subconscious processes.

The self is an aggregate of body and four kinds of mental processes, feeling, perception, dis­position, and self-consciousness. The body is not permanent. It is an aggregate of vital organs and their functions. It is an aggregate of changing qualities.

The Buddha is emphatic on the denial of the permanent self in the following texts.

‘The world is empty of a self, or of anything of the nature of a self. The five seats of the five senses, and the mind, and the feeling that is related to mind: all these are void of a self or of anything that is self-like.’ “When one says ‘I’, he refers either to all the aggregates combined or any one of them and deludes himself that that was T. One could not say that the body was T or that the feeling was T- or any other aggregate was ‘I’.

There is nowhere to be found in the aggregates ‘I am’. ‘Since neither self nor aught belonging to self can really and truly exist, the view that holds that this I who am world, who am self, shall hereafter live permanent, persisting, eternal, unchang­ing, abide eternally; is not this utterly and entirely a foolish doctrine ?’ ‘This self of mine is the knower, the enjoyer of the fruits of my good and bad actions: it is eternal and immutable, it will continue for infinite time: this thought is very childish’, ‘The body is not-self j feeling is self; perception is not-self ; disposition is not-self ; self-conscious­ness is not-self. All dharmas are not-self’.

The five aggregates are impermanent. They are not the so-called permanent self. Belief in permanent self is a wrong view of the self (satkayadrsti). The last text does not mean that the self is eternal and transcendental. It clearly means that the five aggregates constitute the not-self. There is no permanent self. The self is an empirical aggregate. There is no self beyond them. This is the unique and original teaching of the Buddha.

Once the Buddha kept silent on the existence or non­existence of the self. The wandering monk Vacchagotta said, “Is there the ego?” Buddha was silent. Again he said “Is there not the ego?” Still Buddha kept silent.

When the monk departed, the Buddha said to Ananda that the affirmative answer would lead to externalism (sasvatavada), and that the negative answer would lead to annihilationist (ucchedavada) But both are wrong views.

The ego or self is not eternal nor is the self-non-existent. If the self is non-existent, there can be no transmigration and reaping of the fruits of actions. The truth lies in the middle of the two extreme views. The phenomenal or empirical self exists.

The doctrine of No-self means also that the world is unsubstantial and soulless. All external things are aggregates of changing qualities. There is no permanent substance apart from impermanent qualities. The permanent identical substance is a fiction of the imagination. All forms of existence, material and psychical, are impermanent and soulless. They are subject to the inexorable law of becoming.

Essay # 8. Karma of Buddhism:

Brahmanism makes too much of the permanent self. Buddhism puts impermanent dharma in its place. It stresses energy, effort, endeavour. Will is the man. Will is the man in action. The Buddha says, “Very pure will we become in deed, word, thought.

We will neither exalt the self nor despise the other man.” ‘Rouse thyself by thyself, examine thyself by thyself; thus self-protected and attentive wilt thou live happily, O Bhiksu!’

‘For self is the lord of self, self is the refuge of self; therefore curb thyself as the merchant curbs a good horse. Self is the lord of self, who else could be the lord ? With self well subdued, a man finds a lord such as few can find’.” Thus Buddhism emphasizes the freedom of the will. Is it consistent with the empirical conception of the self as the collection of the five aggregates?

In the empirical self some part may be regarded as dominant and others as domina­ted by it. The will is the dominant element in the indivi­dual. Sometimes the intellect is compared to the guardian of a city, who, standing at the cross roads, controls the traffic. Intellect is will. Intellect is the theoretical aspect of will. Will is the practical aspect of intellect.

Buddhism lays great stress on the freedom of the will, moral effort, energy, and activity. We are the masters of our own destiny. We make ourselves pure by our own free good volitions and actions. We make ourselves impure by our own free bad volitions and actions. Man is the architect of his own destiny. He can work out his own salvation by free moral actions. ‘Work out your salvation with diligence.

Beings are owners of their actions, heirs of their actions; their actions are their matrix their actions are their lineage, and by their actions are they established. Man is what he has made himself. His past actions are the determinant of what he is, as his present actions of what he will be.

Man is the builder of his own character and destiny. The past self is wrought up into the present self. The future self is a pro­jection of the present self. The self never is, but is always becoming, evolving, to experience the fruits of its free actions- in future lives. The self is not static, but fluid.

Our happiness is the result of our past good deeds. Our misery is the result of our past evil deeds. Our past good and evil actions in this life or the past life have brought about our present weal or woe. They are not caused by capricious Deity, the decree of an inexorable Fate, or blind chance.

They are the inevitable results of our past free actions. Whatever a man does through his body, speech, or thought, are to be called his own for they follow him when he departs from his life like a shadow that leaves him not. Action (karma) is the con­necting link between one life of an individual and another.

Law of Karma (Dhamma):

All phenomena, mental and material, are subject to the law of dependent origination, which is subservient to the Law of Karma. The Buddha says, “By Karma the world exists, by Karma mankind exists; beings are bound by Karma as the linchpin of a chariot keeps the wheel on.”

The variety in the world is due to Karma. The whole world with all its variety is the combined effect of the acts of all beings. The Law of Karma governs all physical and mental phenomena. It is the supreme, impersonal law of moral causation to which physical Causation is subservient.

Sometimes the Law of Karma is called ‘Dhamma’ which applies to the chain of causation, the wheel of existence, progress of an individual to enlightenment, and whatever is righteous or good. Sometimes ‘Dhamma’ means cause or ground, truth or reality, Good immanent in the world, and Moral Law immanent in it.

Essay # 9. Transmigration of Buddhism:

Action (karma) leads to rebirth. There is no transmigration of a permanent soul from one body to another. There is mere con­tinuity of the same series of mental processes. The last mental act ceases, and transmits its causal energy to the first mental act in a new embryonic germ-cell.

The last conscious act dies away, another conscious act arises in a new organism. This is called rebirth. There is neither absolute identity nor absolute differ­ence the fruit arises in the same psychical series in which the act was done.

The child is trained; the youth reaps its fruits. The child and the youth are neither absolutely identical with, nor absolutely different from, each other. In rebirth there is ‘transmigration of character’ in the words of Rhys Davids, from the last conscious act in one life to the first conscious act in the next life.

Moral responsibility attaches to the same series.The Buddha says, “To say ‘one acts, another reaps the fruits of those acts’, is not true. And to say ‘one and the same both acts and is affected by the result’ is not true. I teach a Midway between both extremes, to wit, the doctrine of Becoming by way of Cause.”

The Buddha explains transmigration by the example of the flame of a lamp. A lamp burns throughout the night. But the flame of light does not remain the same throughout. There is a continuous change in the flame; there is no identity -in the flame but continuity in the different flames of light of the lamp.

Similarly, the last flash of consciousness of a person in one life goes out, and it kindles the first flash of consciousness in the embryo in the next life. The psychical series continues uninterrupted, but its members continually change, appearing for a moment and then disappearing.

The Buddha explains transmigration by the example of the different modifications of milk. Milk is modified into curds; curds are transformed into butter; butter is converted into melted butter. The same series continues, but its members continue changing. There is unbroken continuity in the series but no permanent identity.

Similarly, the psychic series conti­nues in transmigration, but there is no identity of the perma­nent soul. The first conscious act in the new birth is produced by the last conscious act in the preceding birth, which is modi­fied by the accumulated dispositions’ of all the psychoses of this birth. Thus there is transmigration of the impermanent psychical series, though there is no identity of the permanent soul.

Essay # 10. Atheism of Buddhism:

The whole universe of phenomena is subject to the law of dependent origination. Material and mental phenomena, plants, animals, men, and gods are subject to origin and des­truction. They are determined by their causes and conditions. The Buddha ridicules the conception of God, who is said to be the eternal and immutable creator of the universe which is temporary, perishing and mutable.

Brahma, the first created being, may think owing to delusion that he is the omniscient and omnipotent Creator of the universe, past, present, and future. But, in fact, he is as subject to origin and destruction as any other effect.

None among the Brahmanans versed in the three Vedas has actually seen Brahma, the Creator, but everybody has heard it from others, who, in their turn, have heard it from others, and so on. Tradition is no argument for the existence of God, The blind are misled by the blind.

The variety in the world is due to karma. All things are transformations. There is neither creation nor destruction. The world has neither beginning nor end. All phenomena in the world are caused by other phenomena, which, in their turn are caused by other phenomena. Nothing is self-caused and uncaused. Every phenomenon in the universe, physical, organic, or mental, is determined by a number of conditions.

The whole universe is a chain of causally connected phenomena, which is not determined by anything beyond the series of phenomena. The contingent world is not determined by a necessary Being which transcends the phenomena.

There is no intervention of a supernatural Being or God in the phenomenal series of causes and effects. Phenomena are not determined by their nature nor are they predetermined by Fate; nor are they produced by accident. All phenomena are determined by the totality of antecedent conditions on which they are dependent.

Physical causation, organic causation, mental causation, and moral causation are parts of the Dhamma or the Law. There is no room for God. Without beginning and end is this world-process. There is no First Cause.

We experience no absolute beginning and absolute end. Dependent origination is without beginning or end. It has no Lord presiding over it. It has no Soul to inspire it. The cosmological argument for the existence of God is invalid.

It may be urged that every law has a law-giver. The law of dependent origination must be supervised by God. But this is wrong. The causal order is there. It is not intended or designed by God. It is the observed causal sequence of pheno­mena in the world.

It is not caused or designed by God. There is no purpose in nature. There is no conscious agent who adapts the phenomena -of the world with a purpose. The teleological argument for the existence of God is invalid.

Essay # 11. Non-Materialism:

Though the Buddha denies the existence of the permanent self and God or the Creator of the world, he is not a materialist. He does not reduce the mental processes to the material elements. He does not identify the soul with the body. Nor does he regard it as quite distinct from the body.

Is the soul identical with, or distinct from, the body?

It is an indeterminable question. If it is quite distinct from the body and eternal and immutable, it cannot be purified by moral conduct, concentration, and insight. This conception is subversive of morality. If, on the other hand, it is identical with the body, it is dissolved with the body, and cannot reap the fruits of its actions. The Buddha believes in the Law of Karma, future life, and transmigration.

He believes in the complete extinction of suffering and achievement of perfect peace here on earth. Thus he rejects materialism and accepts payasi who holds that there is neither future life, nor reaping of fruits of good and bad actions, nor rebirth of souls.

Early Buddhism admits the reality of four permanent elements—earth, water, fire, and air which undergo changes. It sometimes includes ether in the elements, and sometimes treats it as a derivative. The external stimuli interact upon the sense-organs and produce consciousness. Early Buddhism believes in naive realism and causal theory of knowledge.

Essay # 12. Anti-Metaphysical Attitude:

The Buddha solves only one practical problem: how to exterminate suffering. Philosophical wrangling does not solve this problem. Idle theoretical speculation does not soothe the agony of suffering. It generates self-conceit, arrogance, and scepticism.

It does not draw out the arrow of agony. So the Buddha discourages philosophizing and emphasizes self- control, thoughtfulness, energy, activity, moral conduct, purity of mind, good-will, love, compassion, and peace.

He says, “The Tathagata is free from all theories.” He rules out ten questions relating to the world, the relation of the soul and the body, and the condition after the attainment of nirvana. These are indeterminable.

They are as follows:

(i) Is the world eternal?

(ii) Is it non-eternal?

(iii) Is it finite?

(iv) Is it infinite?

(v) Is the soul identical with the body?

(vi) Is it distinct from the body?

(vii) Does the Tathagata exist after death?

(viii) Does he not exist after death?

(ix) Does he both exist and not exist after death?

(x) Does he neither exist nor not-exist after death?

These questions are fruitless for moral life. They are not conducive to detachment, peace, enlightenment, and nirvana. So these metaphysical puzzles are ruled out. Wrangling over philosophical views is useless. Self-command is the way to perfection.

The whole world is on fire. Extinguish the fire. Do not waste a moment in useless disputes. Overcome the torrent of passions and attain perfect peace and calm. Philosophical views lead to disputes; they do not lead to purity, but in the realization of nirvana there is no dispute.

Essay # 13. Rationalism of Buddhism:

The Buddha teaches rationalism to his disciples and condemns faith in tradition and authority. He advises them to trust in their own reason and believe in what commends itself to their reason. Authority is no source of truth. Its validity must be interested by reason and personal experience. Tradition is like a number of blind men leading one another. The first man does not see; neither does the middle one see; nor does the last one see.

Tradition is an exceedingly weak argument. The Buddha makes a distinction between the mere reception of truth and the knowledge of truth which involves rational conviction. ‘One must not accept my Dharma from reverence, but first test it as gold is tested by fire.’

‘You must trust to yourselves. You can take nothing from me. You must be righteous through your own efforts. You must depend on yourselves for the extinction of all suffering.’

‘Three things shine before the world and cannot be hidden. They are the moon, the sun, and the truth proclaimed by the Tathagata. There is no secrecy about them.’ ‘He who questions the validity of reason by arguments contradicts himself.’ Instruction should be understood by reason and confirmed by personal experience.

The intelligible parts of the Buddha’s doctrine should be understood by reason. But its unintelligible depths which are understood by the Buddha only should be accepted on faith. The nature of the action of Karma is not comprehensible. It has to be accepted on faith; there is no discredit in it. Faith is an indispensable preliminary to entrance upon the path. It is a prelude to right knowledge.

Faith in the complete enlightenment of the Buddha and his word leads to correct knowledge and conviction. The teaching of the Buddha saves- the faithful, but destroys the faithless. Thus faith in the authority of the Buddha, independent reflection or individual reason, and individual insight and intuition have their place in the life of an aspirant. Intuition is the consummation of moral discipline.

Essay # 14. Ethics of Buddhism:

The Buddha rejects both Being and Non-Being and believes in Becoming. He adopts the metaphysical mean. He rejects both self-indulgence and self-mortification, and enjoins the ethics of moderation. He preaches the doctrine of the ethical mean.

He lays down the eightfold path:

(i) Right view or belief consists in right knowledge of the four noble truths, which leads to nirvana. It is not theoretical speculation which does not lead to dispassion, self-control, and peace.

(ii) Right resolve consists in the determination to uproot attachment to sensual pleasure, ill-will towards others, and desire to do harm to them. Mere right knowledge of right and wrong does not help the aspirant reach his goal. It must be expressed in right resolve to do what is right and desist from doing what is wrong. Right resolve is aspiration towards renunciation, benevolence, and compassion.

(iii) Right speech is an outward expression of right resolve. It consists in abstention from lying, slander, abuse, harsh words and frivolous talk. One should speak what is right, not what is unrighteous. One should speak what is pleasing, not what is unpleasing.

One should speak what is true, not what is false. One should speak well. One should speak what does not pain oneself nor hurt others. Truth should be in harmony with right and good. The just stand firm in what is true, in what is good, and in what is right.

(iv) Right conduct consists in abstention from the destruc­tion of life, theft, sex-indulgence, lying, drinking intoxicating liquor, eating between meals, attending social entertainments, the use of unguents and ornaments, the use of luxurious beds, and the handling of gold and silver, which are binding upon the monks. The first five duties are binding on lay men. They should observe chastity in their married life.

These sins should neither be committed, nor caused to be committed, nor approved. Lay men have specific duties. The duties of parents, children, teachers, pupils, husbands, wives, masters and servants are laid down. Liberality, courtesy, kindness, and unselfishness should be cultivated by all.

(v) Right livelihood consists in earning living by honest means. Trades in arms, animals, flesh, liquor, and poison are forbidden. Earning livelihood by under-weights, fraudulence, bribery, ingratitude, crookedness, mutilation, persecu­tion, confinement, robbery, and plunder is forbidden.

(vi) Right effort consists in constant vigilance, effort, and activity which are necessary for self-control, sense- restraint, arrest of evil thoughts, stimulation of good thoughts, and concentration of the mind on universal good­will. Restless mind is not conducive to good thoughts, good emotions, and good conduct. Right effort consists in sup­pressing evil states and stimulating good states.

(vii) Right mindfulness consists in recollection of the impurity of the body, the nature of feeling, pleasure, pain, and neutral feeling, the nature of mind endowed with greed, hatred, and delusion, the nature of dharma’s, five aggregates, sense- organs, sensible objects, means to enlightenment, and four noble truths. Right mindfulness is an indispensable pre­requisite of right concentration.

(vii) Right concentration consists of four meditations. It is the crown of the eightfold path. The first Jhana is a state of lion, in which sensuality is destroyed. The second Jhana is a state of joy born of deep tranquillity, without reflection or investigation, which are suppressed; in it thought is trariquikzed, and intuition predominates.

The third Jhana is a state of neutral consciousness in which all passions are destroyed. The fourth Jhana is a state of complete tranquillity and self- possession in which joy and sorrow are destroyed. 1 Buddhism stresses right conduct, right concentration and right insight. Right insight purges the mind of lust, becoming, and ignorance.

Buddhism emphasizes purity of the inner life. Mere pure external conduct does not suffice. The mind must be purged of all impurities. Greed, hatred, delusion, anger, envy, and jealousy must be rooted out. All passions that ruffle the calm of the mind must be extirpated. The mind must be sanctified.

The Buddhist morality is altruistic. Though nirvana is the highest good of an individual, it is realized through universal good-will and love. We should pervade the whole world with love, pity, sympathy, and equanimity.

Universal love, com­passion for the distressed, joy for the virtuous, and indifference to the vicious are enjoined. Love generates compassion, joy, end indifference, and is consequently higher than these. So the Buddhist ethics is altruistic.

The ethics of non-injury (ahimsa) is the keynote of Buddhism. Hatred should be conquered by love ; harm should be conquered by good. Evil recoils upon one who offends a harmless, pure, and innocent person. Hatred generates hatred. A harsh word excites a harsh word. A blow incites a blow. Patience is the highest virtue.

We should be tolerant with the intolerant, mild with fault-finders, free from passion among the passionate. We should not offend anyone by body, word, or thoughts A man is not just, if he carries a matter by violence ; he is just, if he leads others, not by violence, but by law and equity.’ Non-injury, in thought, word, and deed, love, good-will, patience, endurance, and self-purification constitute the Buddhist morality.

Buddhist morality is the mean between self-indulgence and self-mortification. Gautama underwent severe penances and self-torture which proved fruitless. Self-torture emaciates the body and fills the mind with evil thoughts. If the fires of lust, hatred, and delusion are, not quenched, Self-mortification can lead us nowhere. Craving for pleasure springs from egoism. When egoism is rooted out, craving for worldly and heavenly pleasures is quenched.

On the other hand, self-indulgence is enervating and degrading. But to satisfy hunger and thirst, to keep the body in good health, to protect it from heat and cold, to save it from fatigue, to cover it comfortably and decently are necessary to keep the mind strong and pure.

This is the Middle Path that avoids both extremes. The Dharma spurns both pursuit of pleasures and self-mortification. It aims at purity of heart, purity of conduct, equanimity, peace, and enlightenment.

Essay # 15. Nirvana:

The third noble, truth is the extinction of suffering. It is nirvana which has been described as extinction, as a state of happiness, as an inconceivable state, or as a changeless state. It is the highest good.

(i) Nirvana literally means ‘cooled’ or ‘extinguished’. Passions are compared to ‘fires’. Passionlessness is the ‘cooling’ of the fires. Nirvana is the extinction of greed, hate, anger, and delusion which are called ‘fires’ and of the impurities, sensuality, will-to-be-born, and ignorance.

It is the extinction of becoming or rebirth. It is the complete extinction of passions and consequent suffering. It is not extinction of existence or annihilation. It is deliverance from the .sense of existence of annihilation.

It is deliverance from the sense of individuality. It is not inaction. It is compatible with active intellectual and social life. It is not renunciation of actions, but the purging of all actions of attachment, aversion, and delusion. It is renunciation of all the bases of rebirth,, destruction of craving, will-to-live, and becoming. In it the physical form remains, but the will-to-live is completely destroyed.

Nirvana is a state of enlightenment which removes all ignorance. It is a state of perfect equanimity which removes attachment, aversion, and delusion. It is a state of stainless purity and good-will. It is a state of perfect self-possession and unconditioned freedom. It is a state of perfect peace.

The liberated person has complete insight, complete passionlessness, unruffled calm, perfect self-control, tranquil mind, tranquil words, and tranquil deeds. He is devoid of egoism or the sense of individuality, since his mental grasping, ignorance, and craving, which produce a new individual of five aggregates, are completely destroyed. There is extinction of individual existence.

(ii) In the Pali texts nirvana has sometimes been described as a state of bliss. The liberated person is free from evil desire; he has a steadfast mind ; he has perfect knowledge of the noble truths; he has obtained the fruit of the fourth path, and is immersed in ambrosia, and enjoys nirvana. The Dhammapada describes nirvana as a state of bliss, crown of happiness, perfect peace, free from greed, hate, and delusion.

The Arhats, meditative, persevering,’ ever energetic, attain to nirvana, the highest bliss. Nirvana is happiness or holiness which is distinct from pleasure. Pleasure is an empirical feeling which is transitory and therefore painful. Nirvana is the blissful end.

(iii) Nirvana is deep, immeasurable, unfathomable as the ocean. It is inconceivable. It is an existence that is beyond reason and conception. It is a non-empirical, ineffable state.

(iv) The Buddha says, “There is something that is not born, not produced, not created, not compounded. Were there not something not born, there would be no possible exit for what is born” Nirvana is neither annihilation nor eternal existence. It is an ineffable state of perfect wisdom, perfect peace, and perfect self-command.

Two kinds of nirvana are described:

(1) Sa-upadi-sesa- nirvana and

(2) Anupadi-sesa-nirvana.

The former means nirvana with residual vital conditions or with the remainder of mental grasping, the cause of rebirth. The latter means nirvana without residual vital conditions or without remainder of mental grasping. Parinirvana literally means ‘completely gone out.’ One who is perfectly disciplined and calmed is said to be pariribbuta or perfected.

Essay # 16. Religion of Buddhism:

Buddhism is a religion without God. It believes in trans­migration and future life, though it does not believe in the permanent self. It emphasizes the Law of Karma or moral causation. It aims at the extinction of suffering by extinguish­ing craving or will-to-live. It aims at the purity of the heart, and the purity of external conduct.

It rejects rites, ceremonies, sacrifices, and penances. It stresses the ethics of ahimta, non­-injury in thought, word, and deed. It enjoins extinction of egoism and ignorance. It aims at nirvana on earth. Nirvana is insight, peace, and selfless will. Buddhism is a religion of self-help. Libertion does not depend on the grace of God. It has to be wrought by one’s own moral efforts.

Buddhism admits the reality of Brahma, Indra, and other gods. But it regards them as subject to ignorance and passions birth and death. The Buddha is greater than gods. Buddhism believes in heaven and hell. Righteous actions lead to heaven.

Vicious actions lead to hell . But nirvana can be attained by complete extinction of desires for earthly or heavenly happiness. It is above heaven. The Buddha emphasizes the Law (Dhamma). He turns the wheel of the Law (Dhammacakka) which is irresistible. He lays the foundation of the kingdom of righteousness.

Buddhism is catholic. It is open to all nations, races, castes, and creeds. The Buddha says, “Know, Vasettha, that (from time to time) a Tathagata is born in the world, a fully Enlightened One, blessed and worthy, abounding in wisdom and goodness, happy, with knowledge of the world, unsur­passed as a guide to erring mortals, a teacher of gods and men, a Blessed Buddha.

The truth does he proclaim both in its letter and spirit, lovely in its origin, lovely in its progress, lovely in its consummation : the higher life doth he make known, in all its purity and in all its perfectness.” “Subdue thy doubt about me, have faith in me, O Brahmana, difficult to obtain is the sight of the Buddha repeatedly.”

Faith and reason both lead to salvation. Rational conviction, self-control and moral purity are essential to it. The Buddha does not grant liberation to men, but he teaches them the way to achieve liberation. Buddhism is a rational religion.

There is no secret in it. The Buddha does not make any distinction between esoteric and exoteric doctrines. He denounces all secret doctrines. Secrecy belongs to false doctrines and occult priestcraft.

The religion of the Buddha shines by its light. Buddhism is a religion of individual freedom and endeavour. The Buddha says, “O Ananda, be ye lamps unto yourselves. Be ye refuges to yourselves. Hold fast to the Dhamma as a lamp. Hold fast as a refuge to the Dhamma. Look not for refuge to any one beside yourselves.”

Buddhism is a missionary religion. The-gift of the Dhamma is the greatest of all gifts. “Go ye, O Bhiksus, for the benefit of the many, for the welfare of mankind, out of compassion for the world. Preach the doctrine which is glori­ous in the beginning, glorious in the middle, and glorious in the end, in the spirit as well as in the letter. Proclaim to them a life of holiness. They will understand the doctrine and accept it.”

These words of the Master inspired his followers to spread the religion far and wide. In course of time a schism took place between the Hinayana and the Mahayana which differ in many respects. First, the Hinayana is conservative, whereas the Mahayana is catholic and progressive.

Secondly, the former regards the Buddha as a historical person, while the latter regards the Buddha as the transcendental, eternal, Absolute, who saves all beings through his triple body. Dharma kaya, Law-body, or the Absolute, is immanent in all beings; Sambhogakaya or Bliss-body, is God; Nirmanakaya or Transformation-body is a Divine Incarnation, the historical Buddha.

Thirdly, the former believes in one Buddha, while the latter believes in an infinite number or Bodhisattvas who take a vow to attain perfection and liberate all sentient creatures.

Fourthly, the former aims at the attainment of Arhathood or individual liberation, while the latter aims at the attainment of Bodhisattva hood to liberate all The former aims at individual liberation, while the latter aims at universal liberation. Fifthly, the former believes that one person attained Buddhahood, while the latter believes that all may attain it because they have the Buddha-nature as their essence.

Sixthly, the former opposes nirvana to samsara, while the latter believes that nirvana is achieved through samsara. The former emphasizes the monk’s life of renunciation while latter emphasizes the life of a house-holder. Seventhly, the former regards nirvana as cessation of transmigration, while the latter regards it as transcendental experience of Sunyata Eighthly, the former is realistic, whereas the latter is idealistic.

The former believes in the reality of the external world and individual minds or streams of consciousness, while the latter believes in One mind Alyavijnana, which constructs the individual minds and the imaginary world.

Lastly, the former believes in the impermanence of all phenomena, physical and mental, while the latter believes in the Sunyata or Emptiness, which is the noumenon behind the impermanent phenomena. Phenomena are the manifestations of the noumenon.

Hinayana Buddhism is called Southern Buddhism, because it flourished in Ceylon and Burma. Mahayana Buddhism is called Northern Buddhism, because it prevailed in Tibet, China and Japan. The Hinayana and the Mahayana resemble each other in the following respects.

First, enlightenment is the goal which is achieved by the removal of ignorance. Secondly, the world is without beginning or end, and all phenomena are subject to the law of causation. Thirdly, all is impermanent becoming devoid of being. Fourthly, there is no permanent self, but only an impermanent stream of consciousness.

Fifthly, the Law of Karma governs moral phenomena. Sixthly, trans­migration is due to karma; actions in empirical life produce karma. Seventhly, ignorance is the root cause of suffering and transmigration. Lastly, the Eightfold Noble Path destroys ignorance.

The Hinayana is called Theravada or Sthaviravada, or the doctrine of the Elders. It is the small vehicle which can carry a few to salvation. The Mahayana is the great vehicle which is large enough to carry all to salvation. Universal, salvation is the kernel of the Mahayana religion, idealistic monism is its philosophical foundation.

Related Articles:

• Paragraphs on Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism
• Buddhism: The Four Noble Truths and Eight Fold Path of Buddhism

Philosophy , Essay , Indian Philosophy , Buddhism , Essay on Buddhism

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Essay on Buddhism in India

After Mahavir Jina, another spiritual guru who appeared in the religious firmament of India to rectify the extreme dominance of the Brahmanical class was Gautama Buddha.

Like his predecessor he too raised his voice against the ritualistic practices and tried to purify and simplify the existing religious system.

Thus in course of time there grew a new religion called Buddhism.

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Among all the protestant religions, Buddhism became very popular for its mass appeal with its message of compassion, love, self-restraint and non-violence. It extended practically all over Asia and still continues to be a great force in the Far East. Unlike the Jains, the Buddhists never claim a remote antiquity behind their religion. Rather this religion with its strong social base and rational philosophy played a dominant role in the 6th century B.C.

Life of Gautama (566 B.C.-486 B.C.):

Gautama, who later became famous as Buddha, was born at Lumbini garden (Modern Rumnhndei or Rupan-dehi). His childhood name was Siddhartha. His father, Suddliodan, was the chief of the Sakya republican clan. His mother, Mayadevi, passed away few days after his birth. He was brought up by his step mother, Mahaprajapati Gautami.

Though born in an aristocratic family, right from his childhood, Gautama exhibited signs of detachment towards worldly affairs. Rather he developed a contemplative bent of mind and a deep compassionate nature. Observing these peculiar trends in the son’s personality, Suddhodan arranged for his marriage. He got him married to a beautiful princess named Yasodhara. A son was born to them named Rahul. But no such worldly attachments could make the prince happy.

The cause of his unhappiness lay in his realization that the sufferings of the mankind were due to old age, disease and death. Therefore, at the age of twenty-nine, Gautama left home leaving his wife and son behind to realize and understand the ultimate end of human life. This departure is known as the Great Renunciation.

He first became the disciple of two distinguished teachers named Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta. He learnt several sliastras and philosophy from them. But he did not find the real knowledge he was searching for. Then he led the life of an ascetic and practiced severe penance. This effort also ended in failure as he found no answer therein. He spent nearly six years in his futile effort to find the Truth.

Then Gautama went to Uruvela near modern Bodhgaya and sat in deep contemplation under a peepal tree. At last the light dawned on him. He found the Truth he was seeking for. He received the light of knowledge – the means of salvation from human sufferings. His name was changed from Gautama to Buddha, the Perfectly Enlightened One, at the age of thirty-five. The tree under which he got the light of knowledge became famous as Bodhi tree.

Buddha was now prepared to spread the light of knowledge that he had acquired. He delivered his first sermon at Deer Park in Sarnath near Benares. People flocked to join him and became his disciples. For the next forty-five years Buddha journeyed to different parts of India to spread his message of salvation. People from every walk of life became his disciples. His long journey came to an end when he breathed his last under a sal tree at Kusinagar in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh at the age of eighty in 486 B.C. His final departure from this mortal world is known as Mahaparinirvana – the Great Salvation – in Buddhist scriptures.

Teachings of Lord Buddha:

The teachings of Buddha were extremely simple and practical, ne fundamental principles of Buddha’s teachings are represented this Four Noble Truths. Buddha keenly felt about the pain and sufferings of human beings. So in his very first sermon he mainly addressed to the basic causes of such sufferings and to a way out for their end.

Four Noble Truths:

The Four Noble Truths constitute the very essentials of his teachings illustrated by these four terms:

(i) Sufferings—that the world is full of sufferings.

(ii) Its Causes—that there are causes of sufferings.

(iii) Cessation of Sufferings—that these sufferings can be stopped.

(iv) The Way—that there is a path leading to the cessation of sufferings.

For Lord Buddha, the root of all sufferings lies in desire. Sufferings can stop with the annihilation of all desires. Those who want to get out of the clutches of suffering and want to achieve the ultimate end of human life, i.e., Nirvana, must follow a path.

Aryan Eight-fold path:

The path advocated by Lord Buddha to reach Nirvana is known as the Aryan Eight-fold path that comprises of eight important ways of life.

1. Right Speech

2. Right Action

3. Right Means of livelihood

4. Right Exertion

5. Right Mindfulness

6. Right Meditation

7. Right Resolution

8. Right View

Buddha then summarized the whole process by dividing the human body into three parts – Sila, Chitta and Prajna. The observance of the first three principles lead to the physical (Sila) development. By observing the second three, there occurs mental (chitta) development. The last two principles of right resolution and right view bring about the development of intellect (Prajna). Thus, an all-round development of the human being can be made by following the above eight-fold principles. Then only can Nirvana be achieved – the eternal state of peace and bliss which means freedom from birth and death.

Doctrine of Karma:

The philosophy of Buddhism was extremely rationalistic. It believed in the law of Karma and re-birth. One’s present stage is determined by his past action. Otherwise he reaps the consequences of his own actions done in his previous birth. Since birth is the cause of all human sufferings and sorrows, it is by virtue of one’s own Karma or action that man should try to get rid of birth. In fact, the Buddhist theory of Karma is like that of the Hindus and it contradicts the philosophy of Jainism which refutes the theory of action.

Doctrine of an-atta or No Soul:

One of the specific contributions of Buddhism is its doctrine of an-atta or no-soul. Dualistic Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and even Jainism postulate the existence of a soul behind the changing states of consciousness in every individual. This soul is the I-making principle in every person that differentiates him from others.

According to Buddha, as it is impossible to locate the flame of the lamp after the wick and oil have been consumed, it is similarly impossible to search for a soul after the dissolution of the human body. The concepts of continuity and transmigration can be better explained without postulating anything like soul or ego.

Doctrine of non-existence of God:

Buddha is silent about the existence of the Creator or God. For this he is sometimes regarded as an atheist. He was primarily concerned with the sufferings of human beings. So he thought it futile to ponder much about the mystery of creation and it’s Creator. Rather like a rationalist he paid more emphasis on the good and evil deeds of human beings. For him, vices and sufferings, virtues and happiness were related to the performance of one’s duty or deed.

Emphasis on practical moralities:

Because of its practical and pragmatic approach Buddhism had a mass appeal. It was regarded as a welcome relief from the priest-dominated and caste-ridden rigors of Brahmanism. Buddha freed religion from the elaborate and costly rituals and opposed the infallibility of the Vedas. Further, he made religion more lively and acceptable by laying stress on practical moralities of life that were essential for a common householder.

It included the following:

1. Ahimsa or abstinence from killing.

2. Respect for animal life.

3. Reverence for the superiors.

4. Service to the humanity.

5. Relieving the sufferings of mankind.

Further, Buddha made the life of the community happier by abolishing caste-systems. The status of those belonging to the lower orders was raised for attainment of social and spiritual freedom. These are in brief the main teachings of Lord Buddha. A critical analysis of the doctrines reveals that Buddhism, like Jainism, was originally a moral code rather than a metaphysical or religious system in the western sense of the term. The dying words of Lord Buddha to his disciples, “To be lamps unto themselves as there is no other light”, reveal the very essence of his simple teachings.

Cultural Contribution:

Buddhism remained a powerful force in the socio-cultural set up of India for almost one and a half thousand years. It was not merely confined to India. Within a short span of time it reached the soil of various Asian countries like Myanmar, China, Japan, Indonesia, Cambodia etc. During its long journey over the Indian sub-continent itself, Buddhism influenced the Indian cultural heritage to a remarkable extent. The cultural assimilation of Hinduism and Buddhism has been manifested in different manners. The following accounts of the Buddhist cultural contributions speak for themselves.

Simplicity and Neutrality:

Buddhism presented itself in a simple and natural manner. Common people could understand the essence of religion in a very lucid style. It was devoid of Vedic complexity, complicated and meaningless rituals and the predominance of the Brahmanical class. The very simple ethical code of the religion, emotional elements, popular methods of teachings, natural way of worship and prayer etc. introduced a personal element to the religious belief of the people. People liked it and appreciated it and there arose a natural tendency among them to accept the religion without any external force.

Influence on Hinduism:

Although it may sound strange, Buddhism has influenced Hinduism in a number of ways, especially in lie fashion of image-worship of the Hindus. As a matter of fact, after the departure of Buddha, Buddhism was divided into Mahayana Buddhism and Hinayana Buddhism. The Mahayana Buddhists developed the system of the worship of the image of Buddha.

Inspired by this Mahayana practice the Hindus too developed the system of worshipping different images of gods and goddesses. They began to erect temples in the honour of these deities. Prior to Buddhism, Vedic Hinduism consisted mainly of sacrifices and yajnas in the open air. Further the complex rituals of Hinduism admitted into their fold the Buddhist way of prayer and meditation.

In addition, the doctrine of ahimsa or non-violence which constitutes a very important aspect of Buddhism became a part of Hindu religion. The emphasis on the life of animals, pity, compassion and respect for life in all forms, negative attitude towards animal sacrifices had made Buddhism more popular and acceptable.

These lofty ideals were highly appreciated by the scholars and pundits of Hinduism. They incorporated these ideals into their writings. Gradually this led to the rise of a particular phase of Bhagavad-Gita religion which completely believed in the principle of non-violence.

Monastic System:

A new feature of Buddhism was its monastic system that later became a part of our culture. Monastery is an organisation of devotees of a particular order based on discipline and community life. The monastic order is built around a democratic system. When the number of Buddhist monks, nuns and followers increased they used to stay in various monasteries in groups called Sangha.

In due course these Buddhist Sanghas became a very important part of Buddhism for general spiritual uplift. The Hindu saints and sages of later years were much influenced by this monastic system. The growth of Hindu Mathas owes their origin to this Buddhist concept. Like Buddhist monasteries, these Mathas were actively engaged in moral and

Language and Literature:

The birth and growth of Buddhism have left behind it a rich heritage in the field of language and literature. In the initial stage, Lord Buddha used to preach in Prakrit, Magadhi and other dialects for the general public to understand his teachings. Later he also used Pali. Therefore, the Buddhist literature that came into existence were in Pali and other dialects. During the reign of Kanishka Sanskrit became the medium of preaching. But only the Pali version of Buddhist literature has survived in its entirety.

All the postulates of Buddhism have been recorded in the Pali version of Tripitaka. They are Vinaya (Conduct) Pitaka, Sutta (Sermon) Pitaka and Abhidhamma (Metaphysics) Pitaka. Besides these Tripitakas, a vast non-canonical literature developed mostly as commentaries to explain the canonical texts of the Buddhist monks outside India. The Sri Lankan monks took the lead in producing vast volumes of such non-canonical texts.

Both these canonical and non-canonical texts were written in Pali language. In the Buddhist monasteries and viharas the beginnings of vernacular Pali literature were made which later developed into lengthy volumes. The attempt of the Buddhists to spread their messages through various languages has not only enriched the literary heritage of the country but has also set the academic tradition on proper footing.

Buddhist literature like Jataka stories, scriptures like the Pitakas, philosophy of Nagarjuna, Asvaghosh, Tantric texts of Vajrayan, logic of Mahayana Buddhism, chronicles of Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa are invaluable gems of Indian culture. Indeed, Buddhist philosophers and writers added a new and glorious feather to the cultural spirit of our country.

Art and Architecture:

Apart from literature, Buddhism also left its indelible mark on Indian art tradition. Prior to the birth of Buddhism the Indian art tradition was confined to the construction of pandals and mandaps, yajnasala (place for fire sacrifice), yajnavedi or altars etc. In other words, Indian architecture was at its rudimentary stage. Under the patronage of Buddhism different areas of art like architecture, sculpture and painting began to prosper.

From the time of the Buddhist king, Ashoka, stones began to be used in sculptural works. The early Buddhist monuments at Sanchi, Bharut, Bodhgaya, Amravati, Dhauli, Jaugad, Rumindei etc. are examples of Buddhist art treasures.

The system of making stambhas or pillars bearing religious emblem was a novel concept. Further, construction of stupas over the relics of Buddha and the Bodhisattvas added a new artistic dimension. A number of viharas came into existence as a heritage of Buddhist art for giving permanent abode to Buddhist monks.

These different manifestations of Buddhist art had its reflection on the continuing Indian style. Ashokan pillars, stupas at Sanchi, cave temples of Kanheri and Karle are brilliant specimens of Buddhist architecture. Two masterpieces of Buddhist sculpture, the standing Buddha statue of Mathura and the seated Buddha of Sarnath, show the sculptural excellence of Buddhist artists.

Even painting did not lag behind. The cave paintings of Karle, Bagh, Ajanta and Ellora display the maturity in style and finish of the Indian painters. The subject matter of Buddhist art revolved around themes of compassion for nature, attachment for the life of animals and love for mankind. The current of life flows in a majestically lively way in these artistic works that the artists had left for posterity. Buddhist art of Gandhara and Mathura have left behind an everlasting impression on Indian culture.

Political Unity:

Buddhism has come a long way in establishing itself in the pages of Indian history. Its cardinal concept of non-violence profoundly influenced Ashoka, the third king of the Mauryan dynasty. After the horrors of Kalinga War in 261 B.C., he was converted from Ashoka, the Ogre, to Ashoka, the Virtuous, from Chandashoka to Dharmashoka, under the influence of Buddhism.

The violent march of Indian history not only received a jolt but it also changed its course in a non-violent, pious and benevolent way. Ashokan policy of winning human hearts by love and compassion, paternal form of governance, charity for all forms of life added new dimensions to the rich cultural heritage of the country.

Even in the colonial period the great exponent of truth and non-violence, Mahatma Gandhi, gave a fresh orientation to this age-old Buddhist concept which went a long way in achieving freedom from the British.

Buddhism spread to every nook and corner of the land. The very spread of Buddhism within one geographical unit of Bharatavarsha created a sense of unity among its followers. The idea of national unity, solidarity and integrity of the soil was thus facilitated by this religion. The message of equality, fraternity, the voice of protest against caste-system, emancipation of women as nuns of the Buddhist order, literary awakening etc. were hugely responsible for the growth of political unity over this vast land.

Messenger of Universality:

Buddhism became the cultural messenger of India to China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Burma, Indonesia and Ceylon since the days of Ashoka. In the words of Arnold Toynbee,

“… at the religious level, India has not been a recipient, she has been a giver. About half the total of the number of the living higher religions are of Indian origin. About half the human race today adheres to either Hinduism or Buddhism.”

Thus not only in India but also abroad Buddhism took a leading role in spiritual awakening which constitutes the very essence of Indian culture. The vastness and richness of Indian culture and its universal appeal were reflected in Buddhist way of life and were made known to the outsiders. They came to know about India through Buddhism, saw India through Buddha and realised the Indian spirit with their grasp of Indian culture.

As a religion, Buddhism had a widespread influence on different aspects of Indian culture. It manifested itself in various ways – paleographic, linguistic, literary, religious, philosophical, social, ethical, artistic etc. Patient study, careful observation and prudent judgement are required to understand the vast significance of this religion.

Buddhism has remained a vital force, an inspiration and above all, a guidance to our traditions and customs. In sum, its unique contributions in the various fields of culture has greatly enriched Indian cultural heritage, apart from adding to the religious diversity of the land.

Related Articles:

• Essay on Hinduism and Buddhism
• Influence of Buddhism on Indian Culture
• Essay on the Buddhism: Features, Causes of Decline and Significance
• Comparison: Jainism and Buddhism | Indian History

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A 6‑Step Guide to Zen Buddhism, Presented by Psychiatrist-Zen Master Robert Waldinger

in Psychology , Religion | May 24th, 2024 Leave a Comment

Robert Waldinger works as a part-time pro­fes­sor of psy­chi­a­try at Har­vard Med­ical School, but he also describes him­self as a “Zen mas­ter.” This may strike some lis­ten­ers as a pre­sump­tu­ous claim, but he has indeed been offi­cial­ly accept­ed as a rōshi in two dif­fer­ent Zen lin­eages in the West. With one foot in psy­chi­a­try and the oth­er in Bud­dhism, Waldinger (pre­vi­ous­ly fea­tured here on Open Cul­ture for his work on hap­pi­ness and lone­li­ness ) is well-placed to explain the lat­ter in terms amenable to the for­mer. In the Big Think video above , he breaks the ancient reli­gion — or mind­set, or way of being, or what­ev­er one prefers to call it — into six dis­tinct con­cepts: imper­ma­nence, noble truths, mind­ful­ness, attach­ment, lov­ing kind­ness, and begin­ner’s mind.

If you’ve felt any curios­i­ty about Zen Bud­dhism and pur­sued it online in recent years, the term mind­ful­ness will be famil­iar to the point of cliché. Waldinger per­son­al­ly defines it as “pay­ing atten­tion in the present moment with­out judg­ment.” You can work on your mind­ful­ness right now, he explains, “by sim­ply pay­ing atten­tion to what­ev­er stim­uli are reach­ing you. It might be your heart­beat, it might be your breath, it might be the sound of the fan in the room — any­thing — and sim­ply let­ting your­self be open and receive what­ev­er is here right now.” This can help us put into per­spec­tive the next con­cept, attach­ment, or our feel­ing “that the world be a cer­tain way,” which caus­es no amount of our dis­sat­is­fac­tion and even suf­fer­ing.

All of these ideas are much expand­ed on in pri­ma­ry and sec­ondary Bud­dhist texts, which any enthu­si­ast can spend a life­time read­ing. My own inter­est was first piqued by a pop­u­lar 1970 vol­ume called  Zen Mind, Begin­ner’s Mind , a com­pi­la­tion of talks by a famous rōshi called Shun­ryū Suzu­ki Waldinger ref­er­ences Suzuk­i’s work in the final sec­tion of this video, and specif­i­cal­ly his obser­va­tion that “in the begin­ner’s mind, there are many pos­si­bil­i­ties. In the expert’s mind, there are few.” In Waldinger’s own expe­ri­ence, “the old­er I get, and the more peo­ple call me an expert, the more aware I am of how lit­tle I know.” True mas­tery lies in the aware­ness not of the knowl­edge we have, but the knowl­edge we don’t.

Bud­dhism 101: A Short Intro­duc­to­ry Lec­ture by Jorge Luis Borges

How Lone­li­ness Is Killing Us: A Primer from Har­vard Psy­chi­a­trist & Zen Priest Robert Waldinger

What Is a Zen Koan? An Ani­mat­ed Intro­duc­tion to East­ern Philo­soph­i­cal Thought Exper­i­ments

The Wis­dom of Alan Watts in Four Thought-Pro­vok­ing Ani­ma­tions

What Are the Keys to Hap­pi­ness? Lessons from a 75-Year-Long Har­vard Study

The Zen of Bill Mur­ray: I Want to Be “Real­ly Here, Real­ly in It, Real­ly Alive in the Moment”

Based in Seoul,  Col­in  M a rshall  writes and broad­cas ts on cities, lan­guage, and cul­ture. His projects include the Sub­stack newslet­ter   Books on Cities  and the book The State­less City: a Walk through 21st-Cen­tu­ry Los Ange­les. Fol­low him on Twit­ter at  @colinm a rshall  or on  Face­book .

by Colin Marshall | Permalink | Comments (0) |

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How a Rolex Ends Up on a GQ Cover

By Cam Wolf

This is an edition of the newsletter Box + Papers, Cam Wolf’s weekly deep dive into the world of watches. Sign up here.

The cover star of GQ’s Summer 2024 issue is Kevin Costner in a bright orange anorak—-a stylish callback to the actor’s first appearance on our cover all the way back in May 1987 . (Costner has been an A-lister for longer than I’ve been alive!) But for a certain subset of people, the real star of the cover might be the Rolex “Pepsi” GMT-Master II on Costner’s wrist.

While previous cover stars like Cillian Murphy and Barry Keoghan haven’t shied away from wrist accessories, they’ve mostly gone mad for bracelets, leaving the watches on the jewelry table at least for the central shot. Costner is the first cover star of 2024 to smuggle a watch onto the front page with him. (In fact, it’s the first watch on a GQ cover since Donald Glover wore a Jaeger-LeCoultre Reverso in April of 2023!) I called up former GQ deputy fashion director Jon Tietz, who styled the Costner shoot, to find out how a Rolex gets onto a magazine cover.

“He was such a legend,” said Tietz, who could have been talking about both the watch and the actor. On a shoot, Tietz said, the jewelry is the first thing that gets unpacked and laid out onto trays. Multiple watches get called in for every shoot. Pieces from manufacturers’ current collections (like the GMT) are top priority, but Tietz likes to make sure there are vintage watches in the mix too. He often works with Alan Bedwell of Foundwell to scratch that particular itch.

For Tietz, selecting the right watch for a specific talent feels a bit like reading their auras. “I always look at the talent and take in who that person is and how they carry themselves,” Tietz said. “Are they flashy? Are they subtle? Are they, you know, timeless?” Costner, still as ruggedly handsome as ever at 69, certainly qualifies for that last category. “He's a classic dude,” Tietz said. “I wasn't about to put anything flashy on him.”

Classic, of course, can mean many different things. In another universe, Costner might’ve ended up with a Cartier Tank on his wrist rather than a Rolex. But when you’re choosing a watch for a GQ cover, it can’t be selected in a vacuum: In addition to the talent, you also have to consider the clothes. “The Tank is rigid, angular, and so boxy, but the clothes he was wearing were very fluid, relaxed, and soft,” Tietz said. “The GMT was the right balance of elegance, timelessness, and sportiness.”

Despite its icon status in the watch world, the GMT was an unusual choice for Tietz. Back when he used to attend industry trade shows like SIHH and BaselWorld, Tietz was consistently drawn to smaller watches—pieces that wouldn’t draw attention away from the person wearing them. I really like how he worded his attraction to these svelter models: A 36-millimeter case is just the right size, Tietz said, to signal “I have a beautiful watch on, but that's not the first thing I'm going to tell you about myself.”

How did a 40-millimeter Rolex end up on Costner’s wrist, then? To be honest, Tietz exhausted every other avenue. In addition to the Cartier, Bedwell loaned out a “a very special and unique Art Deco, French, handmade piece ,” he told me over email. The watch is undeniably pretty and, adding to its chicness, the brand is a total mystery. “I really wanted to try and use that French watch,” Tietz said. “Every now and then [throughout the shoot] I'd be like, ‘Okay, I'm gonna pull [the GMT] off and I'm gonna throw something else on him. [But] nothing else felt right.”

The GMT didn’t just end up being the cover star—it accompanies Costner throughout the entire shoot. It’s there with Costner’s cable-knit Prada cardigan and again when he gazes longingly into the Pacific Ocean in a faded crewneck Visvim sweatshirt. For Tietz, it all came back to reading the man wearing it. “I tried [the French watch] on him and immediately knew, ‘Nope, that's not it. It looks way too dainty.’” Costner can pull off a big watch. “He's got a lot of swagger,” Tietz said, “so your eye doesn't go directly to that watch, even though it's not the smallest.” And it’s no small feat that this Rolex made it onto the cover with Costner.

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Guest Essay

Press Pause on the Silicon Valley Hype Machine

By Julia Angwin

Ms. Angwin is a contributing Opinion writer and an investigative journalist.

It’s a little hard to believe that just over a year ago, a group of leading researchers asked for a six-month pause in the development of larger systems of artificial intelligence, fearing that the systems would become too powerful. “Should we risk loss of control of our civilization?” they asked.

There was no pause. But now, a year later, the question isn’t really whether A.I. is too smart and will take over the world. It’s whether A.I. is too stupid and unreliable to be useful. Consider this week’s announcement from OpenAI’s chief executive, Sam Altman, who promised he would unveil “new stuff” that “ feels like magic to me.” But it was just a rather routine update that makes ChatGPT cheaper and faster .

It feels like another sign that A.I. is not even close to living up to its hype. In my eyes, it’s looking less like an all-powerful being and more like a bad intern whose work is so unreliable that it’s often easier to do the task yourself. That realization has real implications for the way we, our employers and our government should deal with Silicon Valley’s latest dazzling new, new thing. Acknowledging A.I.’s flaws could help us invest our resources more efficiently and also allow us to turn our attention toward more realistic solutions.

Others voice similar concerns. “I find my feelings about A.I. are actually pretty similar to my feelings about blockchains: They do a poor job of much of what people try to do with them, they can’t do the things their creators claim they one day might, and many of the things they are well suited to do may not be altogether that beneficial,” wrote Molly White, a cryptocurrency researcher and critic , in her newsletter last month.

Let’s look at the research.

In the past 10 years, A.I. has conquered many tasks that were previously unimaginable, such as successfully identifying images, writing complete coherent sentences and transcribing audio. A.I. enabled a singer who had lost his voice to release a new song using A.I. trained with clips from his old songs.

But some of A.I.’s greatest accomplishments seem inflated. Some of you may remember that the A.I. model ChatGPT-4 aced the uniform bar exam a year ago. Turns out that it scored in the 48th percentile, not the 90th, as claimed by OpenAI , according to a re-examination by the M.I.T. researcher Eric Martínez . Or what about Google’s claim that it used A.I. to discover more than two million new chemical compounds ? A re-examination by experimental materials chemists at the University of California, Santa Barbara, found “ scant evidence for compounds that fulfill the trifecta of novelty, credibility and utility .”

Meanwhile, researchers in many fields have found that A.I. often struggles to answer even simple questions, whether about the law , medicine or voter information . Researchers have even found that A.I. does not always improve the quality of computer programming , the task it is supposed to excel at.

I don’t think we’re in cryptocurrency territory, where the hype turned out to be a cover story for a number of illegal schemes that landed a few big names in prison . But it’s also pretty clear that we’re a long way from Mr. Altman’s promise that A.I. will become “ the most powerful technology humanity has yet invented .”

Take Devin, a recently released “ A.I. software engineer ” that was breathlessly touted by the tech press. A flesh-and-bones software developer named Carl Brown decided to take on Devin . A task that took the generative A.I.-powered agent over six hours took Mr. Brown just 36 minutes. Devin also executed poorly, running a slower, outdated programming language through a complicated process. “Right now the state of the art of generative A.I. is it just does a bad, complicated, convoluted job that just makes more work for everyone else,” Mr. Brown concluded in his YouTube video .

Cognition, Devin’s maker, responded by acknowledging that Devin did not complete the output requested and added that it was eager for more feedback so it can keep improving its product. Of course, A.I. companies are always promising that an actually useful version of their technology is just around the corner. “ GPT-4 is the dumbest model any of you will ever have to use again by a lot ,” Mr. Altman said recently while talking up GPT-5 at a recent event at Stanford University.

The reality is that A.I. models can often prepare a decent first draft. But I find that when I use A.I., I have to spend almost as much time correcting and revising its output as it would have taken me to do the work myself.

And consider for a moment the possibility that perhaps A.I. isn’t going to get that much better anytime soon. After all, the A.I. companies are running out of new data on which to train their models, and they are running out of energy to fuel their power-hungry A.I. machines . Meanwhile, authors and news organizations (including The New York Times ) are contesting the legality of having their data ingested into the A.I. models without their consent, which could end up forcing quality data to be withdrawn from the models.

Given these constraints, it seems just as likely to me that generative A.I. could end up like the Roomba, the mediocre vacuum robot that does a passable job when you are home alone but not if you are expecting guests.

Companies that can get by with Roomba-quality work will, of course, still try to replace workers. But in workplaces where quality matters — and where workforces such as screenwriters and nurses are unionized — A.I. may not make significant inroads.

And if the A.I. models are relegated to producing mediocre work, they may have to compete on price rather than quality, which is never good for profit margins. In that scenario, skeptics such as Jeremy Grantham, an investor known for correctly predicting market crashes, could be right that the A.I. investment bubble is very likely to deflate soon .

The biggest question raised by a future populated by unexceptional A.I., however, is existential. Should we as a society be investing tens of billions of dollars, our precious electricity that could be used toward moving away from fossil fuels, and a generation of the brightest math and science minds on incremental improvements in mediocre email writing?

We can’t abandon work on improving A.I. The technology, however middling, is here to stay, and people are going to use it. But we should reckon with the possibility that we are investing in an ideal future that may not materialize.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , WhatsApp , X and Threads .

Julia Angwin, a contributing Opinion writer and the founder of Proof News , writes about tech policy. You can follow her on Twitter or Mastodon or her personal newsletter .

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What These Stories About Samuel Alito’s “Provocative” Flags Are Really About

No, john roberts is not going to do anything about this one either..

It’s easy to be furious at Samuel Alito, who has recently racked up yet another petty personal grievance display over, of all things, flags. Last week saw the earthquake report that his wife flew a flag upside down—signaling either that the country is in danger or that the election was stolen—in the days after the Jan. 6 attack on the Capitol. This week,   the New York Times further reports that Alito was flying an “Appeal to Heaven” flag at his New Jersey beach house this past summer. That flag is not merely another Jan. 6 signifier but is also rooted in John Locke’s “appeal to heaven,” meaning “a responsibility to rebel, even use violence, to overthrow unjust rule.”

In some ways, this is another very ridiculous, very 2024 story about the lengths to which ostensible adults will go toward owning the libs, and one justice’s fantastically bad judgment and cluelessness about the appearance of impropriety. But this is not even about Samuel Alito. Neither, actually, was the bombshell report about his alleged leak of the outcome of the Hobby Lobby decision in 2014 to wealthy religious Supreme Court lobbyists about Samuel Alito. To expend energy railing against this one petty, petty little man is to inveigh against the symptom as opposed to the problem.

It is just as easy to be enraged at Clarence Thomas and his myriad and corrosive ethics violations. His wife has texted with Mark Meadows over what she believed to be a stolen 2020 election, tried to encourage state legislators to support a slate of dummy electors, attended part of the “Stop the Steal” rally on Jan. 6, and testified before the Jan. 6 committee that she still believed that that election had been stolen. And Thomas has declined to recuse himself from the three Jan. 6 cases heard at the high court this year. But again, this is not about Ginni or Clarence Thomas. Expending energy hopelessly trying to shame Clarence Thomas or Samuel Alito is an act of incalculable futility.

It is not even, I fear, about Chief Justice John Roberts, who might have, in a different time and under different circumstances, been the type of history-minded leader who would have dealt with this shameless and flagrant squandering of the court’s reputation as a serious body. After all, Roberts once told Jeffrey Rosen in the Atlantic, “The Court is also ripe for a similar refocus on functioning as an institution, because if it doesn’t it’s going to lose its credibility and legitimacy as an institution.” But that chief justice left the chat at least a decade ago. In failing to act, over and over, he has been a powerful actor.

In Legitimacy Roberts’ stead we have been left with yet another defensive , thin-skinned thunderer about judicial independence and a longtime coddler of insurrectionists and grifters. Which is why calling on Roberts to take a page from Chief Justice Earl Warren’s playbook and use his moral authority to do something about Alito and Thomas—as Warren once did about Abe Fortas—is almost as futile as calling for him to put real teeth into an ethics code or conduct a meaningful investigation of the Dobbs leak. Roberts, respectfully, has long ago made the decision that he is simply one coequal vote among nine. He neither wants nor possesses the authority to rein in the MAGA justices. He may vote as though he cares about court legitimacy, but he chief justices like the harassed mother of a kid throwing a tantrum at Safeway—all shrugs and eye rolls. We can and should demand that Roberts account for what he knew and when he knew it, but Roberts will not solve the problem he has allowed to fester and grow.

So if the real problem here is not Sam Alito, or Clarence Thomas, or John Roberts, why have we wasted years of ink and umbrage and energy trying to change their behavior? Alito and Thomas will not be recusing themselves from either Fisher or the Trump immunity case. The chief justice will not be urging them to do so. No lawyer arguing in front of the court will, as Sherrilyn Ifill has been urging , demand a recusal or an investigation of justices with blatant conflicts of interest hearing these Jan. 6 cases because, as Noah Bookbinder of CREW recently told us on the Amicus podcast, to ask the very people you want to cast votes for you to find themselves conflicted is rank insanity. “The system of leaving it up to litigants to challenge justices as potentially conflicted doesn’t make any sense,” Bookbinder said. “Of course that’s not going to work. And leaving justices to make that determination doesn’t make any sense. You need to have some kind of outside body who can evaluate those kinds of questions.”

Who, who, who might that outside body be? Tapping my chin—you tap yours.

Bookbinder’s answer points beautifully to the real problem: We have a judicial enterprise that rules over us with absolutely no one ruling over it. Nobody should be all that surprised that Sen. Dick Durbin has announced that the Senate Judiciary Committee will not launch a probe into Alito’s recent conduct. The Senate has also been trying to unearth the financing for Thomas’ quarter-million-dollar, salt-of-the-earth RV, amid other ethics violations, and Leonard Leo has declined to comply with subpoenas related to it. Yes, the Senate should be acting to resolve this problem, but that seems to have largely stalled at “Ask them to recuse.”

So, just to review, this isn’t really a Sam Alito problem, or a Clarence Thomas problem, or a John Roberts problem—but it also isn’t even a Senate-Dems-who-can’t-muster-the-energy-to-close-the-deal problem.

No, I have come to conclude that this is an us problem. Because rather than hurling ourselves headlong into the “Alito Must Recuse” brick wall of “yeah, no,” we need to dedicate the upcoming election cycle, and the attendant election news cycle, to a discussion of the courts. Not just Alito or Thomas, who happen to go to work every day at the court, and not just Dobbs and gun control, which happen to have come out of the very same court, but the connection between those two tales: what it means to have a Supreme Court that is functionally immune from political pressure, from internal norms of behavior, from judicial ethics and disclosure constraints, and from congressional oversight, and why that is deeply dangerous. More so, why justices who were placed on the court to behave as well-compensated partisan politicians would do so in public as well as on paper. Until we do that, Alito will continue to fly around the world, giving speeches about his triumph in Dobbs and Thomas will keep taking gifts and failing to disclose them. That won’t be the end of the Supreme Court story; it will be just the start of it.

My friend Jennifer Rubin unspooled a call for Democrats to run in November on the promise of abortion rights and court and filibuster reform. That too will be a start. But Donald Trump is already training us to accept the argument that presidents need to be able to order the assassination of their rivals, and Alito is training us to tolerate the notion that if we don’t grant presidents immunity for such acts, they won’t agree to peacefully leave office. In the span of a week, Alito has also trained us to accept that justices can fly whatever inciting and ideological symbols they like, even if the guys who work in the SCOTUS mailroom can’t, because justices are also the recipients of blanket immunity. The problem with these arguments about offering immunity to bad actors is that you can metabolize the helplessness almost as rapidly as you metabolize the idea of immunity itself. It’s not merely the idea that law is for suckers that we have normalized in this precarious moment—it’s the tragic collective conclusion that there is nothing to be done about the fact that the light is really flashing red right now.

An imperial court is the problem, not Martha-Ann Alito’s childish tantrums and not whatever her husband will tell Fox News tomorrow about how the haters made him fly a Christian nationalist flag as the court took on the mifepristone case. Please don’t let the rapid riptides of the news cycle or the sense that God wants us all to live under the fist of an imperial court forever and ever, amen, distract from the fact that term limits, court expansion, an inspector general, and filibuster reform, all of this is possible, and none of it is happening in the wake of the Alito flag revelations, just as none of it was happening when Ginni Thomas showed up at an insurrection rally. The court is hearing cases on the docket while some justices are living life off the docket that prove one thing only: that institutional immunity is not so much taken as silently and invisibly conferred. If we have learned anything at all in the recent past, it’s that it’s also contagious.