air water and land pollution essay

Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment. These harmful materials are called pollutants.

Biology, Ecology, Health, Earth Science, Geography

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Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment . These harmful materials are called pollutants . Pollutants can be natural, such as volcanic ash . They can also be created by human activity, such as trash or runoff produced by factories. Pollutants damage the quality of air, water, and land. Many things that are useful to people produce pollution. Cars spew pollutants from their exhaust pipes. Burning coal to create electricity pollutes the air. Industries and homes generate garbage and sewage that can pollute the land and water. Pesticides —chemical poisons used to kill weeds and insects— seep into waterways and harm wildlife . All living things—from one-celled microbes to blue whales—depend on Earth ’s supply of air and water. When these resources are polluted, all forms of life are threatened. Pollution is a global problem. Although urban areas are usually more polluted than the countryside, pollution can spread to remote places where no people live. For example, pesticides and other chemicals have been found in the Antarctic ice sheet . In the middle of the northern Pacific Ocean, a huge collection of microscopic plastic particles forms what is known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch . Air and water currents carry pollution. Ocean currents and migrating fish carry marine pollutants far and wide. Winds can pick up radioactive material accidentally released from a nuclear reactor and scatter it around the world. Smoke from a factory in one country drifts into another country. In the past, visitors to Big Bend National Park in the U.S. state of Texas could see 290 kilometers (180 miles) across the vast landscape . Now, coal-burning power plants in Texas and the neighboring state of Chihuahua, Mexico have spewed so much pollution into the air that visitors to Big Bend can sometimes see only 50 kilometers (30 miles). The three major types of pollution are air pollution , water pollution , and land pollution . Air Pollution Sometimes, air pollution is visible . A person can see dark smoke pour from the exhaust pipes of large trucks or factories, for example. More often, however, air pollution is invisible . Polluted air can be dangerous, even if the pollutants are invisible. It can make people’s eyes burn and make them have difficulty breathing. It can also increase the risk of lung cancer . Sometimes, air pollution kills quickly. In 1984, an accident at a pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, released a deadly gas into the air. At least 8,000 people died within days. Hundreds of thou sands more were permanently injured. Natural disasters can also cause air pollution to increase quickly. When volcanoes erupt , they eject volcanic ash and gases into the atmosphere . Volcanic ash can discolor the sky for months. After the eruption of the Indonesian volcano of Krakatoa in 1883, ash darkened the sky around the world. The dimmer sky caused fewer crops to be harvested as far away as Europe and North America. For years, meteorologists tracked what was known as the “equatorial smoke stream .” In fact, this smoke stream was a jet stream , a wind high in Earth’s atmosphere that Krakatoa’s air pollution made visible. Volcanic gases , such as sulfur dioxide , can kill nearby residents and make the soil infertile for years. Mount Vesuvius, a volcano in Italy, famously erupted in 79, killing hundreds of residents of the nearby towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Most victims of Vesuvius were not killed by lava or landslides caused by the eruption. They were choked, or asphyxiated , by deadly volcanic gases. In 1986, a toxic cloud developed over Lake Nyos, Cameroon. Lake Nyos sits in the crater of a volcano. Though the volcano did not erupt, it did eject volcanic gases into the lake. The heated gases passed through the water of the lake and collected as a cloud that descended the slopes of the volcano and into nearby valleys . As the toxic cloud moved across the landscape, it killed birds and other organisms in their natural habitat . This air pollution also killed thousands of cattle and as many as 1,700 people. Most air pollution is not natural, however. It comes from burning fossil fuels —coal, oil , and natural gas . When gasoline is burned to power cars and trucks, it produces carbon monoxide , a colorless, odorless gas. The gas is harmful in high concentrations , or amounts. City traffic produces highly concentrated carbon monoxide. Cars and factories produce other common pollutants, including nitrogen oxide , sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons . These chemicals react with sunlight to produce smog , a thick fog or haze of air pollution. The smog is so thick in Linfen, China, that people can seldom see the sun. Smog can be brown or grayish blue, depending on which pollutants are in it. Smog makes breathing difficult, especially for children and older adults. Some cities that suffer from extreme smog issue air pollution warnings. The government of Hong Kong, for example, will warn people not to go outside or engage in strenuous physical activity (such as running or swimming) when smog is very thick.

When air pollutants such as nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide mix with moisture, they change into acids . They then fall back to earth as acid rain . Wind often carries acid rain far from the pollution source. Pollutants produced by factories and power plants in Spain can fall as acid rain in Norway. Acid rain can kill all the trees in a forest . It can also devastate lakes, streams, and other waterways. When lakes become acidic, fish can’t survive . In Sweden, acid rain created thousands of “ dead lakes ,” where fish no longer live. Acid rain also wears away marble and other kinds of stone . It has erased the words on gravestones and damaged many historic buildings and monuments . The Taj Mahal , in Agra, India, was once gleaming white. Years of exposure to acid rain has left it pale. Governments have tried to prevent acid rain by limiting the amount of pollutants released into the air. In Europe and North America, they have had some success, but acid rain remains a major problem in the developing world , especially Asia. Greenhouse gases are another source of air pollution. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane occur naturally in the atmosphere. In fact, they are necessary for life on Earth. They absorb sunlight reflected from Earth, preventing it from escaping into space. By trapping heat in the atmosphere, they keep Earth warm enough for people to live. This is called the greenhouse effect . But human activities such as burning fossil fuels and destroying forests have increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This has increased the greenhouse effect, and average temperatures across the globe are rising. The decade that began in the year 2000 was the warmest on record. This increase in worldwide average temperatures, caused in part by human activity, is called global warming . Global warming is causing ice sheets and glaciers to melt. The melting ice is causing sea levels to rise at a rate of two millimeters (0.09 inches) per year. The rising seas will eventually flood low-lying coastal regions . Entire nations, such as the islands of Maldives, are threatened by this climate change . Global warming also contributes to the phenomenon of ocean acidification . Ocean acidification is the process of ocean waters absorbing more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Fewer organisms can survive in warmer, less salty waters. The ocean food web is threatened as plants and animals such as coral fail to adapt to more acidic oceans. Scientists have predicted that global warming will cause an increase in severe storms . It will also cause more droughts in some regions and more flooding in others. The change in average temperatures is already shrinking some habitats, the regions where plants and animals naturally live. Polar bears hunt seals from sea ice in the Arctic. The melting ice is forcing polar bears to travel farther to find food , and their numbers are shrinking. People and governments can respond quickly and effectively to reduce air pollution. Chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a dangerous form of air pollution that governments worked to reduce in the 1980s and 1990s. CFCs are found in gases that cool refrigerators, in foam products, and in aerosol cans . CFCs damage the ozone layer , a region in Earth’s upper atmosphere. The ozone layer protects Earth by absorbing much of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation . When people are exposed to more ultraviolet radiation, they are more likely to develop skin cancer, eye diseases, and other illnesses. In the 1980s, scientists noticed that the ozone layer over Antarctica was thinning. This is often called the “ ozone hole .” No one lives permanently in Antarctica. But Australia, the home of more than 22 million people, lies at the edge of the hole. In the 1990s, the Australian government began an effort to warn people of the dangers of too much sun. Many countries, including the United States, now severely limit the production of CFCs. Water Pollution Some polluted water looks muddy, smells bad, and has garbage floating in it. Some polluted water looks clean, but is filled with harmful chemicals you can’t see or smell. Polluted water is unsafe for drinking and swimming. Some people who drink polluted water are exposed to hazardous chemicals that may make them sick years later. Others consume bacteria and other tiny aquatic organisms that cause disease. The United Nations estimates that 4,000 children die every day from drinking dirty water. Sometimes, polluted water harms people indirectly. They get sick because the fish that live in polluted water are unsafe to eat. They have too many pollutants in their flesh. There are some natural sources of water pollution. Oil and natural gas, for example, can leak into oceans and lakes from natural underground sources. These sites are called petroleum seeps . The world’s largest petroleum seep is the Coal Oil Point Seep, off the coast of the U.S. state of California. The Coal Oil Point Seep releases so much oil that tar balls wash up on nearby beaches . Tar balls are small, sticky pieces of pollution that eventually decompose in the ocean.

Human activity also contributes to water pollution. Chemicals and oils from factories are sometimes dumped or seep into waterways. These chemicals are called runoff. Chemicals in runoff can create a toxic environment for aquatic life. Runoff can also help create a fertile environment for cyanobacteria , also called blue-green algae . Cyanobacteria reproduce rapidly, creating a harmful algal bloom (HAB) . Harmful algal blooms prevent organisms such as plants and fish from living in the ocean. They are associated with “ dead zones ” in the world’s lakes and rivers, places where little life exists below surface water. Mining and drilling can also contribute to water pollution. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a major contributor to pollution of rivers and streams near coal mines . Acid helps miners remove coal from the surrounding rocks . The acid is washed into streams and rivers, where it reacts with rocks and sand. It releases chemical sulfur from the rocks and sand, creating a river rich in sulfuric acid . Sulfuric acid is toxic to plants, fish, and other aquatic organisms. Sulfuric acid is also toxic to people, making rivers polluted by AMD dangerous sources of water for drinking and hygiene . Oil spills are another source of water pollution. In April 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil rig exploded in the Gulf of Mexico, causing oil to gush from the ocean floor. In the following months, hundreds of millions of gallons of oil spewed into the gulf waters. The spill produced large plumes of oil under the sea and an oil slick on the surface as large as 24,000 square kilometers (9,100 square miles). The oil slick coated wetlands in the U.S. states of Louisiana and Mississippi, killing marsh plants and aquatic organisms such as crabs and fish. Birds, such as pelicans , became coated in oil and were unable to fly or access food. More than two million animals died as a result of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Buried chemical waste can also pollute water supplies. For many years, people disposed of chemical wastes carelessly, not realizing its dangers. In the 1970s, people living in the Love Canal area in Niagara Falls, New York, suffered from extremely high rates of cancer and birth defects . It was discovered that a chemical waste dump had poisoned the area’s water. In 1978, 800 families living in Love Canal had to a bandon their homes. If not disposed of properly, radioactive waste from nuclear power plants can escape into the environment. Radioactive waste can harm living things and pollute the water. Sewage that has not been properly treated is a common source of water pollution. Many cities around the world have poor sewage systems and sewage treatment plants. Delhi, the capital of India, is home to more than 21 million people. More than half the sewage and other waste produced in the city are dumped into the Yamuna River. This pollution makes the river dangerous to use as a source of water for drinking or hygiene. It also reduces the river’s fishery , resulting in less food for the local community. A major source of water pollution is fertilizer used in agriculture . Fertilizer is material added to soil to make plants grow larger and faster. Fertilizers usually contain large amounts of the elements nitrogen and phosphorus , which help plants grow. Rainwater washes fertilizer into streams and lakes. There, the nitrogen and phosphorus cause cyanobacteria to form harmful algal blooms. Rain washes other pollutants into streams and lakes. It picks up animal waste from cattle ranches. Cars drip oil onto the street, and rain carries it into storm drains , which lead to waterways such as rivers and seas. Rain sometimes washes chemical pesticides off of plants and into streams. Pesticides can also seep into groundwater , the water beneath the surface of the Earth. Heat can pollute water. Power plants, for example, produce a huge amount of heat. Power plants are often located on rivers so they can use the water as a coolant . Cool water circulates through the plant, absorbing heat. The heated water is then returned to the river. Aquatic creatures are sensitive to changes in temperature. Some fish, for example, can only live in cold water. Warmer river temperatures prevent fish eggs from hatching. Warmer river water also contributes to harmful algal blooms. Another type of water pollution is simple garbage. The Citarum River in Indonesia, for example, has so much garbage floating in it that you cannot see the water. Floating trash makes the river difficult to fish in. Aquatic animals such as fish and turtles mistake trash, such as plastic bags, for food. Plastic bags and twine can kill many ocean creatures. Chemical pollutants in trash can also pollute the water, making it toxic for fish and people who use the river as a source of drinking water. The fish that are caught in a polluted river often have high levels of chemical toxins in their flesh. People absorb these toxins as they eat the fish. Garbage also fouls the ocean. Many plastic bottles and other pieces of trash are thrown overboard from boats. The wind blows trash out to sea. Ocean currents carry plastics and other floating trash to certain places on the globe, where it cannot escape. The largest of these areas, called the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, is in a remote part of the Pacific Ocean. According to some estimates, this garbage patch is the size of Texas. The trash is a threat to fish and seabirds, which mistake the plastic for food. Many of the plastics are covered with chemical pollutants. Land Pollution Many of the same pollutants that foul the water also harm the land. Mining sometimes leaves the soil contaminated with dangerous chemicals. Pesticides and fertilizers from agricultural fields are blown by the wind. They can harm plants, animals, and sometimes people. Some fruits and vegetables absorb the pesticides that help them grow. When people consume the fruits and vegetables, the pesticides enter their bodies. Some pesticides can cause cancer and other diseases. A pesticide called DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was once commonly used to kill insects, especially mosquitoes. In many parts of the world, mosquitoes carry a disease called malaria , which kills a million people every year. Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize for his understanding of how DDT can control insects and other pests. DDT is responsible for reducing malaria in places such as Taiwan and Sri Lanka. In 1962, American biologist Rachel Carson wrote a book called Silent Spring , which discussed the dangers of DDT. She argued that it could contribute to cancer in humans. She also explained how it was destroying bird eggs, which caused the number of bald eagles, brown pelicans, and ospreys to drop. In 1972, the United States banned the use of DDT. Many other countries also banned it. But DDT didn’t disappear entirely. Today, many governments support the use of DDT because it remains the most effective way to combat malaria. Trash is another form of land pollution. Around the world, paper, cans, glass jars, plastic products, and junked cars and appliances mar the landscape. Litter makes it difficult for plants and other producers in the food web to create nutrients . Animals can die if they mistakenly eat plastic. Garbage often contains dangerous pollutants such as oils, chemicals, and ink. These pollutants can leech into the soil and harm plants, animals, and people. Inefficient garbage collection systems contribute to land pollution. Often, the garbage is picked up and brought to a dump, or landfill . Garbage is buried in landfills. Sometimes, communities produce so much garbage that their landfills are filling up. They are running out of places to dump their trash. A massive landfill near Quezon City, Philippines, was the site of a land pollution tragedy in 2000. Hundreds of people lived on the slopes of the Quezon City landfill. These people made their living from recycling and selling items found in the landfill. However, the landfill was not secure. Heavy rains caused a trash landslide, killing 218 people. Sometimes, landfills are not completely sealed off from the land around them. Pollutants from the landfill leak into the earth in which they are buried. Plants that grow in the earth may be contaminated, and the herbivores that eat the plants also become contaminated. So do the predators that consume the herbivores. This process, where a chemical builds up in each level of the food web, is called bioaccumulation . Pollutants leaked from landfills also leak into local groundwater supplies. There, the aquatic food web (from microscopic algae to fish to predators such as sharks or eagles) can suffer from bioaccumulation of toxic chemicals. Some communities do not have adequate garbage collection systems, and trash lines the side of roads. In other places, garbage washes up on beaches. Kamilo Beach, in the U.S. state of Hawai'i, is littered with plastic bags and bottles carried in by the tide . The trash is dangerous to ocean life and reduces economic activity in the area. Tourism is Hawai'i’s largest industry . Polluted beaches discourage tourists from investing in the area’s hotels, restaurants, and recreational activities. Some cities incinerate , or burn, their garbage. Incinerating trash gets rid of it, but it can release dangerous heavy metals and chemicals into the air. So while trash incinerators can help with the problem of land pollution, they sometimes add to the problem of air pollution. Reducing Pollution Around the world, people and governments are making efforts to combat pollution. Recycling, for instance, is becoming more common. In recycling, trash is processed so its useful materials can be used again. Glass, aluminum cans, and many types of plastic can be melted and reused . Paper can be broken down and turned into new paper. Recycling reduces the amount of garbage that ends up in landfills, incinerators, and waterways. Austria and Switzerland have the highest recycling rates. These nations recycle between 50 and 60 percent of their garbage. The United States recycles about 30 percent of its garbage. Governments can combat pollution by passing laws that limit the amount and types of chemicals factories and agribusinesses are allowed to use. The smoke from coal-burning power plants can be filtered. People and businesses that illegally dump pollutants into the land, water, and air can be fined for millions of dollars. Some government programs, such as the Superfund program in the United States, can force polluters to clean up the sites they polluted. International agreements can also reduce pollution. The Kyoto Protocol , a United Nations agreement to limit the emission of greenhouse gases, has been signed by 191 countries. The United States, the world’s second-largest producer of greenhouse gases, did not sign the agreement. Other countries, such as China, the world’s largest producer of greenhouse gases, have not met their goals. Still, many gains have been made. In 1969, the Cuyahoga River, in the U.S. state of Ohio, was so clogged with oil and trash that it caught on fire. The fire helped spur the Clean Water Act of 1972. This law limited what pollutants could be released into water and set standards for how clean water should be. Today, the Cuyahoga River is much cleaner. Fish have returned to regions of the river where they once could not survive. But even as some rivers are becoming cleaner, others are becoming more polluted. As countries around the world become wealthier, some forms of pollution increase. Countries with growing economies usually need more power plants, which produce more pollutants. Reducing pollution requires environmental, political, and economic leadership. Developed nations must work to reduce and recycle their materials, while developing nations must work to strengthen their economies without destroying the environment. Developed and developing countries must work together toward the common goal of protecting the environment for future use.

How Long Does It Last? Different materials decompose at different rates. How long does it take for these common types of trash to break down?

• Paper: 2-4 weeks
• Orange peel: 6 months
• Milk carton: 5 years
• Plastic bag: 15 years
• Tin can: 100 years
• Plastic bottle: 450 years
• Glass bottle: 500 years
• Styrofoam: Never

Indoor Air Pollution The air inside your house can be polluted. Air and carpet cleaners, insect sprays, and cigarettes are all sources of indoor air pollution.

Light Pollution Light pollution is the excess amount of light in the night sky. Light pollution, also called photopollution, is almost always found in urban areas. Light pollution can disrupt ecosystems by confusing the distinction between night and day. Nocturnal animals, those that are active at night, may venture out during the day, while diurnal animals, which are active during daylight hours, may remain active well into the night. Feeding and sleep patterns may be confused. Light pollution also indicates an excess use of energy. The dark-sky movement is a campaign by people to reduce light pollution. This would reduce energy use, allow ecosystems to function more normally, and allow scientists and stargazers to observe the atmosphere.

Noise Pollution Noise pollution is the constant presence of loud, disruptive noises in an area. Usually, noise pollution is caused by construction or nearby transportation facilities, such as airports. Noise pollution is unpleasant, and can be dangerous. Some songbirds, such as robins, are unable to communicate or find food in the presence of heavy noise pollution. The sound waves produced by some noise pollutants can disrupt the sonar used by marine animals to communicate or locate food.

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Related Resources

Air, Water and Soil Pollution

An Overview

The presence of extremely high concentrations of harmful substances in the environment is known as pollution. This pollution is caused mainly by certain human activities, resulting in environmental pollution that can be harmful to the health of living organisms. Air, water, and soil pollution are the three main kinds of pollution causing health hazards today.

Explore more: Types of Pollution

What are Pollutants?

A pollutant can be defined as any unwanted or harmful substance that pollutes our environment . Generally, certain toxic substances like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide are present in the air in small quantities and are not harmful to us. But when these substances are further present in ways that cannot be tolerated, they become pollutants.

In this article, let us glimpse the air, water and soil pollution along with their causes.

Air pollution

The presence of harmful toxic compounds in extreme quantities in the air results in air pollution. The primary sources of air pollution are harmful gases like sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and other suspended particles.

Air pollution is usually caused by burning fossil fuels like petroleum, and coal-burning of wood and cow dung cakes in homes, factories, vehicles, and power plants. Among all other continents globally, India is the country with the most polluted cities. Lucknow, Kanpur, New Delhi are a few among them because of excessive use of fossil fuels by vehicles and other industrial units.

Explore more: Air Pollution and Its Control

Water pollution

The contamination of water bodies, such as lakes, rivers, oceans, underground water and seas by harmful substances is water pollution. The leading cause of water pollution is sewage, industrial wastes, pesticides and fertilisers from farming.

Polluted water becomes unfit for drinking, bathing, washing, and irrigation . Garbage dumping can also leak out pollutants into underground water.

The major water pollutants are lead, mercury, fertilisers and pesticide compounds. The sewage and industrial wastes from tanning factories are the primary sources of the Ganga river’s pollution.

Explore more: Water Pollution And Its Control

Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is the contamination of soil due to harmful substances. Polluted soil becomes unfit for growing crops and plants, and is usually accompanied by water pollution. The significant causes of soil pollution are over-irrigation, usage of pesticides, dumping of sewage and garbage, deforestation and mining. The most common soil pollutants are heavy metals like lead and mercury, pesticide compounds, salt and mineral ores. These pollutants disturb the soil profile , spoil the soil fertility and make it unfit for growing crops.

Water and soil pollution usually occur together as polluted water seeps into the soil and contaminates it. Pollutants from the soil can leach into groundwater or move into the water bodies when it rains.

Explore more: Soil Pollution

This was a brief introduction to the three significant kinds of pollution.

This article concludes with an introduction to air, water and soil pollution. To know more about pollution, types of pollution, causes, other related topics and important questions on pollution, keep visiting our website, at BYJU’S Biology.

Frequently Asked Questions on Air, Water and Soil Pollution

What are the health impacts of air pollution.

The health impacts from air pollution include breathing difficulties, respiratory irritation, lung diseases and other lungs disorders. It also causes many diseases, allergies, and even death.

What are Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)?

Air pollution causes fumes, dust, mist, and smoke, which are called suspended particulate matter or SPM. It causes many respiratory problems and damages the lungs.

What is a biological pollutant?

Biological pollutants are mostly allergens that can cause hay fever, asthma, and other harmful allergic diseases.

What are the pollutants that cause water pollution?

Water pollution can be caused by several pathogens, inorganic compounds, organic material, and macroscopic pollutants. Apart from these, point sources and nonpoint sources are also considered on the list of water pollution.

List out any five most polluted rivers of India.

The list of most polluted rivers of India are:

• Yamuna River – Delhi
• Mithi River – Mumbai
• Cooum River – Chennai
• Musi River – Hyderabad
• Vrishabhavathi River – Bangalore.

Related Links:

• Types of Waste
• Types of Pollution
• Waste Disposal
• Solid Waste Management
• Causes Of Solid Waste Pollution
• Environmental Issues and Solutions

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Air and Water Pollution Descriptive Essay

Air pollutants, water pollutants, reference list.

Carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide are examples of air pollutants, which cause major damages to the environment. These pollutants are associated with many health problems that affect the respiratory organs. They also affect properties contributing to rusting of metal in vehicles and roofing materials.

They are classified as air pollutants because they affect the air. Carbon monoxide, which is processed by plants, is a hazardous substance emitted to the environment. Thus, it is classified as a primary pollutant because it is the most common pollutants in the environment. Carbon monoxide causes suffocation when inhaled in large quantities (Donald, 2001).

This happens in most cases, especially where people use coal to warm their houses. Carbon monoxide is emitted when coal burns in oxygen. Once emitted in abundance, it leads to death through suffocation. However, this happens when its release in the environment is relatively high.

For example, a house which lacks sufficient air circulation can cause carbon monoxide to accumulate thus affecting the occupants. In the environment, the impact of carbon monoxide is felt overtime, since it leads to respiratory problems. Consequently, Nitrogen oxide also constitutes primary pollutant.

This owe to the fact that, its production is in mass. The main sources of Nitrogen oxide emissions are; power plants and motor vehicles. Nitrogen oxide gas is produced by plants during the process of the nitrogen cycle, and despite being a pollutant; its production cannot be regulated.

In relation to the layers of the atmosphere, these two gases contribute to the destruction of the Ozone layer. The destruction takes place in such a way that it cannot be felt or noticed. However, prolonged process causes global warming. Nitrogen oxide, for example, is produced on a daily basis from plants, and thus, it cannot be controlled.

Consequently, products manufactured from industries emit these gases. The gas emitted diffuses into the environment, producing effects such as; corrosion of Ozone layers of the atmosphere which shelters the earth from dangerous rays of the sun (Donald, 2001).

The excessive emission of sun rays results in the development of skin problems brought about by ultra- violet rays, a good example of a problem caused by this phenomenon is the being skin cancer. Skin Cancer and related cases have increased sharply in the current years.

The most common water pollutants include; pesticides and chlorine. Pesticides get into the water systems when they are being applied to plants. These substances are swept by rain water into water bodies, absorbed into the soil, and in some cases, find their way through soil layers to the underground water (Parks, 2007).

However, the latter option might take a longer duration of continuous usage. Chlorine is believed to be a solution to contaminated water, but in the real sense, it pollutes the water by introducing chemicals. When chlorine interacts with decomposing vegetation, it results in toxic substances considered to form part of the causal agents of cancer.

Consequently, pesticides also play a destructive role to aquatic life. The damages they cause include; suffocating the breeding eggs, and poisoning the plants and animals that thrive in the sea or other water bodies (Parks, 2007).

Chlorine, on the other hand, leads to the formation of chloroform when it interacts with the dead and decomposing plants in water. The normal use of chloroform is to suffocate animals that are being used in experiments. When chlorine is used in a mild form, it serves as a drug that induces the coma, before an operation is conducted.

Donald, R. L. (2001). Air pollution . New York: Children’s Press.

Parks, P. J. (2007). Water pollution . Detroit: KidHaven Press.

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Water, Land and Air Pollution

Water pollution Water pollution is usually caused by human activities. Different human sources add to the pollution of water. There are two sorts of sources, they mostly come from pipelines or sewers and then into the surface water. Nonprofit sources are sources that cannot be traced to a single site of discharge. Examples some sources are: factories, sewage treatment plants, underground mines, oil wells, oil tankers and agriculture, acid deposition room the air, traffic, pollutants that are spread through rivers and pollutants that enter the water through groundwater.

Water pollution can have a drastic impact on aquatic life in any body of water, which can result in the complete elimination Of certain species. Chemical compounds can be toxic to aquatic life Land pollution Land pollution is the demolition of Earth’s land surfaces often caused by human activities and their misuse of land resources. It occurs when waste is not disposed properly. Health hazard disposal of urban and industrial wastes, exploitation of minerals, and improper use of soil by inadequate agricultural.

Primarily caused by industrial contamination, land pollution is a global problem. Becoming aware of the many ways that land becomes polluted, and recognizing the harmful effects of land pollution, is an important step in understanding how it can be remedied. Air pollution Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals or biological materials that cause arm to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere.

Air pollution presents big environmental threat in many parts of the world.

Proficient in: Environmental Science

“ Amazing as always, gave her a week to finish a big assignment and came through way ahead of time. ”

Air pollution includes variety of different harmful chemicals and gases released from our vehicles and our industrial facilities that make our air dirty. Vehicles are the biggest source of air pollution. Air pollution has extremely negative effect on our environment.

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Pollution Essay: An Essay On Air, Water, And Land Pollution

Are you trying to write an ‘environmental pollution essay?’ If so, please follow this article. Here, you will find three different samples of essays on the environment .

I have listed 500, 200, and 100-word essays on the environment. You can follow them and use them as samples to write your own version of the same.

So. without any delay, let’s start.

Pollution Essay 500 Words

Environmental pollution is a very serious yet common issue that has put the current world at fatal risk. The term has become very familiar among adults, youngsters, and children alike. Although pollution existed long before the expansion of human civilization.

Earlier, it was in the form of volcanic eruptions and wildfires. These natural phenomena are used to cause different photochemical reactions in our atmosphere. But, currently, different reasons for which mankind is responsible are polluting the environment. This includes the pollution of the water, the air, soil, sound, and more. Most of these pollutions are caused by humans and the machines that humans make.

What Is Pollution ?

Pollution refers to the presence of any unsolicited substance existing in the atmosphere. These substances contaminate the atmosphere around us. It has been leading to adverse changes making it hard for different life forms to live and thrive naturally.

Types Of Pollution

The pollutants are affecting the environment in three different major aspects. The three kinds of environmental pollution are – 1. Air Pollution, 2. Water Pollution, 3. Water Pollution.

Air Pollution

The main reason for air pollution is the presence of harmful gas and other substances in the air. These harmful substances mainly emit from vehicles, dust and dirt emission, and poisonous gases from different factories. If we want to reduce air pollution, we can start by reducing the use of personal vehicles and avoiding burning things unnecessarily. Filtering the factory gas emission before releasing them into the air is also another positive way to look at it.

Water Pollution

Different contaminators and substances frequently mix with the water bodies like lakes, rivers, oceans, etc. these contaminators make the water toxic for human use and also put the lives of the underwater life forms at stake. These toxic materials contaminating water include – chemical fertilisers, industrial wastes, mining activities, and Sewage and wastewater.

Soil Pollution

The coarse human activities also affect the soil, which provides us with food and shelter. Excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides contaminates the soil. Also, dumping industrial waste, plastic, and different materials are also some of the main reasons for soil pollution. Deforestation at a maximum rate also causes soil erosion and brings about natural calamities like floods.

Effects Of Pollutions

Apart from the three major pollutants, radioactive pollution and noise pollution also cause significant harm to all life forms. Pollution affects human life to a great extent.

Major fatal diseases like lung cancer, asthma, respiratory problems and coronary heart disease are caused by air pollution. Water pollution causes cholera, typhoid, polio, diarrhoea, etc. soil pollution is the reason for different diseases like liver and kidney failure and leukaemia.

In conclusion, different types of pollution are responsible for health hazards, and we should take different measures to fight against all types of pollution. We can reduce air pollution by regulating air through chimneys and reducing the use of public transport.

Reduction of the use of chemicals and detergents and disposal of plastic wastes can help us keep the water clean. We should also keep the soil clean by reducing the use of pesticides and increasing the use of organic fertilisers. The atmosphere and the environment around us keep us alive. We should ensure to sustain it as well.

Pollution Essay 200 words

Pollution of the environment has harmful effects on different life forms living within it. Pollution means the contamination of the atmosphere, air, soil, and water around us. When the existence of certain harmful objects and substances causes the natural state of the environment to degrade, we call it environmental pollution.

There are pollutions three types of – air pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution. Apart from these three major types, there are radioactive pollution, noise pollution and more.

Excessive emissions of carbon dioxide, dirt, and other greenhouse gases from vehicles and factories are some of the man-made causes of air pollution. Industrial factories also dispose of different degradable and non-degradable waste into the water bodies and contaminate them. Excessive use of pesticides and chemical fertilisers is the root cause of soil pollution. On top of that, deforestation causes soil erosion which also adds to soil pollution.

All the different types of pollution have severe effects on humans, animals, plants and the life forms living underwater. Air pollution is the root cause of lung cancer and respiratory problems, while water pollution causes typhoid, cholera, and diarrhoea.

Since the atmosphere and the environment sustain us as a species, it is also our duty to keep it safe. We can take different measures, such as reducing the use of personal transportation, chimney filters, and water purifiers for industrial wastewater and reducing the use of chemical fertilisers. Above all, we need to be very careful and aware of the consequence our actions have on the environment. If we want to save the environment, then this is a good place to start.

Pollution Essay 100 Words

The atmosphere and the environment around us is a very crucial entities for us to be conscious about. It is responsible for our sustenance and evolution. However, due to the presence of different harmful substances in the environment, we are polluting different aspects of it (air, water, and the soil.)

Increasing numbers of industrial factories and their careless disposal of waste and emission of gas is responsible for air pollution. The water is also polluted due to the release of industrial wastewater in different water bodies like lakes, rivers, oceans, etc. These pollutions cause health issues like lung cancer, polio, Leukaemia, and more.

In conclusion, environmental pollution has life changing effects on us, and we can need to take different measures to prevent it from causing further harm to our lives.

Bottom Line

Noise pollution is also another pressing matter causing harm to one of our most necessary senses – the ear. It is also important to take necessary measures to decrease the use of loudspeakers and maintain a peaceful environment around us. However, if you want to write an environmental ‘pollution essay’, you can read the samples above for help.

However, if you have any additional queries, you can leave them in our comment section below. We will ensure to check them as quickly as possible.

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by Chris Woodford . Last updated: November 22, 2022.

Photo: Air pollution is obvious when it pours from a smokestack (chimney), but it's not always so easy to spot. This is an old photo of the kind of smoke that used to come from coal-fired power plants and, apart from soot (unburned carbon particles), its pollutants include sulfur dioxide and the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Thanks to tougher pollution controls, modern power plants produce only a fraction as much pollution. Modern pollution made by traffic consists of gases like nitrogen dioxide and "particulates" (microscopic soot and dust fragments) that are largely invisible.

What is air pollution?

Air pollution is a gas (or a liquid or solid dispersed through ordinary air) released in a big enough quantity to harm the health of people or other animals, kill plants or stop them growing properly, damage or disrupt some other aspect of the environment (such as making buildings crumble), or cause some other kind of nuisance (reduced visibility, perhaps, or an unpleasant odor).

Natural air pollution

Photo: Forest fires are a completely natural cause of air pollution. We'll never be able to prevent them breaking out or stop the pollution they cause; our best hope is to manage forests, where we can, so fires don't spread. Ironically, that can mean deliberately burning areas of forest, as shown here, to create firebreaks. Forests are also deliberately burned to regenerate ecosystems. Photo by courtesy of US Fish and Wildlife Service .

Top-ten kinds of air pollution Photo: Flying molecules—if you could see air pollution close up, this is what it would look like. Image courtesy of US Department of Energy. Any gas could qualify as pollution if it reached a high enough concentration to do harm. Theoretically, that means there are dozens of different pollution gases. It's important to note that not all the things we think of as pollution are gases: some are aerosols (liquids or solids dispersed through gases). In practice, about ten different substances cause most concern: Sulfur dioxide : Coal, petroleum, and other fuels are often impure and contain sulfur as well as organic (carbon-based) compounds. When sulfur (spelled "sulphur" in some countries) burns with oxygen from the air, sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is produced. Coal-fired power plants are the world's biggest source of sulfur-dioxide air pollution, which contributes to smog, acid rain, and health problems that include lung disease. [5] Large amounts of sulfur dioxide are also produced by ships, which use dirtier diesel fuel than cars and trucks. [6] Carbon monoxide : This highly dangerous gas forms when fuels have too little oxygen to burn completely. It spews out in car exhausts and it can also build up to dangerous levels inside your home if you have a poorly maintained gas boiler , stove, or fuel-burning appliance. (Always fit a carbon monoxide detector if you burn fuels indoors.) [7] Carbon dioxide : This gas is central to everyday life and isn't normally considered a pollutant: we all produce it when we breathe out and plants such as crops and trees need to "breathe" it in to grow. However, carbon dioxide is also a greenhouse gas released by engines and power plants. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, it's been building up in Earth's atmosphere and contributing to the problem of global warming and climate change . [8] Nitrogen oxides : Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) and nitrogen oxide (NO) are pollutants produced as an indirect result of combustion, when nitrogen and oxygen from the air react together. Nitrogen oxide pollution comes from vehicle engines and power plants, and plays an important role in the formation of acid rain, ozone and smog. Nitrogen oxides are also "indirect greenhouse gases" (they contribute to global warming by producing ozone, which is a greenhouse gas). [9] Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) : These carbon-based (organic) chemicals evaporate easily at ordinary temperatures and pressures, so they readily become gases. That's precisely why they're used as solvents in many different household chemicals such as paints , waxes, and varnishes. Unfortunately, they're also a form of air pollution: they're believed to have long-term (chronic) effects on people's health and they play a role in the formation of ozone and smog. VOCs are also released by tobacco smoke and wildfires. [10] Particulates : There are many different kinds of particulates, from black soot in diesel exhaust to dust and organic matter from the desert. Airborne liquid droplets from farm pollution also count as particulates. Particulates of different sizes are often referred to by the letters PM followed by a number, so PM 10 means soot particles of less than 10 microns (10 millionths of a meter or 10µm in diameter, roughly 10 times thinner than a thick human hair). The smaller ("finer") the particulates, the deeper they travel into our lungs and the more dangerous they are. PM 2.5 particulates are much more dangerous (they're less than 2.5 millionths of a meter or about 40 times thinner than a typical hair). In cities, most particulates come from traffic fumes. [11] Ozone : Also called trioxygen, this is a type of oxygen gas whose molecules are made from three oxygen atoms joined together (so it has the chemical formula O 3 ), instead of just the two atoms in conventional oxygen (O 2 ). In the stratosphere (upper atmosphere), a band of ozone ("the ozone layer") protects us by screening out harmful ultraviolet radiation (high-energy blue light) beaming down from the Sun. At ground level, it's a toxic pollutant that can damage health. It forms when sunlight strikes a cocktail of other pollution and is a key ingredient of smog (see box below). [12] Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) : Once thought to be harmless, these gases were widely used in refrigerators and aerosol cans until it was discovered that they damaged Earth's ozone layer. We discuss this in more detail down below. [13] Unburned hydrocarbons : Petroleum and other fuels are made of organic compounds based on chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms. When they burn properly, they're completely converted into harmless carbon dioxide and water ; when they burn incompletely, they can release carbon monoxide or float into the air in their unburned form, contributing to smog. Lead and heavy metals : Lead and other toxic "heavy metals" can be spread into the air either as toxic compounds or as aerosols (when solids or liquids are dispersed through gases and carried through the air by them) in such things as exhaust fumes and the fly ash (contaminated waste dust) from incinerator smokestacks. [14] What are the causes of air pollution?

Photo: Even in the age of electric cars, traffic remains a major cause of air pollution. Photo by Warren Gretz courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (NREL photo id#46361).

Photo: Brown smog lingers over Denver, Colorado. Photo by Warren Gretz courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (NREL photo id#56919).

Chart: Most of the world's major cities routinely exceed World Health Organization (WHO) air pollution guidelines, though progress is being made: you can see that the 2022 figures (green) show a marked improvement on the 2016 ones (orange) in almost every case. This chart compares annual mean PM 2.5 levels in 12 representative cities around the world with the recently revised (2021) WHO guideline value of 5μg per cubic meter (dotted line). PM 2.5 particulates are those smaller than 2.5 microns and believed to be most closely linked with adverse health effects. For more about this chart and the data sources used, see note [22] .

Photo: Smokestacks billowing pollution over Moscow, Russia in 1994. Factory pollution is much less of a problem than it used to be in the world's "richer" countries—partly because a lot of their industry has been exported to nations such as China, India, and Mexico. Photo by Roger Taylor courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) .

What effects does air pollution have?

Photo: Air pollution can cause a variety of lung diseases and other respiratory problems. This chest X ray shows a lung disease called emphysema in the patient's left lung. A variety of things can cause it, including smoking and exposure to air pollution. Photo courtesy of National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) and National Institutes of Health.

" In 2016, 91% of the world population was living in places where the WHO air quality guidelines levels were not met." World Health Organization , 2018

Photo: For many years, the stonework on the Parthenon in Athens, Greece has been blackened by particulates from traffic pollution, but other sources of pollution, such as wood-burning stoves, are increasingly significant. Photo by Michael M. Reddy courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey .

How air pollution works on different scales

Indoor air pollution.

Photo: Air freshener—or air polluter?

Further reading

Acid rain—a closer look.

Photo: Acid rain can turn lakes so acidic that fish no longer survive. Picture courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Division of Public Affairs. Why does that matter? Pure water is neither acidic nor alkaline but completely neutral (we say it has an acidity level or pH of 7.0). Ordinary rainwater is a little bit more acidic than this with about the same acidity as bananas (roughly pH 5.5), but if rain falls through sulfur dioxide pollution it can turn much more acidic (with a pH of 4.5 or lower, which is the same acidity as orange or lemon juice). When acid rain accumulates in lakes or rivers, it gradually turns the entire water more acidic. That's a real problem because fish thrive only in water that is neutral or slightly acidic (typically with a pH of 6.5–7.0). Once the acidity drops below about pH 6.0, fish soon start to die—and if the pH drops to about 4.0 or less, all the fish will be killed. Acid rain has caused major problems in lakes throughout North America and Europe. It also causes the death of forests, reduces the fertility of soil, and damages buildings by eating away stonework (the marble on the US Capitol in Washington, DC has been eroded by acid-rain, for example). One of the biggest difficulties in tackling acid rain is that it can happen over very long distances. In one notable case, sulfur dioxide air pollution produced by power plants in the UK was blamed for causing acid rain that fell on Scandinavian countries such as Norway, producing widespread damage to forests and the deaths of thousands of fish in acidified lakes. The British government refused to acknowledge the problem and that was partly why the UK became known as the "dirty man of Europe" in the 1980s and 1990s. [18] Acid rain was a particular problem in the last 30–40 years of the 20th century. Thanks to the decline in coal-fired power plants, and the sulfur dioxide they spewed out, it's less of a problem for western countries today. But it's still a big issue in places like India, where coal remains a major source of energy. Global air pollution It's hard to imagine doing anything so dramatic and serious that it would damage our entire, enormous planet—but, remarkable though it may seem, we all do things like this everyday, contributing to problems such as global warming and the damage to the ozone layer (two separate issues that are often confused). Global warming Every time you ride in a car, turn on the lights, switch on your TV , take a shower, microwave a meal, or use energy that's come from burning a fossil fuel such as oil, coal, or natural gas, you're almost certainly adding to the problem of global warming and climate change: unless it's been produced in some environmentally friendly way, the energy you're using has most likely released carbon dioxide gas into the air. While it's not an obvious pollutant, carbon dioxide has gradually built up in the atmosphere, along with other chemicals known as greenhouse gases . Together, these gases act a bit like a blanket surrounding our planet that is slowly making the mean global temperature rise, causing the climate (the long-term pattern of our weather) to change, and producing a variety of different effects on the natural world, including rising sea levels. Read more in our main article about global warming and climate change . Ozone holes

How can we solve the problem of air pollution?

Photo: Pollution solution: an electrostatic smoke precipitator helps to prevent air pollution from this smokestack at the McNeil biomass power plant in Burlington, VT. Photo by Warren Gretz courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).

What can you do to help reduce air pollution?

Photo: Buying organic food reduces the use of sprayed pesticides and other chemicals, so it helps to reduce air (as well as water) pollution.

If you liked this article...

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• Climate change and global warming
• Environmentalism (introduction)
• Land pollution
• Organic food and farming
• Renewable energy
• Water pollution

• Breathless: Why Air Pollution Matters—and How it Affects You by Chris Woodford. Icon, 2021. My new book explores the problem in much more depth than I've been able to go into here. You can also read a bonus chapter called Angels with dirty faces: How air pollution blackens our buildings and monuments .
• The Invisible Killer: The Rising Global Threat of Air Pollution and How We Can Fight Back by Gary Fuller. Melville House, 2018.
• Reducing Pollution and Waste by Jen Green. Raintree/Capstone, 2011. A 48-page introduction for ages 9–12. The emphasis here is on getting children to think about pollution: where it comes from, who makes it, and who should solve the problem.
• Pollution Crisis by Russ Parker. Rosen, 2009. A 32-page guide for ages 8–10. It starts with a global survey of the problem; looks at air, water, and land pollution; then considers how we all need to be part of the solution.
• Earth Matters by Lynn Dicks et al. Dorling Kindersley, 2008. This isn't specifically about pollution. Instead, it explores how a range of different environmental problems are testing life to the limit in the planet's major biomes (oceans, forests, and so on). I wrote the section of this book that covers the polar regions.
• State of Global Air : One of the best sources of global air pollution data.
• American Lung Association: State of the Air Report : A good source of data about the United States.
• European Environment Agency: Air quality in Europe : A definitive overview of the situation in the European countries.
• World Health Organization (WHO) Ambient (outdoor) air pollution in cities database : A spreadsheet of pollution data for most major cities in the world (a little out of date, but a new version is expected soon).
• Our World in Data : Accessible guides to global data from Oxford University.
• The New York Times Topics: Air Pollution
• The Guardian: Pollution
• Wired: Pollution
• 'Invisible killer': fossil fuels caused 8.7m deaths globally in 2018, research finds by Oliver Milman. The Guardian, February 9, 2021. Pollution of various kinds causes something like one in five of all deaths.
• Millions of masks distributed to students in 'gas chamber' Delhi : BBC News, 1 November 2019.
• 90% of world's children are breathing toxic air, WHO study finds by Matthew Taylor. The Guardian, October 29, 2018. The air pollution affecting billions of children could continue to harm their health throughout their lives.
• Pollution May Dim Thinking Skills, Study in China Suggests by Mike Ives. The New York Times, August 29, 2018. Long-term exposure to air pollution seems to cause a decline in cognitive skills.
• Global pollution kills 9m a year and threatens 'survival of human societies' by Damian Carrington. The Guardian, October 19, 2017. Air, water, and land pollution kill millions, cost trillions, and threaten the very survival of humankind, a new study reveals.
• India's Air Pollution Rivals China's as World's Deadliest by Geeta Anand. The New York Times, February 14, 2017. High levels of pollution could be killing 1.1 million Indians each year.
• More Than 9 in 10 People Breathe Bad Air, WHO Study Says by Mike Ives. The New York Times, September 27, 2016. New WHO figures suggest the vast majority of us are compromising our health by breathing bad air.
• Study Links 6.5 Million Deaths Each Year to Air Pollution by Stanley Reed. The New York Times, June 26, 2016. Air pollution deaths are far greater than previously supposed according to a new study by the International Energy Agency.
• UK air pollution 'linked to 40,000 early deaths a year' by Michelle Roberts, BBC News, February 23, 2016. Diesel engines, cigarette smoke, and even air fresheners are among the causes of premature death from air pollution.
• This Wearable Detects Pollution to Build Air Quality Maps in Real Time by Davey Alba. Wired, November 19, 2014. A wearable pollution gadget lets people track their exposure to air pollution through a smartphone app.
• Air pollution and public health: emerging hazards and improved understanding of risk by Frank J. Kelly and Julia C. Fussell, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2015
• Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect by C.A. Pope and D.W. Dockery. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 2006
• Ambient and household air pollution: complex triggers of disease by Stephen A. Farmer et al, Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 2014

Text copyright © Chris Woodford 2010, 2022. All rights reserved. Full copyright notice and terms of use .

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• Water Pollution Essay

Water Pollution and How it Harms the Environment

Global pollution is a problem. Pollution can spread to remote areas where no one lives, despite the fact that urban areas are typically more polluted than the countryside. Air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution are the three main categories of pollution. Some contaminated water has a terrible smell, a muddy appearance, and floating trash. Some contaminated water appears clean, but it contains dangerous substances that you can't see or smell.

Together, developed and developing nations must fight to conserve the environment for present and future generations. Today, we dig deep into the subject of Water Pollution. This article can be an introduction to water pollution for kids as we will read many things such as the causes of water pollution further in the article.

What is Water Pollution?

Water contamination occurs when pollutants pollute water sources and make the water unfit for use in drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other activities. Chemicals, garbage, bacteria, and parasites are examples of pollutants. Water is eventually damaged by all types of pollution. Lakes and oceans become contaminated by air pollution. Land contamination may contaminate an underground stream, a river, and ultimately the ocean. As a result, trash thrown on an empty lot can eventually contaminate a water source.

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Water Pollution

The water cycle, called  the hydrological cycle, involves the following steps:

Evaporation- Because of the sun's heat, the water bodies such as oceans, lakes, seas etc., get heated up, and water evaporates in the air, forming water vapours.

Transpiration- Like evaporation, the plants and trees also lose water from them which goes to the atmosphere. This process is called transpiration.

Condensation- As the water evaporates, it starts to become cool because of the cold atmosphere in the air and because of this cooling down of water leads to the formation of clouds.

Precipitation- Because of the high movements of the wings, the clouds start to collide and then fall back to the earth’s surface in the form of rain. Sometimes they also fall back in the form of snow, hail, sleet etc., depending upon the temperature.

Runoff or Infiltration- After precipitation, the water either flows to the water bodies called runoff or is absorbed into the soil, called infiltration.

Causes of Water Pollution

There are many reasons for water pollution. Some of the reasons are directly affected by water pollution and some indirectly. Many factories and industries are dumping contaminated water, chemicals, and heavy metals into major waterways as a result of direct water pollution. 

One more reason for water pollution is the use of modern techniques in farms. Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge. It causes farms to discharge large quantities of agrochemicals, organic matter, and saline drainage into water bodies. It indirectly affects water pollution.

Pollutants can be of various types such as organic, inorganic, radioactive etc. Water pollutants are discharged either from one point from pipes, channels etc., which are called point sources or from various other sources. They can be agricultural areas, industries etc., called dispersed sources. 

Some of the major forms of water pollutants are as follows:

Sewage- Domestic sewage from homes contains various forms of pathogens that threaten the human body. Sewage treatment reduces the risk of pathogens, but this risk is not eliminated. 

Domestic sewage majorly contains nitrates and phosphates, and excess of these substances allows the algae to grow on the surface of water bodies. Due to this, the clean water bodies become nutrient-rich water body and then slowly, the oxygen level of water bodies reduces. This is called eutrophication or cultural eutrophication (if this step rapidly takes place by the activities of humans). This leads to the early death of water bodies.

Toxins- The industrial or factory wastes that are not disposed of properly and contain chemicals such as mercury and lead are disposed of in the water bodies making the bodies toxic, radioactive, explosive and cancerous.

Sediments- Sediments are the result of soil erosion that is formed in the water bodies. These sediments imbalances the water bodies ecologically. They also interfere in the reproductive cycle of various aquatic animals living in the water.

Thermal pollution- Water bodies get polluted because of heat, and excess heat reduces the oxygen level of the water bodies. Some of the species of fish cannot live in such water bodies with very low oxygen levels. The disposal of cold waters from the power plants leads to increased thermal pollution in the water bodies.

Petroleum oil pollution- The runoff of oil into the water bodies, either accidentally as happened in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico, or intentionally, leads to an increase in water pollution.

As water is an important element of human health, polluted water directly affects the human body. Water pollution causes various diseases like typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, cancer, etc. Water pollution damages the plants and aquatic animals present in the river by reducing the oxygen content from the water. Polluted water washes the essential nutrients which plants need out of the soil and also leaves large amounts of aluminium in the soil, which can be harmful to plants. 

Wastewater and sewage are a by-product of daily life and thus produced by each household through various activities like using soap, toilets, and detergents. Such sewage contains chemicals and bacteria which are harmful to human life and environmental health. Water pollution also leads to an imbalance in our ecosystem. Lastly, it also affects the food chain as the toxins in the water bodies are consumed by aquatic animals like fish, crabs etc., and then humans consume those animals forming turmoil. 

Sometimes our tradition also becomes a cause for water pollution. Some people throw the statues of deities, flowers, pots, and ashes in rivers.

There are various standards to define water quality standards. Water meant for swimming may not be clean enough for drinking, or water meant for bathing may not be good for cooking. Therefore, there are different water standards for defined:

Stream standards- Standards that define streams, lakes, oceans or seas based on their maximum use.

Effluent standards- Define the specific standards for the level of contaminants or effluents allowed during the final discharge of those into the water bodies.

Drinking water standards- Define the level of contamination allowed in water that will be supplied for drinking or cooking in the domestic areas.

Different countries regulate their water quality standards through different acts and amendments.

While many of the solutions for water pollution need to be applied on a broader macro-level for that individual, companies, and communities can have a significant and responsible impact on the water quality. Companies, factories have to dispose of leftover chemicals and containers properly as per the product instructions. Farmers also have to reduce the use of nitrates and phosphates from fertilizers, pesticides, and contamination of groundwater. 

The Swachh Bharat Mission of the government had led to reduced groundwater contamination. Under the Namami Ganga program, the government has initiated several major projects to clean Ganga. Along with all these steps, conservation of water is the very basic and important step towards water conservation and should be followed globally, treatment of sewage before their disposal in the water bodies and using environment-friendly products that do not form toxins when dissolved in water. These are some small steps that have to be taken into consideration by every human being.

As we all know, “Water is life’s matter and matrix, mother and medium. There is no life without water.” We have to save water. We must keep the water clean. If everyone will follow their responsibility against water to protect it from getting polluted then it will be easy to get clean and healthy drinking water. Clean water is a must for us and our kids' present, future, and healthy environment. 

We cannot just live with contaminated waters filled with toxins and no oxygen. We cannot see our wildlife being destroyed and therefore, immediate steps have to be taken by groups of people to first clean the already contaminated water bodies and then keep a check on all the surrounding water bodies. Small steps by every individual can make a huge difference in controlling water pollution.

Water Pollution Prevention

Conserve Water 

Our first priority should be to conserve water. Water wasting could be a big problem for the entire world, but we are just now becoming aware of it.

Sewage Treatment 

Cleaning up waste materials before disposing of them in waterways reduces pollution on a large scale. By lowering its dangerous elements, this wastewater will be used in other sectors or in agriculture.

Usage of Eco-Friendly Materials

We will reduce the amount of pollution produced by choosing soluble products that do not alter to become pollutants.

Water contamination is the discharge of pollutants into the water body, where they dissolve, are suspended, are deposited on the bottom, and collect to the point where they hinder the aquatic ecosystem's ability to function. Water contamination is brought on by toxic compounds that easily dissolve and combine with it and come from factories, municipalities, and farms.

Healthy ecosystems depend on a complex network of organisms, including animals, plants, bacteria, and fungi, all of which interact with one another either directly or indirectly. In this article, we read about water pollution, its causes and prevention. With this, we have come to the end of our article, in case of any other doubts, feel free to ask in the comments.

FAQs on Water Pollution Essay

1. What are the effects of water pollution?

Water pollution has a great impact on human health. Water pollution kills. It's been recorded that in 2015 nearly 1.8 million people died because of water pollution. People with low income are exposed to contaminated water coming out from the industries. Presence of disease causing pathogens in drinking water are the major cause of illness which includes cholera, giardia, and typhoid. Water pollution not only affects human health but also our environment by causing algal bloom in a lake or marine environment. Water pollution also causes eutrophication which suffocates plants and animals and thus causes dead zones. Chemicals and heavy metals from industrial and municipal wastewater contaminate waterways and harm aquatic life.

2. What are the causes of Water pollution?

Water being a universal solvent is vulnerable to pollution as it dissolves more substances than any other liquid on earth. Therefore, water is easily polluted. Toxic substances from farms, towns, and factories readily dissolve into water and mix with it, resulting in water pollution. Agricultural pollution is one of the major causes of contamination in rivers and streams. The use of excessive fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste from farms and livestock operations lets the rain wash the nutrients and pathogens—such as bacteria and viruses—into our waterways. The other major cause of water pollution is used water,  termed as wastewater which comes from our sinks, showers, toilets and from commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities. It's been reported that the world's 80% wastewater flows back into the environment without being treated or reused. Oil spills and radioactive waste also cause water pollution to a great extent.

3. How to prevent water pollution?

It is important to keep our water bodies clean so we can take the following preventive measures to prevent from water pollution:

Chemicals like bleach, paint, paint thinner, ammonia, and many chemicals are becoming a serious problem. Dumping toxic chemicals down the drain or flushing them down the toilet can cause water pollution. Thus, proper disposal is important. Also, household chemicals need to be recycled.

Avoid buying products that contain persistent and dangerous chemicals. Buying non-toxic cleaners and biodegradable cleaners and pesticides cut down on water pollution.

Prevent from pouring fats or greasy substances down the drain as it might clog the drain resulting in the dumping of waste into yards or basement which can contaminate the local water bodies.

4. What is the role of medical institutions in polluting the water?

Pharmaceutical pollution affects aquatic life and thus there is a need to take preventive measures. Consumers are responsible for winding up pharmaceutical and personal care products in lakes, rivers, and streams. There's a lot of unused and expired medication that can potentially get into the water if not disposed of properly.

5. What are the major kinds of pollution?

The three main types of pollution are air pollution, water pollution or soil pollution. Some artificial pollution is also there, such as noise pollution. Factors leading to such pollution include:

Air Pollution: Industrial emissions, fires, traffic and transportation, burning of chemical waste, etc.

Water Pollution: No proper sewage disposal, pesticides in farms leaking into water bodies, industrial waste dumped into water bodies, etc.

Soil Pollution:  Oil spills, acid rains, irresponsible disposal of trash, chemical waste, etc.

Noise Pollution: Honking of horns, construction activities, loud parties, etc.

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Essay on Pollution – Air, Water, Soil, Land and Noise Pollution

February 2, 2021 by Study Mentor Leave a Comment

Students who are looking for a short essay on Pollution in English can refer to this page. On this page, we have provided all the necessary information such as what is pollution, the effects of pollution, types of pollution, and prevention of pollution in detail. Read on to find out more. 

Table of Contents

Pollution Essay In English 100 – 1000 Words

Introduction:  .

Our environment is the most important place which needs to be pollution-free in order to live a healthy life. However, our ecosystem is harmed today due to pollution. One of the main causes of pollution is due to human-made activities. Being a human, we should play a major role in the prevention of pollution to save our mother earth.

What is Pollution?

Pollution is the process of introducing harmful materials into the natural environment that causes an adverse effect on our health and ecosystem. These harmful materials are called pollutants. Pollutants can either take place naturally or by human activities. Now let’s understand how many types of pollution and how they are caused.

What are the types of Pollution?

There are namely 4 types of pollution and they are listed below:

Air Pollution

Water pollution.

• Soil Pollution

Noise Pollution

Air pollution definition.

The mixture of harmful particles and gases in the air is known as Air Pollution.

Air Pollution Causes:  

This air pollution might be caused due to emission of harmful gases from chemical factories, the burning of fossil fuels, the discharge of gases from vehicles, the burning of plastics, or other materials.  

Effects of Air Pollution: 

The 5 effects of air pollution are 

• Respiratory health problems  
• Global Warming
• Skin Problems
• Poor Soil Quality

Water Pollution Definition: 

When toxic and harmful materials get dissolved in water bodies such as ponds, lakes, rivers, etc. is known as Water Pollution. 

Water Pollution Causes : 

Water Pollution is caused in several ways viz., Industrial waste discharge in water, sewage water discharge, oil pollution, sedimentation, toxic wastes, etc., 

Effects of Water Pollution:  

The 5 effects of Water Pollution are 

• Consuming polluted water causes health issues for living organisms
• Drinking water scarcity
• Destruction of biodiversity
• Ecosystem damage
• Death of Animals

Soil Pollution : 

The presence of corrosive and harmful chemicals in soil is known as Soil Pollution. 

Soil Pollution Causes: Due to biological agents, urban and industrial waste, or radioactive pollutants the soil pollution will occur. Sometimes, soil pollution does occur naturally when soil contaminants exceed natural levels.

Effects of Soil Pollution:  

The 5 effects of Soil Pollution are 

• Neuromuscular blockade
• Depression of the central nervous system
• Skin problems
• Eye irritation
• Health problems for humans and animals

Noise Pollution: 

Noise pollution is otherwise called sound pollution which is the dispersion of noise with ranging impacts on human and animal life activities. 

Noise Pollution Causes:  

Noise pollution is caused due to machinery sounds, transports, drilling, construction activities, or household chores.

  Effects of Noise Pollution:  

The 5 effects of Noise pollution are 

• Hearing problems
• Sleep disturbances
• Stress development
• Heart diseases
• High Blood Pressure

Prevention of Pollution

Pollution Prevention (P2) or Prevention of Pollution is the process of reducing pollution that affects human life and the ecosystem. Reducing pollution is important in order to live healthy, disease-free, and to save our ecosystem. The 10 ways how we can prevent pollution are listed below:

Other Essays on Pollution

• Essay on Marine Pollution
• Essay on Land Pollution
• Essay on Soil Pollution
• Essay on Radioactive Pollution
• Essay on Water Pollution
• Essay on Anti Pollution
• Essay on Noise Pollution
• Essay on Air Pollution
• Essay on Environmental Pollution

10 Types To Reduce Pollution

• One should avoid burning harmful chemicals, trash, and other wastes
• Use public transportation instead of own vehicles
• Use eco-friendly vehicles such as bicycles
• Reduce, Recycle, Reuse the materials
• Avoid plastic bags. Use cloth or paper bags
• Say no to fireworks
• Avoid firing the crackers
• Turn off the electrical appliances when they are not in use
• Plant more trees
• Say no to tissues. Use cotton clothes instead of tissues.

Conclusion : 

Pollution does not only cause a negative impact on human lives and animal lives but also on our environment. Being a reliable citizen, it is our duty to protect our environment by preventing the pollution-causing activities in our surroundings.  

Tips For Writing Essay on Pollution

To stand out from the crowd, make use of the following tips while writing a Pollution Essay:

• While writing the Pollution Essay, try to draw simple illustrations of how our earth is polluted by humans.
• Highlight all the headings while writing the Essay on Pollution. This will help the reader to directly jump into the topic which they want to know about.
• Try to use statistics like how pollution has been increased in recent years.
• Try to use quotes, proverbs, thoughts after a paragraph. 
• While writing an Essay on Pollution you can use the following quotes to make the essay more engaging to the reader. “Be a solution, not a Pollution”, “Plant Trees and say no to Pollution”, “Pollution is turning our Mother Earth into Grey” etc., 

 Essay On Pollution –  FAQs

The frequently asked questions regarding Pollution are given below:

• Write 10 lines on Pollution?

The 10 lines on Pollution are given below:

• Pollution is caused due when harmful materials get mixed with the natural environment causing adverse effects on the ecosystem.
• The harmful materials which are associated with the environment are known as pollutants.
• There are 4 types of pollution viz., Air Pollution, Water Pollution, Soil Pollution, and Noise Pollution.
• Pollution causes the spread of various diseases into the natural environment.
• Due to the pollution, the distinct species are vanishing.
• We have to reduce pollution in order to save our ecosystem and live a healthy life.
• We should always opt for public transport instead of our own vehicles.
• We should avoid burning fossil fuels or chemical substances.
• We should always try to reduce, reuse and recycle our day-to-day resources.
• We should plant more trees to keep our environment pollution-free.
• What are the 7 types of Pollution?

The 7 major types of Pollutions are given below:

Land Pollution

• Radioactive Pollution
• Thermal Pollution
• What are the 2 sources of pollution?

The 2 sources of pollution are due to industries and transports.

Now that you are provided with an Essay on Pollution and we hope this Pollution Essay is helpful for you. If you have any questions related to Pollution Short Essay, reach us through the comment box below and we will get back to you as soon as possible.

Essay on Pollution 2

Pollution is the biggest issue that our planet is facing right now. The word pollution means the degradation of any natural resource like the land, water, and the air by contaminating it by various means.

Humans are highly responsible for every kind of pollution that exists today. Earlier only air pollution was known, but today along with air, water, land, and even noise pollution is known. With an increase in human’s greed and ambition, human has indiscriminately increased the level of pollution out the planet earth.

The earth was beautiful and green at the beginning of civilization.

With an increase in population and growth in industrialization, the weather condition also damaged. It is also because of pollution. We see less rainfall in the rainy season, scorching heat in summers, and even unbearable cold in winter. These all are due to the increase in pollutants and pollution in the atmosphere.

Effects of Pollution:-

Pollution affects human life more than it is realized. The effect of pollution is not seen immediately, but it takes time to show its effect. Like, let us say pollution is the virtue by which various diseases born day by day. For example, maximum lung disease is caused by air pollution.

So the human lung may not have damaged in a single day, but with time it becomes small, and the absorption of oxygen level shortens. Hence makes the person ill. Asthma, SARS, etc., all these diseases, the primary source is the increase of gases like carbon, sulfur, etc., in the air.

Our eyes can’t see the presence of these gases, but they exist, and ill-effect can be felt in our bodies. Another dangerous effect of pollution is global warming. With the various poisonous and other gases reacts with other in the air and form the different class of carbon-oxides like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxides, carbon tetra oxides, etc. The increase in the number of carbon dioxide results in global warming.

The presence of carbon monoxide is still hazardous. Many small creatures like insects and little birds die, even inhaling carbon monoxide, as it is a very poisonous carbon compound.

To the next level of ignorance, human polluted water bodies in the name of growth in industrialization. As we know, the primary industry established near the water bodies since the supply of products is accessible from there. Also, the dumping of industrial wastage is easy.

The acidic and liquid wastage is directly transported to the water available. Hence these contaminate the source of water in the location of the industry. Both industrial and home waste is dumped mercilessly in water. It creates a shortage of drinking water availability.

Moreover, the way wastage dumped over the land makes it infertile, and due to soil decomposition, the area becomes toxic. In this way, the infertility rate of land increases day by day. It may result at the end of fertile land, and that day I am afraid, growing crops will become impossible.

These are some of the many ill-effects of pollution over the land, water, and air. If pollution is not checked and brought under control, the lives on the earth become impossible. It may not be an exaggeration that lives on the planet is in an alarming situation, and we have to take some measures to control pollution soon.

Types of Pollution

The contamination of air with hazardous gases like sulfur, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other dangerous gases and dust, etc. is known is air pollution. These gases degrade the quality of air, and breathing them is havoc on health. But we cannot stop to breathe in, so the need of the time is to make our air clean and fit to breathe in.

Due to air pollution, the ozone layer, which protects us from the ultraviolet rays of the Sun, has started depleted. Because of which a significant increase in temperature has been recording, which is commonly known as   global warming .

If we look at history, we will find that most civilizations have their root at the banks of the river. Whether it is Harappa Civilization or Mohenjo-Daro, all started their journey with the blessing of our water bodies. No life can exist without water on the earth’s surface. Even on Moon or Mars, scientists are searching for a trace of water, to examine the hope of life. Our Mother Earth has provided us the source of experience in the face of Waterbodies.

The garbage from houses and societies, the water-soluble chemical from factories, the residuals of detergent and oils, all of it is thrown in the water bodies like pond or river nearby. Hence it contaminates the water, making it unfit for drinking. Due to these reasons, drinking water is no longer safe for humans and animals. It also causes diseases related to digestion.

With the increase in the number of fertilizers and pesticides such as DDT spraying for yielding of crops, protecting them from insects, and using water with a high quantity of salt in it makes the land unusable and unproductive and degrade its fertility. It is called Land Pollution.

Soil erosion has also increased due to the construction of concrete jungles and deforestation. Builders for their gain convert the fertile land into unfertile land and build apartments and malls. Due to this, the agricultural land demonizes and minimizes production in terms of agro-products every year, making the daily chores expensive.

Noise generated by vehicles and factories causes noise pollution. These are unpleasant, which may hurt humans and animals seriously. The unwanted honks of cars, motorcycles, etc. are one of the prominent problems today.    

How to reduce pollution?

With the discussion made above, we may not understand the harmful and dangerous effects and results of pollution can be. Be it is due to industrialization or modernization of society, pollution can never be fruitful in the future.

We must preserve good air quality, water sustainability, and land fertility for our future generation. For this, we must check our habits to stop the spread of pollution in all its form.

First of all, what we can do is the use of public transport or carpool or the use of bicycles to our daily conveyance to office or market place. It will result in less emission of harmful gases and smoke in the air, and air pollution can be controlled along with the noise created due to honks of the vehicles that can also be controlled.

The government must prevent the dumping of industrial wastage in water bodies. It would help in keeping drinking water safe. Further, at the individual level, we must learn to reuse and recycle. The poly bags must be reused to its strength and then recovered with the help of various recycling methods so that It may not contaminate both the water and the land.

There must be a check on the use of fertilizers. The excess use of fertilizers not only depletes the land’s fertility but also make crops unfit for consumption.

With the use of the methods mentioned above, we may succeed in controlling the pollution to a great extent. So, all of us must take a stand and become a voice for the unheard to make this earth pollution-free.

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NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, et al., editors. Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. 2nd edition. Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank; 2006. Co-published by Oxford University Press, New York.

Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. 2nd edition.

Chapter 43 air and water pollution: burden and strategies for control.

Tord Kjellstrom , Madhumita Lodh , Tony McMichael , Geetha Ranmuthugala , Rupendra Shrestha , and Sally Kingsland .

Environmental pollution has many facets, and the resultant health risks include diseases in almost all organ systems. Thus, a chapter on air and water pollution control links with chapters on, for instance, diarrheal diseases ( chapter 19 ), respiratory diseases in children and adults ( chapters 25 and 35 ), cancers ( chapter 29 ), neurological disorders ( chapter 32 ), and cardiovascular disease ( chapter 33 ), as well as with a number of chapters dealing with health care issues.

• Nature, Causes, and Burden of Air and Water Pollution

Each pollutant has its own health risk profile, which makes summarizing all relevant information into a short chapter difficult. Nevertheless, public health practitioners and decision makers in developing countries need to be aware of the potential health risks caused by air and water pollution and to know where to find the more detailed information required to handle a specific situation. This chapter will not repeat the discussion about indoor air pollution caused by biomass burning ( chapter 42 ) and water pollution caused by poor sanitation at the household level ( chapter 41 ), but it will focus on the problems caused by air and water pollution at the community, country, and global levels.

Estimates indicate that the proportion of the global burden of disease associated with environmental pollution hazards ranges from 23 percent ( WHO-1997 ) to 30 percent ( Smith, Corvalan, and Kjellstrom 1999 ). These estimates include infectious diseases related to drinking water, sanitation, and food hygiene; respiratory diseases related to severe indoor air pollution from biomass burning; and vectorborne diseases with a major environmental component, such as malaria. These three types of diseases each contribute approximately 6 percent to the updated estimate of the global burden of disease ( WHO 2002 ).

As the World Health Organization (WHO) points out, outdoor air pollution contributes as much as 0.6 to 1.4 percent of the burden of disease in developing regions, and other pollution, such as lead in water, air, and soil, may contribute 0.9 percent ( WHO 2002 ). These numbers may look small, but the contribution from most risk factors other than the "top 10" is within the 0.5 to 1.0 percent range ( WHO 2002 ).

Because of space limitations, this chapter can give only selected examples of air and water pollution health concerns. Other information sources on environmental health include Yassi and others (2001) and the Web sites of or major reference works by WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Division of Technology, Industry, and Economics ( http://www.uneptie.org/ ); the International Labour Organization (ILO), the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO; http://www.unido.org/ ), and other relevant agencies.

Table 43.1 indicates some of the industrial sectors that can pose significant environmental and occupational health risks to populations in developing countries. Clearly, disease control measures for people working in or living around a smelter may be quite different from those for people living near a tannery or a brewery. For detailed information about industry-specific pollution control methods, see the Web sites of industry sector organizations, relevant international trade union organizations, and the organizations listed above.

Selected Industrial Sectors and Their Contribution to Air and Water Pollution and to Workplace Hazards.

Air Pollution

Air pollutants are usually classified into suspended particulate matter (PM) (dusts, fumes, mists, and smokes); gaseous pollutants (gases and vapors); and odors.

Suspended PM can be categorized according to total suspended particles: the finer fraction, PM 10 , which can reach the alveoli, and the most hazardous, PM 2.5 (median aerodynamic diameters of less than 10.0 microns and 2.5 microns, respectively). Much of the secondary pollutants PM 2.5 consists of created by the condensation of gaseous pollutants—for example, sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ). Types of suspended PM include diesel exhaust particles; coal fly ash; wood smoke; mineral dusts, such as coal, asbestos, limestone, and cement; metal dusts and fumes; acid mists (for example, sulfuric acid); and pesticide mists.

Gaseous pollutants include sulfur compounds such as SO 2 and sulfur trioxide; carbon monoxide; nitrogen compounds such as nitric oxide, NO 2 , and ammonia; organic compounds such as hydrocarbons; volatile organic compounds; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and halogen derivatives such as aldehydes; and odorous substances. Volatile organic compounds are released from burning fuel (gasoline, oil, coal, wood, charcoal, natural gas, and so on); solvents; paints; glues; and other products commonly used at work or at home. Volatile organic compounds include such chemicals as benzene, toluene, methylene chloride, and methyl chloroform. Emissions of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react with sunlight to eventually form another secondary pollutant, ozone, at ground level. Ozone at this level creates health concerns, unlike ozone in the upper atmosphere, which occurs naturally and protects life by filtering out ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution

Outdoor air pollution is caused mainly by the combustion of petroleum products or coal by motor vehicles, industry, and power stations. In some countries, the combustion of wood or agricultural waste is another major source. Pollution can also originate from industrial processes that involve dust formation (for example, from cement factories and metal smelters) or gas releases (for instance, from chemicals production). Indoor sources also contribute to outdoor air pollution, and in heavily populated areas, the contribution from indoor sources can create extremely high levels of outdoor air pollution.

Motor vehicles emit PM, nitric oxide and NO 2 (together referred to as NO x ), carbon monoxide, organic compounds, and lead. Lead is a gasoline additive that has been phased out in industrial countries, but some developing countries still use leaded gasoline. Mandating the use of lead-free gasoline is an important intervention in relation to health. It eliminates vehicle-related lead pollution and permits the use of catalytic converters, which reduce emissions of other pollutants.

Catastrophic emissions of organic chemicals, as occurred in Bhopal, India, in 1984 ( box 43.1 ), can also have major health consequences ( McGranahan and Murray 2003 ; WHO 1999 ).

The Bhopal Catastrophe. The Bhopal plant, owned by the Union Carbide Corporation, produced methyl isocyanate, an intermediate in the production of the insecticide carbaryl. On December 2, 1984, a 150,000-gallon storage tank containing methyl isocyanate (more...)

Another type of air pollution that can have disastrous consequences is radioactive pollution from a malfunctioning nuclear power station, as occurred in Chernobyl in 1986 ( WHO 1996 ). Radioactive isotopes emitted from the burning reactor spread over large areas of what are now the countries of Belarus, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine, causing thousands of cases of thyroid cancer in children and threatening to cause many cancer cases in later decades.

Exposure to Air Pollutants

The extent of the health effects of air pollution depends on actual exposure. Total daily exposure is determined by people's time and activity patterns, and it combines indoor and outdoor exposures. Young children and elderly people may travel less during the day than working adults, and their exposure may therefore be closely correlated with air pollution levels in their homes. Children are particularly vulnerable to environmental toxicants because of their possibly greater relative exposure and the effects on their growth and physiological development.

Meteorological factors, such as wind speed and direction, are usually the strongest determinants of variations in air pollution, along with topography and temperature inversions. Therefore, weather reports can be a guide to likely air pollution levels on a specific day.

Workplace air is another important source of air pollution exposure ( chapter 60 ). Resource extraction and processing industries, which are common in developing countries, emit dust or hazardous fumes at the worksite ( table 43.1 ). Such industries include coalmining, mineral mining, quarrying, and cement production. Developed countries have shifted much of their hazardous production to developing countries ( LaDou 1992 ). This shift creates jobs in the developing countries, but at the price of exposure to air pollution resulting from outdated technology. In addition, specific hazardous compounds, such as asbestos, have been banned in developed countries ( Kazan-Allen 2004 ), but their use may still be common in developing countries.

Impacts on Health

Epidemiological analysis is needed to quantify the health impact in an exposed population. The major pollutants emitted by combustion have all been associated with increased respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality ( Brunekreef and Holgate 2002 ). The most famous disease outbreak of this type occurred in London in 1952 (U.K. Ministry of Health 1954 ), when 4,000 people died prematurely in a single week because of severe air pollution, followed by another 8,000 deaths during the next few months ( Bell and Davis 2001 ).

In the 1970s and 1980s, new statistical methods and improved computer technology allowed investigators to study mortality increases at much lower concentrations of pollutants. A key question is the extent to which life has been shortened. Early loss of life in elderly people, who would have died soon regardless of the air pollution, has been labeled mortality displacement, because it contributes little to the overall burden of disease ( McMichael and others 1998 ).

Long-term studies have documented the increased cardiovascular and respiratory mortality associated with exposure to PM ( Dockery and others 1993 ; Pope and others 1995 ). A 16-year follow-up of a cohort of 500,000 Americans living in different cities found that the associations were strongest with PM 2.5 and also established an association with lung cancer mortality ( Pope and others 2002 ). Another approach is ecological studies of small areas based on census data, air pollution information, and health events data ( Scoggins and others 2004 ), with adjustments for potential confounding factors, including socioeconomic status. Such studies indicate that the mortality increase for every 10 micrograms per cubic meter(μg per m 3 ) of PM 2.5 ranges from 4 to 8 percent for cities in developed countries where average annual PM 2.5 levels are 10 to 30 μg/m 3 . Many urban areas of developing countries have similar or greater levels of air pollution.

The major urban air pollutants can also give rise to significant respiratory morbidity ( WHO 2000 ). For instance, Romieu and others (1996) report an exacerbation of asthma among children in Mexico City, and Xu and Wang (1993) note an increased risk of respiratory symptoms in middle-aged non-smokers in Beijing.

In relation to the very young, Wang and others (1997) find that PM exposure, SO 2 exposure, or both increased the risk of low birthweight in Beijing, and Pereira and others (1998) find that air pollution increased intrauterine mortality in São Paulo.

Other effects of ambient air pollution are postneonatal mortality and mortality caused by acute respiratory infections, as well as effects on children's lung function, cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions in the elderly, and markers for functional damage of the heart muscle ( WHO 2000 ). Asthma is another disease that researchers have linked to urban air pollution ( McConnell and others 2002 ; Rios and others 2004 ). Ozone exposure as a trigger of asthma attacks is of particular concern. The mechanism behind an air pollution and asthma link is not fully known, but early childhood NO 2 exposure may be important (see, for example, Ponsonby and others 2000 ).

Leaded gasoline creates high lead exposure conditions in urban areas, with a risk for lead poisoning, primarily in young children. The main concern is effects on the brain from low-level exposure leading to behavioral aberrations and reduced or delayed development of intellectual or motoric ability ( WHO 1995 ). Lead exposure has been implicated in hypertension in adults, and this effect may be the most important for the lead burden of disease at a population level ( WHO 2002 ). Other pollutants of concern are the carcinogenic volatile organic compounds, which may be related to an increase in lung cancer, as reported by two recent epidemiological studies ( Nyberg and others 2000 ; Pope and others 2002 ).

Urban air pollution and lead exposure are two of the environmental hazards that WHO (2002) assessed as part of its burden-of-disease calculations for the World Health Report 2002 . The report estimates that pollution by urban PM causes as much as 5 percent of the global cases of lung cancer, 2 percent of deaths from cardiovascular and respiratory conditions, and 1 percent of respiratory infections, adding up to 7.9 million disability-adjusted life years based on mortality only. This burden of disease occurs primarily in developing countries, with China and India contributing the most to the global burden. Eastern Europe also has major air pollution problems, and in some countries, air pollution accounts for 0.6 to 1.4 percent of the total disability-adjusted life years from mortality.

The global burden of disease caused by lead exposure includes subtle changes in learning ability and behavior and other signs of central nervous system damage ( Fewthrell, Kaufmann, and Preuss 2003 ). WHO (2002) concludes that 0.4 percent of deaths and 0.9 percent (12.9 million) of all disability-adjusted life years may be due to lead exposure.

Water Pollution

Chemical pollution of surface water can create health risks, because such waterways are often used directly as drinking water sources or connected with shallow wells used for drinking water. In addition, waterways have important roles for washing and cleaning, for fishing and fish farming, and for recreation.

Another major source of drinking water is groundwater, which often has low concentrations of pathogens because the water is filtered during its transit through underground layers of sand, clay, or rocks. However, toxic chemicals such as arsenic and fluoride can be dissolved from the soil or rock layers into groundwater. Direct contamination can also occur from badly designed hazardous waste sites or from industrial sites. In the United States in the 1980s, the government set in motion the Superfund Program, a major investigation and cleanup program to deal with such sites ( U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2000 ).

Coastal pollution of seawater may give rise to health hazards because of local contamination of fish or shellfish—for instance, the mercury contamination of fish in the infamous Minamata disease outbreak in Japan in 1956 ( WHO 1976 ). Seawater pollution with persistent chemicals, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins, can also be a significant health hazard even at extremely low concentrations ( Yassi and others 2001 ).

Sources of Chemical Water Pollution

Chemicals can enter waterways from a point source or a nonpoint source. Point-source pollution is due to discharges from a single source, such as an industrial site. Nonpoint-source pollution involves many small sources that combine to cause significant pollution. For instance, the movement of rain or irrigation water over land picks up pollutants such as fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides and carries them into rivers, lakes, reservoirs, coastal waters, or groundwater. Another nonpoint source is storm-water that collects on roads and eventually reaches rivers or lakes. Table 43.1 shows examples of point-source industrial chemical pollution.

Paper and pulp mills consume large volumes of water and discharge liquid and solid waste products into the environment. The liquid waste is usually high in biological oxygen demand, suspended solids, and chlorinated organic compounds such as dioxins ( World Bank 1999 ). The storage and transport of the resulting solid waste (wastewater treatment sludge, lime sludge, and ash) may also contaminate surface waters. Sugar mills are associated with effluent characterized by biological oxygen demand and suspended solids, and the effluent is high in ammonium content. In addition, the sugarcane rinse liquid may contain pesticide residues. Leather tanneries produce a significant amount of solid waste, including hide, hair, and sludge. The wastewater contains chromium, acids, sulfides, and chlorides. Textile and dye industries emit a liquid effluent that contains toxic residues from the cleaning of equipment. Waste from petrochemical manufacturing plants contains suspended solids, oils and grease, phenols, and benzene. Solid waste generated by petrochemical processes contains spent caustic and other hazardous chemicals implicated in cancer.

Another major source of industrial water pollution is mining. The grinding of ores and the subsequent processing with water lead to discharges of fine silt with toxic metals into waterways unless proper precautions are taken, such as the use of sedimentation ponds. Lead and zinc ores usually contain the much more toxic cadmium as a minor component. If the cadmium is not retrieved, major water pollution can occur. Mining was the source of most of the widespread cadmium poisoning (Itai-Itai disease) in Japan in 1940–50 ( Kjellstrom 1986 ).

Other metals, such as copper, nickel, and chromium, are essential micronutrients, but in high levels these metals can be harmful to health. Wastewater from mines or stainless steel production can be a source of exposure to these metals. The presence of copper in water can also be due to corrosion of drinking water pipes. Soft water or low pH makes corrosion more likely. High levels of copper may make water appear bluish green and give it a metallic taste. Flushing the first water out of the tap can minimize exposure to copper. The use of lead pipes and plumbing fixtures may result in high levels of lead in piped water.

Mercury can enter waterways from mining and industrial premises. Incineration of medical waste containing broken medical equipment is a source of environmental contamination with mercury. Metallic mercury is also easily transported through the atmosphere because of its highly volatile nature. Sulfate-reducing bacteria and certain other micro-organisms in lake, river, or coastal underwater sediments can methylate mercury, increasing its toxicity. Methylmercury accumulates and concentrates in the food chain and can lead to serious neurological disease or more subtle functional damage to the nervous system ( Murata and others 2004 ).

Runoff from farmland, in addition to carrying soil and sediments that contribute to increased turbidity, also carries nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphates, which are often added in the form of animal manure or fertilizers. These chemicals cause eutrophication (excessive nutrient levels in water), which increases the growth of algae and plants in waterways, leading to an increase in cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). The toxics released during their decay are harmful to humans.

The use of nitrogen fertilizers can be a problem in areas where agriculture is becoming increasingly intensified. These fertilizers increase the concentration of nitrates in groundwater, leading to high nitrate levels in underground drinking water sources, which can cause methemoglobinemia, the life-threatening "blue baby" syndrome, in very young children, which is a significant problem in parts of rural Eastern Europe ( Yassi and others 2001 ).

Some pesticides are applied directly on soil to kill pests in the soil or on the ground. This practice can create seepage to groundwater or runoff to surface waters. Some pesticides are applied to plants by spraying from a distance—even from airplanes. This practice can create spray drift when the wind carries the materials to nearby waterways. Efforts to reduce the use of the most toxic and long-lasting pesticides in industrial countries have largely been successful, but the rules for their use in developing countries may be more permissive, and the rules of application may not be known or enforced. Hence, health risks from pesticide water pollution are higher in such countries ( WHO 1990 ).

Naturally occurring toxic chemicals can also contaminate groundwater, such as the high metal concentrations in underground water sources in mining areas. The most extensive problem of this type is the arsenic contamination of groundwater in Argentina, Bangladesh ( box 43.2 ), Chile, China, India, Mexico, Nepal, Taiwan (China), and parts of Eastern Europe and the United States ( WHO 2001 ). Fluoride is another substance that may occur naturally at high concentrations in parts of China, India, Sri Lanka, Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean. Although fluoride helps prevent dental decay, exposure to levels greater than 1.5 milligrams per liter in drinking water can cause pitting of tooth enamel and deposits in bones. Exposure to levels greater than 10 milligrams per liter can cause crippling skeletal fluorosis ( Smith 2003 ).

Arsenic in Bangladesh. The presence of arsenic in tube wells in Bangladesh because of natural contamination from underground geological layers was first confirmed in 1993. Ironically, the United Nations Children's Fund had introduced the wells in the (more...)

Water disinfection using chemicals is another source of chemical contamination of water. Chlorination is currently the most widely practiced and most cost-effective method of disinfecting large community water supplies. This success in disinfecting water supplies has contributed significantly to public health by reducing the transmission of waterborne disease. However, chlorine reacts with naturally occurring organic matter in water to form potentially toxic chemical compounds, known collectively as disinfection by-products ( International Agency for Research on Cancer 2004 ).

Exposure to Chemical Water Pollution

Drinking contaminated water is the most direct route of exposure to pollutants in water. The actual exposure via drinking water depends on the amount of water consumed, usually 2 to 3 liters per day for an adult, with higher amounts for people living in hot areas or people engaged in heavy physical work. Use of contaminated water in food preparation can result in contaminated food, because high cooking temperatures do not affect the toxicity of most chemical contaminants.

Inhalation exposure to volatile compounds during hot showers and skin exposure while bathing or using water for recreation are also potential routes of exposure to water pollutants. Toxic chemicals in water can affect unborn or young children by crossing the placenta or being ingested through breast milk.

Estimating actual exposure via water involves analyzing the level of the contaminant in the water consumed and assessing daily water intake ( WHO 2003 ). Biological monitoring using blood or urine samples can be a precise tool for measuring total exposure from water, food, and air ( Yassi and others 2001 ).

Health Effects

No published estimates are available of the global burden of disease resulting from the overall effects of chemical pollutants in water. The burden in specific local areas may be large, as in the example cited in box 43.2 of arsenic in drinking water in Bangladesh. Other examples of a high local burden of disease are the nervous system diseases of methylmercury poisoning (Minamata disease), the kidney and bone diseases of chronic cadmium poisoning (Itai-Itai disease), and the circulatory system diseases of nitrate exposure (methemoglobinemia) and lead exposure (anemia and hypertension ).

Acute exposure to contaminants in drinking water can cause irritation or inflammation of the eyes and nose, skin, and gastrointestinal system; however, the most important health effects are due to chronic exposure (for example, liver toxicity) to copper, arsenic, or chromium in drinking water. Excretion of chemicals through the kidney targets the kidney for toxic effects, as seen with chemicals such as cadmium, copper, mercury, and chlorobenzene ( WHO 2003 ).

Pesticides and other chemical contaminants that enter waterways through agricultural runoff, stormwater drains, and industrial discharges may persist in the environment for long periods and be transported by water or air over long distances. They may disrupt the function of the endocrine system, resulting in reproductive, developmental, and behavioral problems. The endocrine disruptors can reduce fertility and increase the occurrence of stillbirths, birth defects, and hormonally dependent cancers such as breast, testicular, and prostate cancers. The effects on the developing nervous system can include impaired mental and psychomotor development, as well as cognitive impairment and behavior abnormalities ( WHO and International Programme on Chemical Safety 2002 ). Examples of endocrine disruptors include organochlorines, PCBs, alkylphenols, phytoestrogens (natural estrogens in plants), and pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics and synthetic sex hormones from contraceptives. Chemicals in drinking water can also be carcinogenic. Disinfection by-products and arsenic have been a particular concern ( International Agency for Research on Cancer 2004 ).

• Interventions

The variety of hazardous pollutants that can occur in air or water also leads to many different interventions. Interventions pertaining to environmental hazards are often more sustainable if they address the driving forces behind the pollution at the community level rather than attempt to deal with specific exposures at the individual level. In addition, effective methods to prevent exposure to chemical hazards in the air or water may not exist at the individual level, and the only feasible individual-level intervention may be treating cases of illness.

Figure 43.1 shows five levels at which actions can be taken to prevent the health effects of environmental hazards. Some would label interventions at the driving force level as policy instruments. These include legal restrictions on the use of a toxic substance, such as banning the use of lead in gasoline, or community-level policies, such as boosting public transportation and reducing individual use of motor vehicles.

Figure 43.1

Framework for Environmental Health Interventions

Interventions to reduce pressures on environmental quality include those that limit hazardous waste disposal by recycling hazardous substances at their site of use or replacing them with less hazardous materials. Interventions at the level of the state of the environment would include air quality monitoring linked to local actions to reduce pollution during especially polluted periods (for example, banning vehicle use when pollution levels reach predetermined thresholds). Interventions at the exposure level include using household water filters to reduce arsenic in drinking water as done in Bangladesh. Finally, interventions at the effect level would include actions by health services to protect or restore the health of people already showing signs of an adverse effect.

Interventions to Reduce Air Pollution

Reducing air pollution exposure is largely a technical issue. Technologies to reduce pollution at its source are plentiful, as are technologies that reduce pollution by filtering it away from the emission source (end-of-pipe solutions; see, for example, Gwilliam, Kojima, and Johnson 2004 ). Getting these technologies applied in practice requires government or corporate policies that guide technical decision making in the right direction. Such policies could involve outright bans (such as requiring lead-free gasoline or asbestos-free vehicle brake linings or building materials); guidance on desirable technologies (for example, providing best-practice manuals); or economic instruments that make using more polluting technologies more expensive than using less polluting technologies (an example of the polluter pays principle).

Examples of technologies to reduce air pollution include the use of lead-free gasoline, which allows the use of catalytic converters on vehicles' exhaust systems. Such technologies significantly reduce the emissions of several air pollutants from vehicles ( box 43.3 ). For trucks, buses, and an increasing number of smaller vehicles that use diesel fuel, improving the quality of the diesel itself by lowering its sulfur content is another way to reduce air pollution at the source. More fuel-efficient vehicles, such as hybrid gas-electric vehicles, are another way forward. These vehicles can reduce gasoline consumption by about 50 percent during city driving. Policies that reduce "unnecessary" driving, or traffic demand management, can also reduce air pollution in urban areas. A system of congestion fees, in which drivers have to pay before entering central urban areas, was introduced in Singapore, Oslo, and London and has been effective in this respect.

Air Pollution Reduction in Mexico City. Mexico City is one of the world's largest megacities, with nearly 20 million inhabitants. Local authorities have acknowledged its air quality problems since the 1970s. The emissions from several million motor vehicles (more...)

Power plants and industrial plants that burn fossil fuels use a variety of filtering methods to reduce particles and scrubbing methods to reduce gases, although no effective method is currently available for the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. High chimneys dilute pollutants, but the combined input of pollutants from a number of smokestacks can still lead to an overload of pollutants. An important example is acid rain, which is caused by SO 2 and NO x emissions that make water vapor in the atmosphere acidic ( WHO 2000 ). Large combined emissions from industry and power stations in the eastern United States drift north with the winds and cause damage to Canadian ecosystems. In Europe, emissions from the industrial belt across Belgium, Germany, and Poland drift north to Sweden and have damaged many lakes there. The convergence of air pollutants from many sources and the associated health effects have also been documented in relation to the multiple fires in Indonesia's rain forest in 1997 ( Brauer and Hisham-Hashim 1998 ); the brown cloud over large areas of Asia, which is mainly related to coal burning; and a similar brown cloud over central Europe in the summer, which is caused primarily by vehicle emissions.

Managing air pollution interventions involves monitoring air quality, which may focus on exceedances of air quality guidelines in specific hotspots or on attempts to establish a specific population's average exposure to pollution. Sophisticated modeling in combination with monitoring has made it possible to start producing detailed estimates and maps of air pollution levels in key urban areas ( World Bank 2004 ), thus providing a powerful tool for assessing current health impacts and estimated changes in the health impacts brought about by defined air pollution interventions.

Interventions to Reduce Water Pollution

Water pollution control requires action at all levels of the hierarchical framework shown in figure 43.1 . The ideal method to abate diffuse chemical pollution of waterways is to minimize or avoid the use of chemicals for industrial, agricultural, and domestic purposes. Adapting practices such as organic farming and integrated pest management could help protect waterways ( Scheierling 1995 ). Chemical contamination of waterways from industrial emissions could be reduced by cleaner production processes ( UNEP 2002 ). Box 43.4 describes one project aimed at effectively reducing pollution.

Water Pollution Control in India. In 1993, the Demonstration in Small Industries for Reducing Wastes Project was started in India with support from the United Nations Industrial Development Organization. International and local experts initiated waste (more...)

Other interventions include proper treatment of hazardous waste and recycling of chemical containers and discarded products containing chemicals to reduce solid waste buildup and leaching of toxic chemicals into waterways. A variety of technical solutions are available to filter out chemical waste from industrial processes or otherwise render them harmless. Changing the pH of wastewater or adding chemicals that flocculate the toxic chemicals so that they settle in sedimentation ponds are common methods. The same principle can be used at the individual household level. One example is the use of iron chips to filter out arsenic from contaminated well water in Bangladeshi households ( Kinniburgh and Smedley 2001 ).

• Intervention Costs and Cost-Effectiveness

This chapter cannot follow the detailed format for the economic analysis of different preventive interventions devised for the disease-specific chapters, because the exposures, health effects, and interventions are too varied and because of the lack of overarching examples of economic assessments. Nevertheless, it does present a few examples of the types of analyses available.

Comparison of Interventions

A review of more than 1,000 reports on cost per life year saved in the United States for 587 interventions in the environment and other fields ( table 43.2 ) evaluated costs from a societal perspective. The net costs included only direct costs and savings. Indirect costs, such as forgone earnings, were excluded. Future costs and life years saved were discounted at 5 percent per year. Interventions with a cost per life year saved of less than or equal to zero cost less to implement than the value of the lives saved. Each of three categories of interventions (toxin control, fatal injury reduction, and medicine) presented in table 43.2 includes several extremely cost-effective interventions.

Median Cost per Life Year Saved, Selected Relatively Low-Cost Interventions (1993 U.S. dollars).

The cost-effective interventions in the air pollution area could be of value in developing countries as their industrial and transportation pollution situations become similar to the United States in the 1960s. The review by Tengs and others (1995) does not report the extent to which the various interventions were implemented in existing pollution control or public health programs, and many of the most cost-effective interventions are probably already in wide use. The review did create a good deal of controversy in the United States, because professionals and nongovernmental organizations active in the environmental field accused the authors of overestimating the costs and underestimating the benefits of controls over chemicals (see, for example, U.S. Congress 1999 ).

Costs and Savings in Relation to Pollution Control

A number of publications review and discuss the evidence on the costs and benefits of different pollution control interventions in industrial countries (see, for example, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1999 ). For developing countries, specific data on this topic are found primarily in the so-called gray literature: government reports, consultant reports, or reports by the international banks.

Examples of cost-effectiveness analysis for assessing air quality policy include studies carried out in Jakarta, Kathmandu, Manila, and Mumbai under the World Bank's Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia ( Grønskei and others 1996a , 1996b ; Larssen and others 1996a , 1996b ; Shah, Nagpal, and Brandon 1997 ). In each city, an emissions inventory was established, and rudimentary dispersion modeling was carried out. Various mitigation measures for reducing PM 10 and health impacts were examined in terms of reductions in tons of PM 10 emitted, cost of implementation, time frame for implementation, and health benefits and their associated cost savings. Some of the abatement measures that have been implemented include introducing unleaded gasoline, tightening standards, introducing low-smoke lubricants for two-stroke engine vehicles, implementing inspections of vehicle exhaust emissions to address gross polluters, and reducing garbage burning.

Transportation policies and industrial development do not usually have air quality considerations as their primary objective, but the World Bank has developed a method to take these considerations into account. The costs of different air quality improvement policies are explored in relation to a baseline investment and the estimated health effects of air pollution. A comparison will indicate the cost-effectiveness of each policy. The World Bank has worked out this "overlay" approach in some detail for the energy and forestry sectors in the analogous case of greenhouse gas reduction strategies ( World Bank 2004 ).

The costs and benefits associated with interventions to remove chemical contaminants from water need to be assessed on a local or national basis to determine specific needs, available resources, environmental conditions (including climate), and sustainability. A developing country for which substantial economic analysis of interventions has been carried out is China ( Dasgupta, Wang, and Wheeler 1997 ; Zhang and others 1996 ).

Another country with major concerns about chemicals (arsenic) in water is Bangladesh. The arsenic mitigation programs have applied various arsenic removal technologies, but the costs and benefits are not well established. Bangladesh has adopted a drinking water standard of 50 μg/L (micrograms per liter) for arsenic in drinking water. The cost of achieving the lower WHO guideline value of 10 μg/L would be significant. An evaluation of the cost of lowering arsenic levels in drinking water in the United States predicts that a reduction from 50 to 10 μg/L would prevent a limited number of deaths from bladder and lung cancer at a cost of several million dollars per death prevented ( Frost and others 2002 ).

Alternative water supplies need to be considered when the costs of improving existing water sources outweigh the benefits. Harvesting rainwater may provide communities with safe drinking water, free of chemicals and micro-organisms, but contamination from roofs and storage tanks needs to be considered. Rainwater collection is relatively inexpensive.

• Economic Benefits of Interventions

One of the early examples of cost-benefit analysis for chemical pollution control is the Japan Environment Agency's (1991) study of three Japanese classical pollution diseases: Yokkaichi asthma, Minamata disease, and Itai-Itai disease ( table 43.3 ). This analysis was intended to highlight the economic aspects of pollution control and to encourage governments in developing countries to consider both the costs and the benefits of industrial development. The calculations take into account the 20 or 30 years that have elapsed since the disease outbreaks occurred and annualize the costs and benefits over a 30-year period. The pollution damage costs are the actual payments for victims' compensation and the cost of environmental remediation. The compensation costs are based on court cases or government decisions and can be seen as a valid representation of the economic value of the health damage in each case. As table 43.3 shows, controlling the relevant pollutants would have cost far less than paying for damage caused by the pollution.

Comparison of Actual Pollution Damage Costs and the Pollution Control Costs That Would Have Prevented the Damage, for Three Pollution-related Disease Outbreaks, Japan (¥ millions, 1989 equivalents).

A few studies have analyzed cost-benefit aspects of air pollution control in specific cities. Those analyses are based mainly on modeling health impacts from exposure and relationships between doses and responses. Voorhees and others (2001) find that most studies that analyzed the situation in specific urban areas used health impact assessment to estimate impacts avoided by interventions. Investigators have used different methods for valuing the economic benefits of health improvements, including market valuation, stated preference methods, and revealed preference methods. The choice of assumptions and inputs substantially affected the resulting cost and benefit valuations.

One of the few detailed studies of the costs and benefits of air pollution control in a specific urban area ( Voorhees and others 2000 ) used changing nitric oxide and NO 2 emissions in Tokyo during 1973–94 as a basis for the calculations. The study did not use actual health improvement data but calculated likely health improvements from estimated reductions in NO 2 levels and published dose-response curves. The health effects included respiratory morbidity (as determined by hospital admissions and medical expenses), and working days lost for sick adults, and maternal working days lost in the case of a child's illness. The results indicated an average cost-benefit ratio of 1 to 6, with a large range from a lower limit of 3 to 1 to an upper limit of 1 to 44. The estimated economic benefits of reductions in nitric oxide and NO 2 emissions between 1973 and 1994 were considerable: US$6.78 billion for avoided medical costs, US$6.33 billion for avoided lost wages of sick adults, and US$0.83 billion for avoided lost wages of mothers with sick children.

Blackman and others' (2000) cost-benefit analysis of four practical strategies for reducing PM 10 emissions from traditional brick kilns in Ciudad Juárez in Mexico suggests that, given a wide range of modeling assumptions, the benefits of three control strategies would be considerably higher than the costs. Reduced mortality was by far the largest component of benefits, accounting for more than 80 percent of the total.

Pandey and Nathwani (2003) applied cost-benefit analysis to a pollution control program in Canada. Their study proposed using the life quality index as a tool for quantifying the level of public expenditure beyond which the use of resources is not justified. The study estimated total pollution control costs at US$2.5 billion per year against a monetary benefit of US$7.5 billion per year, using 1996 as the base year for all cost and benefit estimates. The benefit estimated in terms of avoided mortality was about 1,800 deaths per year.

El-Fadel and Massoud's (2000) study of urban areas in Lebanon shows that the health benefits and economic benefits of reducing PM concentration in the air can range from US$4.53 million to US$172.50 million per year using a willingness-to-pay approach. In that study, the major monetized benefits resulted from reduced mortality costs.

Aunan and others (1998) assessed the costs and benefits of implementing an energy saving and air pollution control program in Hungary. They based their monetary evaluation of benefits on local monitoring and population data and took exposure-response functions and valuation estimates from Canadian, U.S., and European studies. The authors valued the average total benefits of the interventions at US$1.56 billion per year (with 1994 as the base year), with high and low bounds at US$7.6, billion and US$0.4 billion, respectively. They estimated the cost-benefit ratio at 1 to 3.4, given a total cost of interventions of US$0.46 billion per year. Many of the benefits resulted from reduced mortality in the elderly population and from reduced asthma morbidity costs.

Misra (2002) examined the costs and benefits of water pollution abatement for a cluster of 250 small-scale industries in Gujarat, India. Misra's assessment looked at command-and-control, market-based solutions and at effluent treatment as alternatives. In a cost-benefit analysis, Misra estimated the net present social benefits from water pollution abatement at the Nandesari Industrial Estate at Rs 0.550 billion at 1995–96 market prices using a 12 percent social discount rate. After making corrections for the prices of foreign exchange, unskilled labor, and investment, the figure rose to Rs 0.62 billion. It rose still further to about Rs 3.1 billion when distributional effects were taken into account.

• Implementation of Control Strategies: Lessons of Experience

The foregoing examples demonstrate that interventions to protect health that use chemical pollution control can have an attractive cost-benefit ratio. The Japan Environment Agency (1991) estimates the national economic impact of pollution control legislation and associated interventions. During the 1960s and early 1970s, when the government made many of the major decisions about intensified pollution control interventions, Japan's gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was growing at an annual rate of about 10 percent, similar to that of the rapidly industrializing countries in the early 21st century. At that time, Japan's economic policies aimed at eliminating bottlenecks to high economic growth, and in the mid 1960s, industry was spending less than ¥50 billion per year on pollution control equipment. By 1976, this spending had increased to almost ¥1 trillion per year. The ¥5 trillion invested in pollution control between 1965 and 1975 accounted for about 0.9 percent of the increase in GDP per capita during this period. The Japan Environment Agency concluded that the stricter environmental protection legislation and associated major investment in pollution control had little effect on the overall economy, but that the resulting health benefits are likely cumulative.

The broadest analysis of the implementation of control strategies for air pollution was conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in the late 1990s ( Krupnick and Morgenstern 2002 ). The analysis developed a hypothetical scenario for 1970 to 1990, assuming that the real costs for pollution control during this period could be compared with the benefits of reduced mortality and morbidity and avoided damage to agricultural crops brought about by the reduction of major air pollutant levels across the country during this period. The study estimated reduced mortality from dose-response relationships for the major air pollutants, assigning the cost of each death at the value of statistical life and the cost of morbidity in relation to estimated health service utilization. The study used a variety of costing methods to reach the range of likely present values presented in table 43.4 . It assumed that the reduction of air pollution resulted from the implementation of the federal Clean Air Act of 1970 and associated state-level regulations and air pollution limits.

Present Value of Monetary Benefits and Costs Associated with Implementation of the U.S. Clean Air Act, 1970–90 (1990 US$ billions).

The analysis showed a dramatically high cost-benefit ratio and inspired debate about the methodologies used and the results. One major criticism was of the use of the value of statistical life for each death potentially avoided by the reduced air pollution. A recalculation using the life-years-lost method reduced the benefits for deaths caused by PM from US$16,632 billion to US$9,100 billion ( Krupnick and Morgenstern 2002 ). The recalculated figure is still well above the fifth percentile estimate of benefits and does not undermine the positive cost-benefit ratio reported. Thus, if a developing country were to implement an appropriate control strategy for urban air pollution, it might derive significant economic benefits over the subsequent decades. The country's level of economic development, local costs, and local benefit valuations will be important for any cost-benefit assessment. WHO's (2000) air quality guidelines are among the documents that provide advice on analytical approaches.

We were unable to find an analysis for water similar to the broad analysis presented for air, but the examples of water pollution with mercury, cadmium, and arsenic described earlier indicate the economic benefits that can be reaped from effective interventions against chemical water pollution. Since the pollution disease outbreaks of mercury and cadmium poisoning in Japan, serious mercury pollution situations have been identified in Brazil, China, and the Philippines, and serious cadmium pollution has occurred in Cambodia, China, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, and Thailand. Arsenic in groundwater is an ongoing, serious problem in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal and a less serious problem in a number of other countries.

WHO has analyzed control strategies for biological water pollution and water and sanitation improvements in relation to the Millennium Development Goals ( Hutton and Haller 2004 ). The analysis demonstrated the considerable benefits of water and sanitation improvements: for every US$1 invested, the economic return was in the range of US$5 to US$28 for a number of intervention options. Careful analysis of the same type is required for populations particularly vulnerable to chemical water pollution to assess whether control of chemical pollution can also yield significant benefits.

• Research and Development Agenda

Even though a good deal of information is available about the health risks of common air and water pollutants, further research is needed to guide regulations and interventions. The pollutants that were most common in developed countries in the past are still major problems in developing countries; however, direct application of the experiences of developed countries may not be appropriate, because exposed populations in developing countries may have a different burden of preexisting diseases, malnutrition, and other factors related to poverty. Research on specific vulnerabilities and on relevant dose-response relationships for different levels of economic development and for various geographic conditions would therefore be valuable for assessing risks and targeting interventions. In addition, global chemical exposure concerns, such as endocrine disruptors in air, water, and food, require urgent research to establish the need for interventions in both industrial and developing countries.

An important research topic is to clearly describe and quantify the long-term health effects of exposure to air pollution. The existing literature indicates that long-term exposure may have more adverse health effects than short-term exposure and, hence, have higher cost implications. Another topic is to assess the health issue pertaining to greenhouse gases and climate change, which are related to the same sources as urban air pollution ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2001 ). Research and policy analysis on how best to develop interventions to reduce health risks related to climate change need to be considered together with the analysis of other air pollutants.

In addition, to improve analysis of the economic costs of health impacts, better estimates are needed of the burden of disease related to chemical air and water pollution at local, national, and global levels. Cost-effectiveness analysis of air and water pollution control measures in developing countries needs to be supported by further research, as cost levels and benefit valuations will vary from country to country, and solutions that are valid in industrial countries may not work as well in developing countries. Strategies for effective air and water resource management should include research on the potential side effects of an intervention, such as in Bangladesh, where tube wells drilled to supply water turned out to be contaminated with arsenic (see box 43.2 ). Research is also needed that would link methodologies for assessing adverse health effects with exposure and epidemiological studies in different settings to permit the development of more precise forecasting of the health and economic benefits of interventions.

The variety of health effects of urban air pollution and the variety of sources create opportunities for ancillary effects that need to be taken into account in economic cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis. These are the beneficial effects of reducing air pollution on other health risks associated with the sources of air pollution. For example, if the air pollution from transportation emissions is reduced by actions that reduce the use of private motor vehicles by, say, providing public transportation, not only are carbon dioxide levels reduced; traffic crash injuries, noise, and physical inactivity related to the widespread use of motor vehicles also decline ( Kjellstrom and others 2003 ).

One of the key challenges for policies and actions is to find ways to avoid a rapid buildup of urban air pollution in countries that do not yet have a major problem. The health sector needs to be involved in assessing urban planning, the location of industries, and the development of transportation systems and needs to encourage those designing public transportation and housing to ensure that new sources of air pollution are not being built into cities.

Decades of economic and industrial growth have resulted in lifestyles that increase the demands on water resources simultaneous with increases in water pollution levels. Conflicts between household, industrial, and agricultural water use are a common public health problem ( UNESCO 2003 ). The developing countries need to avoid the experiences of water pollution and associated disease outbreaks in industrial countries. Strategies to ensure sufficient pollution control must be identified at the same time as strategies to reduce water consumption. High water use depletes supplies and increases salinity in groundwater aquifers, particularly in coastal regions. The impact of climate change must also be taken into consideration ( Vorosmarty and others 2000 ).

• Conclusion: Promises and Pitfalls

Evidence shows that a number of chemicals that may be released into the air or water can cause adverse health effects. The associated burden of disease can be substantial, and investment in research on health effects and interventions in specific populations and exposure situations is important for the development of control strategies. Pollution control is therefore an important component of disease control, and health professionals and authorities need to develop partnerships with other sectors to identify and implement priority interventions.

Developing countries face major water quantity and quality challenges, compounded by the effects of rapid industrialization. Concerted actions are needed to safely manage the use of toxic chemicals and to develop monitoring and regulatory guidelines. Recycling and the use of biodegradable products must be encouraged. Technologies to reduce air pollution at the source are well established and should be used in all new industrial development. Retrofitting of existing industries and power plants is also worthwhile. The growing number of private motor vehicles in developing countries brings certain benefits, but alternative means of transportation, particularly in rapidly growing urban areas, need to be considered at an early stage, as the negative health and economic impacts of high concentrations of motor vehicles are well established. The principles and practices of sustainable development, coupled with local research, will help contain or eliminate health risks resulting from chemical pollution. International collaboration involving both governmental and nongovernmental organizations can guide this highly interdisciplinary and intersectoral area of disease control.

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About Air, Water and Soil Pollution

How it works

• 1 Air Pollution
• 2 Water pollution
• 3 Soil pollution
• 4.1 Air pollution
• 4.2 Water pollution
• 4.3 Soil pollution

Air Pollution

What health hazards are associated with living indoors? Indoor air pollution can cause big health problems. People who may be exposed to these indoor air pollutants for long periods of time are most at risk to the effects of air pollution. This includes children, adults, and people with long term chronic illnesses. Most indoor air pollution comes from sources that release gases into the air. Things such as air fresheners, and building materials constantly give off air pollution. Other things such as tobacco smoke, and wood burning fires, ovens, and stoves, can also cause air pollution.

Indoor pollution can also be cause by live sources such as mould, mildew, cockroaches, and dust mites.

Carbon monoxide is a common indoor pollutant. It is often released from fuel-burning stoves, heaters and other appliances. CO is a colourless and odourless gas that inhibits the movement of oxygen in the body. Depending on how much is ingested, Carbon monoxide can have many effects, such as causing extreme tiredness, headaches, nausea, and dizziness. Some of the more serious effects include worsening heart conditions, and if enough is breathed in, it may be fatal.

Carbon monoxide is transported through the air, so things like wind can cause it to spread through the environment. The main natural sinks are the oceans, plants, and other organisms that use photosynthesis to remove carbon from the atmosphere by incorporating it into biomass.

Water pollution

Does it matter which detergents people use? Regular laundry detergents are bad for the environment, as detergents don’t completely degrade and they contaminate o9ur water supplies, rivers, and oceans with toxic heavy metals such as arsenic. Arsenic is a greyish white element, that can be extremely dangerous, and can cause arsenic poisoning. Arsenic poisoning can cause major health implications and death if It is not treated. An individual can be exposed to arsenic through contaminated groundwater, infected soil and rock, and arsenic-preserved wood. It has also been shown that phosphates, a common ingredient in detergents can build up in water ways and lead to things like eutrophication.

Eutrophication is the natural aging process of a lake/river, etc. This process results in the plants dying more quickly than they can be decomposed. This dead plant matter builds up and together, with more sediment entering the water, fills in the lake up making it shallower. Normally this process takes thousands of years, however with these large amounts of phosphates entering the water, it is being sped up.

Detergents can have poisonous effects in all types of aquatic life if they are present in sufficient quantities, and this includes the biodegradable detergents. All detergents destroy the external mucus layers that protect the fish from bacteria and parasites; plus they can cause severe damage to the gills. Most fish will die when detergent concentrations approach 15 parts per million. Detergent concentrations as low as 5 ppm will kill fish eggs. Surfactant detergents are implicated in decreasing the breeding ability of aquatic organisms. 

Detergents also add another problem for aquatic life by lowering the surface tension of the water. Organic chemicals such as pesticides and phenols are then much more easily absorbed by the fish. A detergent concentration of only 2 ppm can cause fish to absorb double the amount of chemicals they would normally absorb, although that concentration itself is not high enough to affect fish directly.  Detergents are sold in supermarkets all over the world, and many people use them on an day-to-day basis.

Soil pollution

Should food take-away containers be banned? Single-use containers used for takeaway food represent a significant source of waste and environmental impacts due to their low recyclability. Consequently, it is important to identify the best available alternatives and improvement opportunities to reduce the environmental impacts of fast-food containers. For these purposes, this study estimates and compares for the first time the life cycle impacts of three most widely-used types of takeaway container: aluminium, polypropylene and extruded polystyrene. These are also compared to reusable polypropylene containers. The findings suggest that single-use polypropylene containers are the worst option for seven out of 12 impacts considered, including global warming potential. They are followed by the aluminium alternative with five highest impacts, including depletion of ozone layer and human toxicity. Overall, extruded polystyrene containers have the lowest impacts due to the lower material and electricity requirements in their manufacture.

Food take-away containers contain all sorts of chemicals in their plastic, such as PFAS. PFAS are a class of chemicals used to make materials water and grease-proof. Unfortunately, PFAS break down into a variety of chemicals, some of which are linked to cancer (PFOA) and thyroid hormone disruption (PFOS), according to the US Environmental Protection Agency. PFAS can persist in plants and move through the food chain all the way up to humans. Food take away containers travel through the environment in many ways. They can be carried through the ocean, or even blown through the environment by the wind. There is no pollutant sink for food take-away containers, or PFAS.

Food take-away containers contain all sorts of chemicals in their plastic, such as PFAS. PFAS are a class of chemicals used to make materials water and grease-proof. Unfortunately, PFAS break down into a variety of chemicals, some of which are linked to cancer (PFOA) and thyroid hormone disruption (PFOS), according to the US Environmental Protection Agency. PFAS can persist in plants and move through the food chain all the way up to humans.

Food take away containers travel through the environment in many ways. They can be carried through the ocean, or even blown through the environment by the wind. There is no pollutant sink for food take-away containers, or PFAS.

Air pollution

• https://www.nap.edu/read/10378/chapter/3 – The national academics press
• https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=1&ContentID=2163 – University of Rochester medical centre
• https://sciencing.com/environmental-impacts-of-detergent-5135590.html – Sciencing
• https://www.health.belgium.be/en/effect-detergents-environment – Federal public service health, food chain safety, and environment
• https://www.lenntech.com/aquatic/detergents.htm#ixzz5zvxeVkis – Lennetch
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652618336230 – Science direct

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Essay on Water Pollution for Students and Children

500+ words essay on water pollution.

Water is the most important resource for survival on a planet. It is the essence of life on our planet – Earth. Yet if you ever see a river or lake around your city, it would be evident to you that we are facing a very serious problem of Water pollution. Let us educate ourselves about water and water pollution . Two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered by water , seventy-six perfect of your body is made up of water.

Water and Water Cycle

As you already know water is everywhere and all around.  However, we have a fixed amount of water on earth. It just changes its states and goes through a cyclic order, known as the Water Cycle. The water cycle is a natural process that is continuous in nature. It is the pattern in which the water from oceans, seas, lakes, etc gets evaporated and turns to vapor. After which it goes through the process of condensation, and finally precipitation when it falls back to earth as rain or snow.

What is Water Pollution?

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (like oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, aquifers, and groundwater) usually caused due to human activities. Water pollution is any change, minor or major in the physical, chemical or biological properties of water that eventually leads to a detrimental consequence of any living organism . Drinking water, called Potable Water, is considered safe enough for human and animal consumption.

Sources of Water Pollution

• Domestic Waste
• Industrial effluents
• Insecticides and pesticides
• Detergents and Fertilizers

Some of the water pollutions are caused by direct Sources, such as factories, waste management facilities, refineries, etc, that directly releases waste and dangerous by-products into the nearest water source without treating them. Indirect sources include pollutants that infuse in the water bodies via groundwater or soil or via the atmosphere through acidic rain.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Effects of Pollution of Water

The effects of Water Pollution are:

Diseases: In humans, drinking or consuming polluted water in any way has many disastrous effects on our health. It causes typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and various other diseases.

Eradication of Ecosystem: Ecosystem is extremely dynamic and responds to even small changes in the environment. Increasing water pollution can cause an entire ecosystem to collapse if left unchecked.

Eutrophication: Chemicals accumulation and infusion in a water body, encourages the growth of algae. The algae form a layer on top of the pond or lake. Bacteria feed on this algae and this event decreases the amount of oxygen in the water body, severely affecting the aquatic life there

Effects of the food chain: Turmoil in food chain happens when the aquatic animals (fish, prawns, seahorse, etc) consume the toxins and pollutants in the water,  and then the humans consume them.

Prevention of Water Pollution

The best way to prevent large-scale water pollution is to try and reduce its harmful effects. There are numerous small changes we can make to protect ourselves from a future where water is scarce.

Conserve Water: Conserving water should be our first aim. Water wastage is a major problem globally and we are only now waking up to the issue. Simple small changes made domestically will make a huge difference.

Treatment of sewage: Treating waste products before disposing of it in water bodies helps reduce water pollution on a large scale. Agriculture or other industries can reuse this wastewater by reducing its toxic contents.

Use of environment-friendly products: By using soluble products that do not go on to become pollutants, we can reduce the amount of water pollution caused by a household.

Life is ultimately about choices and so is water pollution. We cannot live with sewage-strewn beaches, contaminated rivers , and fish that are poisonous to drink and eat. To avoid these scenarios,  we can work together to keep the environment clean so the water bodies, plants, animals, and people who depend on it remain healthy. We can take individual or teamed action to help reduce water pollution. As an example, by using environmentally friendly detergents, not pouring oil down the drains, reducing the usage of pesticides, and so on. We can take community action too to keep our rivers and seas cleaner. And we can take action as countries and continents to pass laws against water pollution. Working together, we can make water pollution less of a problem—and the world a better place.

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The Environmental Outlook in Russia January 1999 This paper was produced by the National Intelligence Council, Chairman, and the DCI Environmental Center, Director. It was prepared under the auspices of the National Intelligence Officer for Economics and Global Issues, and the National Intelligence Officer for Science and Technology, and the National Intelligence Officer for Russia and Eurasia. Key Judgments Russia during the next decade will be unable to deal effectively with the formidable environmental challenges posed by decades of Soviet and post-Soviet environmental mismanagement and recurring economic crises. Although the prolonged contraction in economic activity has resulted in significant drops in most pollution categories, substantial environmental improvement will depend on an array of socioeconomic, institutional, and cultural changes--facilitated by international engagement--that will only begin to develop sporadically and close to the end of our 10-year time frame at the earliest. Major progress is decades away. Among Russia's most important environmental problems: Water pollution is the most serious concern. Less than half of Russia's population has access to safe drinking water. While water pollution from industrial sources has diminished because of the decline in manufacturing, municipal wastes increasingly threaten key water supply sources, and nuclear contamination could leach into key water sources as well. The head of Russia's environmental protection committee estimates that the cost of raising the quality of Russia's entire drinking water supply to official standards could be as high as $200 billion. Air quality is almost as poor as water quality, with over 200 cities often exceeding Russian pollution limits, and is likely to worsen. The number of vehicles on the road has increased rapidly, and their emissions will offset reductions in industrial air pollution owing to reduced economic activity and greater reliance on natural gas. Solid waste generation has increased substantially due to adoption of Western-style consumption patterns. Russian municipalities, however, lack management expertise and landfill capacity to cope with disposal problems. Hazardous waste disposal problems are extensive and growing. Russian officials estimate that about 200 metric tons of the most highly toxic and hazardous wastes are dumped illegally each year in locations that lack effective environmental or public health protections or oversight. Nuclear waste and chemical munitions contamination is so extensive and costly to reverse that remediation efforts are likely to continue to be limited largely to merely fencing off affected areas. Environmental problems are harming both the health of Russia's citizens and the economy: US, Russian, and World Bank studies link an increase in respiratory and gastrointestinal illnesses and developmental problems among children in several Russian cities in part to environmental factors. A 1996 joint US-Russian government study found that one-quarter of kindergarten pupils in one city had lead concentrations above the threshold at which intelligence is impaired, while a US government study noted a rise in the incidence of waterborne diseases and environmentally related birth defects. A Russian government report cited air pollution as a contributing factor to 17 percent of childhood and 10 percent of adult illnesses. Pollution is adding to budgetary strains, reducing labor productivity through illness and absenteeism, and damaging natural resources. It also is deterring some domestic and foreign investors concerned about cleanup and liability issues. A team of Russian experts has pegged overall economic losses from environmental degradation at 10 to 12 percent of GDP--roughly similar to estimated losses in East European countries and substantially higher than estimates of 1 to 2 percent in developed countries. Russia's environmental problems also pose substantial threats to other regions and are likely to continue to do so during the next decade: Russia is a polluter of adjacent seas, dumping industrial and municipal wastes, chemical munitions, and, until the mid-1990s, solid and liquid radioactive wastes. It is likely to continue to be a major producer and exporter of illicit ozone-depleting substances because of widespread black-market activity and also will remain a major emitter of carbon dioxide. Although Russian Government officials decry the economic and social costs of environmental degradation, they lack the commitment, resources, and organizational capacity to address environmental problems: Policymakers are focusing on stopping Russia's economic deterioration and stabilizing the country's financial markets, not on the environmental impact of their actions. Spending on the environment was less than 0.5 percent of total federal budget spending, or about $480 million in 1997--a significant drop from the modest levels of the late Soviet period. Spending on drinking water quality, for example, was down 90 percent from levels of the 1980s. Russia has a comprehensive legal and regulatory framework in the environmental area, but government institutions responsible for environmental protection lack the authority and capability to enforce legislation. A continued Russian tendency to treat certain nuclear waste and chemical weapons information as a state secret will complicate Western cleanup assistance programs. The Russian government recently made broad new categories of environment-related information subject to secret classification in response to revelations about environmental problems at Russian military bases by former military officers. Environmental activism has been on the wane since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Despite growing concerns about environmentally related health problems, the Russian public is preoccupied with economic survival and accords much less priority to environmental issues. Russia is widely expected to be the major financial beneficiary of the carbon-trading scheme associated with the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, mainly because the sharp decline in Russian economic activity has reduced emissions nearly 30 percent below the target level Russia set for the period 2008-12. Under the Protocol, countries exceeding their targeted cuts will be able to sell emission-reduction credits to those unable to meet their targets: Even if a future sustained economic recovery increases emissions, Russian officials are convinced that the extensive boreal forest covering most of the country will act as a major carbon absorber that will earn them substantial revenues well beyond the 2008-12 period if effectively managed. According to a MEDEA study sponsored by the National Intelligence Council, however, current carbon flow models contain significant uncertainties, and it is not clear whether Russia's boreal forest is a net absorber or emitter of atmospheric carbon. (1) Even minor improvements in Russia's environment during the next few years will require continued international pressure, aid, management expertise, and foreign investment to compensate for Russian shortcomings, but any government shift toward greater state control of the economy to deal with the ongoing economic crisis would jeopardize at least some of this assistance: A number of international institutions and environmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are providing Russia with substantial aid and technical training, as well as assistance on policy priorities, reform, and institution-building. Although Russia's latest economic crisis has slowed foreign investment considerably, multinational corporations that have invested in Russia generally have introduced new and more efficient equipment and employ more environmentally friendly practices than Russian firms. The outlook for more sustained environmental progress over the long term will depend less on foreign assistance and more on whether Russian leaders can muster the courage and skill to implement reforms leading to sound economic growth, greater governmental accountability, and increased public political involvement: If Moscow can rein in its ongoing financial crisis and implement sound fiscal, monetary, and corporate governance policies, investors will eventually return to Russia and help set the stage for sustained economic growth that, in turn, would increase government and private-sector capacity and willingness to address environmental concerns. A higher living standard, along with changes in Russian political culture that increase government responsiveness and reduce public apathy, would gradually strengthen public support for a more robust environmental agenda as it has in more developed countries. It would also boost the influence of environmental NGOs on government and private-sector environmental policies. Although at least some of these positive indicators may begin to appear near the end of our 10-year time frame, it will probably take decades for Russians to garner the will and the wherewithal to deal with their environmental problems, especially if neo-Communist or nationalist forces come to power and pursue decidedly xenophobic and antireformist policies. Figure 1 Key Environmental Problem Areas in Russia Discussion Scope of Environmental Challenges Russian Government officials candidly acknowledge that the country has many environmental problems, often using words such as "catastrophe" and "crisis" to describe the scale of the challenge. Some of the problems are primarily a legacy of Russia's Soviet past. Among the factors most responsible for environmental destruction: Soviet planners strongly emphasized the development of heavy industries over other sectors of the economy, and Russia is now burdened with a large stock of aged, inefficient, and highly polluting plant and equipment, the bulk of which requires repair or replacement. Soviet production criteria led to inefficient use of Russia's abundant natural resources and energy, which were treated as free or heavily subsidized goods. This encouraged waste. The priority of defense and the security surrounding defense industries and military installations allowed authorities to be extraordinarily reckless in their treatment of the environment--including simply dumping radioactive and other hazardous wastes onto nearby land and in waterways. The collectivization of agriculture destroyed individual responsibility for the land. Feverish campaigns to "solve the food problem" led to the overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the depletion of arable land, and the cultivation of vast areas of marginal and semiarid lands easily damaged by intensive agriculture. Environmental standards, although often set high, were seldom enforced. Departments charged with protecting natural resources were often subordinate to ministries whose main goal was increasing production. Other Russian environmental problems are more closely associated with the country's political and economic transition during the 1990s, particularly its halting move from a command to a free market economy: Industrial output has plummeted during the 1990s, but pollution from air and wastewater emissions has not declined as fast. Firms routinely underreport their emissions and cut capital investment, maintenance, and the quality of fuel they use to trim costs (see figures 2, 3, and 4). Such cuts have caused the environmental performance of facilities to deteriorate, and the frequency of industrial accidents that cause environmental damage to increase. Oilspills and leaking oil pipelines, for example, are commonplace. The competitive sectors of the new Russian economy tend to be oriented toward production of commodities that are energy, resource, and thus pollution intensive. During the 1990s, oil, gas, timber, and metals have accounted for about 70 percent of Russia's reported export revenue, and they will continue to comprise the bulk of Russian exports. Russia also must confront many of the environmental problems associated with the consumerism and unchecked development associated with free market systems, such as burgeoning solid waste streams from packaged goods, traffic congestion, urban sprawl, and a rush by private firms to exploit natural resources. Water Russia's leading environmental concern is water pollution. Municipalities are the main source of pollution, followed by industry and agriculture. Russian and foreign experts estimate that less than one-half of Russia's population has access to safe drinking water. Sixty-nine percent of the nation's wastewater treatment systems lack sufficient capacity. Only 13 percent of reported wastewater flows were treated to meet Russia's relatively high-quality water standards in 1996, the latest period for which we have reporting. According to the Russian Government, "practically all" of the water courses in the Volga watershed--an area that covers two-thirds of European Russia--do not meet Russian standards. Russia's three military plutonium production sites--Chelyabinsk-65 (often referred to as Mayak) in the southern Urals region, and Tomsk-7 and Krasnoyarsk-26 in southwestern Siberia--have caused extensive contamination of Russian waterways: Highly radioactive waste from Chelyabinsk was dumped into a nearby river system from 1948 to 1951 and has migrated over 1,500 kilometers to the Arctic Ocean. Other waste is stored in open ponds at Chelyabinsk and is seeping into a nearby river. At Tomsk and Krasnoyarsk, liquid radioactive waste injected into the sandy layers beneath the sites is migrating slowly. If Russia does not maintain its long-term monitoring program, the waste could seep into local and regional water supplies without adequate time to protect against impacts to human health and prevent degradation of the environment. Water pollution from municipal sources is likely to increase during the next decade as independent households and the services sector place additional burdens on municipal sewage systems. When industrial production recovers, wastewater discharges also will reverse their downward trend. Meanwhile, funding shortages will constrain operations, maintenance, and new investment in drinking water, sewerage, and wastewater treatment systems. They also will limit any efforts to deal with nuclear contamination of waterways and drinking water supplies. Air Poor air quality is almost as serious a problem as water pollution. In 1996 over 200 cities in Russia often exceeded the levels prescribed by Russian health standards for annual concentrations of at least one pollutant, according to a Russian government report. Eight cities exceeded health standards for three or more pollutants, and they did so by at least a factor of 10. In comparison, according to the US Environmental Protection Agency, air pollution levels in the Los Angeles area, which has the worst overall air quality in the United States, rarely exceed US standards--which are similar to Russia's--by a factor of more than 1.5. Figure 2 Sources of Russian Water Pollution by Volume of Effluent Although industries continue to pollute the air, emissions from cars and trucks--lead, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides--cause the majority of air pollution. In Moscow, for example, 87 percent of air pollution is attributable to vehicle emissions. Air quality is likely to worsen as the number of vehicles--many of which are aging and lack adequate pollution controls--increases. From 1991 to 1997, car registrations increased nationwide by 176 percent. The number of cars in Moscow during the same period jumped 250 percent to 2 million. Fuel quality will add to the problem--only half the gasoline produced in Russia is unleaded and, in heavily congested areas, lead concentrations often reach at least four times the US air quality standard. Figure 3 Reported Russian Industrial Output and Air Pollution Emissions Land Solid and hazardous wastes present acute threats to the land and are likely to continue to do so: Russia's urban and new suburban communities do not have the management expertise or landfill capacity to cope with solid waste disposal, and the popularity of Western-style consumer goods and packaging has worsened waste disposal problems. Russians illegally dump about 200 metric tons of the most highly toxic and hazardous wastes each year in locations that lack any health protections or oversight, according to Russia's environment agency. Hazardous waste disposal problems are likely to increase with the continued illegal dumping of domestic and foreign-origin wastes. Russia's military facilities remain significant sources of hazardous wastes. Petroleum-based products have contaminated the ground at many military bases, particularly around areas used for fuel storage and vehicle maintenance. Radioactive material from Russia's nuclear weapons complexes at Chelyabinsk, Tomsk, and Krasnoyarsk-26 have contaminated the nearby region for decades. Other sites of concern are the home ports of the Northern and Pacific Fleets, where thousands of tons of spent nuclear fuel assemblies, solid and liquid radioactive wastes, and reactor compartments have accumulated, both as a result of regular naval fleet operations and programs to dismantle and scrap some submarines. Although the Russians established a military ecological service in 1997 to monitor and clean up contamination caused by military activities, funding shortfalls are likely to limit government efforts largely to documenting stocks and flows, posting warnings, and fencing off hazardous areas. Russian forest losses in the 1990s have been double those of the 1980s because of limited efforts to prevent fires, pest infestations, and diseases. Depletion of forests is likely to increase if the government's ambitious plan to boost logging output by subsidizing production and attracting foreign investment is implemented. The Soviet regime for many years pushed farming into fragile and arid pasturelands and also supplied farmers with agrochemicals at virtually no cost, resulting in excessive levels of nitrates in up to 10 percent of food samples in Russia. Although subsidies for such agrochemicals are being reduced, the widespread soil degradation and groundwater contamination will be difficult and costly to remedy. Figure 4 Level of Pollutants in the Air in Russia Environmental Conditions Poor Throughout the Former Soviet Union Environmental conditions generally are poor throughout the former Soviet Union (FSU), and all states lack the commitment, institutional capacity, and funds to deal with them, according to a study sponsored by the DCI Environmental Center: Water pollution, especially of rivers and coastal zones, is the most pervasive ecological problem. All 13 seas in or adjacent to the various states are seriously polluted, and the water volume in some landlocked seas is shrinking. Conditions in the Aral Sea are by far the worst, but the situation also is deteriorating in the Caspian, Black, and Azov regions. Severe air pollution is prevalent in most FSU cities and is especially serious in those that combine high industrial activity and vehicular traffic. Some of the worst air pollution outside of Russia is in Ukraine, especially in its Dnipropetrovs'k-Donets'k region. Soil degradation is widespread, given common agricultural practices emphasizing high fertilizer and insecticide use. The presence of military bases and large military-industrial complexes in the FSU periphery such as the Baltic states also has caused extensive environmental degradation of nearby land and waterway systems. The 47 commercial reactors in use, almost all of them located in the European part of the FSU, are of the older pressurized water or graphite-moderated variety that are the most susceptible to accidents that could become catastrophic. Shortcomings common throughout the FSU hamper efforts to deal with environmental problems. These shortcomings include: A tradition of government secrecy in dealing with negative developments. Populations that are preoccupied with economic survival at the expense of environmental improvement. Substantial environmental legislation on the books but inadequate compliance and enforcement. A dearth of revenues to fund the high cost of environmental cleanup. Figure 5 Sources of Water Pollution in Russia, 1995 Figure 6 Sources of Air Pollution in Russia, 1995 Costs of Environmental Degradation Russia's pervasive water, air, and land pollution is harming both the health of Russia's citizens and the economy. Although total costs are difficult to calculate because of inadequate economic data, the contributing impact of lifestyle factors such as poor diet and smoking, and poor health delivery systems, a variety of official and private studies indicate environmental degradation is taking a heavy toll. Figure 7 Nikel' Area, Kola Peninsula, Russia Landsat Imagery, July 1993 Figure 8 Distribution of Russian Radioactive Contamination of the Environment Figure 9 Comparison of US and Russian Nuclear Contamination of the Environment a Health Impact Environmentally related health problems in Russia are extensive and growing, adding to adult and infant mortality rates that have risen substantially over the past decade: The link between environmental degradation and poor health is amply reflected in a 1994 World Bank report noting documented cases in several Russian cities of developmental problems among children ingesting lead, of air pollution causing acute and chronic respiratory problems such as bronchitis and asthma, and of nitrates in drinking water causing methemoglobinemia among newborns--which prevents blood cells from absorbing oxygen and leads to slow suffocation. A 1996 joint study by the Russian Ministry of Health and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that one-quarter of kindergarten pupils in the city of Saratov had lead concentrations above the threshold at which intelligence is impaired. A Russian study of children in St. Petersburg found their mercury levels to be 1.5 to 2 times higher than is typical of children in London and New York, while another study of children in Klin, cited by Laurie Garrett in a 1997 article for Newsday , found high rates of asthma, chronic digestive diseases, and endocrine system problems. Although we are not aware of the methodology employed, the Russian Ministry of Health estimates that children exposed to higher levels of air pollution generally suffer 70 percent more illnesses than those living in unpolluted areas, and the Russian State Report on the Environment for 1994 cites air pollution as a contributing factor to 17 percent of childhood and 10 percent of adult illnesses. Environment-related health problems also appear to be growing. The Defense Intelligence Agency's Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (AFMIC) reports that cases of waterborne diseases--such as dysentery, typhoid, cholera, and viral hepatitis A and E--have risen substantially during the past decade. The annual incidence of some, such as dysentery, has increased as much as 25 percent in some years, and there have been a series of dysentery and cholera epidemics in cities such as St. Petersburg in recent years. AFMIC also cites a report by Russian scientists that the number of cases of environmentally related birth defects also is on the increase. The Russian public has taken note of the adverse impact of environmental degradation on its health. In one public opinion survey, cited in a 1994 study by B. I. Kochurov sponsored by the National Council for Soviet and East European Research, 80 percent of respondents associated a decline in their health with pollution, and 68 percent believed pollution affected their children's health. Figure 10 Forest Cutting Activities in the Far East Economic Impact Environmental pollution has had a substantially negative impact on Russia's economy. It contributes to health-related budgetary strains, reduces labor productivity, curbs tourism and investment, and lowers the yield of natural resources. Environmentally linked illnesses also limit the military manpower pool: Premature mortality related directly to environmental factors resulted in an estimated loss of labor potential of some 82,000 person years in 1991, according to a report to Russia's Security Council. The loss of labor potential because of environment-related illness is far higher. A Russian newspaper reported in October 1997 that one in three draftees is rejected for health reasons--up from one in 20 in 1985 and, in some cases, probably environmentally induced. Pollution in the Black Sea has cut the fish catch from 1.5 million tons in 1985 to 100,000 tons in 1994, according to a 1995 Twentieth Century Fund Report by Murray Feshbach, and also has hurt tourism. Some foreign firms limit or avoid investing in former Communist states such as Russia, in part because they are concerned they will be responsible for cleaning up past contamination and because of ambiguities about environmental standards, liability rules, and levels of enforcement. Although we have insufficient information to determine with confidence the economic impact of environmental problems, a team of senior Russian environmental economists and geographers have pegged total losses from environmental degradation at 10 to 12 percent of GDP. This is similar to estimated losses in East European states, but substantially more than the 1 to 2 percent of GDP lost because of environmental degradation in developed states. Regional and Global Impact Russia's environmental problems will continue to pose substantial threats to neighboring regions and to the world during the next decade: Russia is a major polluter of the Black and Caspian Seas and other waterways in the region. The cities of St. Petersburg and Kaliningrad are substantial contributors to pollution problems in the Baltic Sea and have been slow to engage in regional cooperative programs to reduce water pollution. Nuclear waste storage and disposal will continue to be a formidable challenge. The Russian Navy until the mid-1990s released liquid and solid radioactive wastes into the Arctic Sea, the Sea of Japan, and the Northern Pacific Ocean, causing many countries considerable concern. Although no widespread radioactive contamination of the Arctic marine environment has occurred, runoff from onshore associated naval facilities has contaminated sediment along the shoreline. Russia has dumped chemical munitions in the Baltic, White, Barents, and Kara Seas. According to a study by the MEDEA group, however, contamination from any leaking munitions probably would be limited to the area of a dumpsite and to heights of a few meters above the seafloor with little possibility that toxic concentrations could be transported to nearby shores. Nonetheless, direct contact with leaking munitions, particularly in the Baltic Sea, has harmed and even killed some commercial fishermen. Russia continues to produce about half the world's chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)--linked to depletion of the ozone layer--and ranks third behind the United States and China in carbon dioxide emissions. Russia is likely to remain a significant producer--and exporter--of illicit ozone-depleting substances for at least the next several years, despite an international effort under way to convert Russia's CFC production capacity to environmentally safer products. Most illicit CFCs seized by US Customs in recent years have been produced in Russia. Even if conversion occurs, illicit production, use, and export of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances is likely to continue, given Russia's thriving black market and weak law enforcement. A potentially serious danger emanating from Russia would be radioactive fallout from an accident in one of Russia's 29 poorly constructed, aging, and often poorly maintained nuclear power plants, especially those located close to international borders--such as the plants in St. Petersburg and on the Kola Peninsula. According to one former senior member of Russia's State Atomic and Radioactive Oversight Committee, safety norms for Russian nuclear reactors are greatly outdated. The Kyoto Protocol and Russia's Boreal Forest Under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the 1992 UN Framework on Climate Change, Russia pledged that, in the target period of 2008 to 2012, its emissions of six greenhouse gases would not exceed 1990 levels. Because of Russia's economic downturn, carbon emissions today are 25 to 30 percent below this target and are likely to remain below the target through 2012. Russia, therefore, will not be subject to potential mandatory mitigation measures. Russian and most foreign officials and experts, moreover, believe that Russia will be the direct beneficiary of the Protocol's proposed carbon-trading scheme, whereby developed countries that have exceeded their targeted cuts can sell emission reduction credits to those that are having difficulty meeting their targets. The Russian Ministry of Economics claims Moscow could earn as much as $18 billion by 2005 if a trading scheme is set up soon. Even if a sustained economic recovery materializes and substantially increases Russian emissions, Russian officials are convinced that Russia's extensive boreal forest cover will act as a major carbon absorber that will earn them substantial revenues well beyond the 2008-12 period if effectively managed. According to a MEDEA study sponsored by the National Intelligence Council, however, current carbon flow models contain significant uncertainties, and it is not clear whether Russia's boreal forest cover is a net absorber or emitter of atmospheric carbon (see annex). Limited Impact of Russian Remediation Efforts Russian Government and business leaders will not be able to make more than limited environmental progress during the next decade, and sustained improvement is probably decades away, especially if the neo-Communists or nationalists come to power and curb foreign investments and free market reforms. Prolonged economic problems will limit the availability of funding for the environment from both government and private sectors. Continued dependence on pollution-intensive extractive industries and unregulated black-market and organized crime activities also will hamper government and private efforts to clean up the environment. The Russian public will continue to accord priority to immediate socioeconomic needs over environmental improvement. Table 1 Russian Greenhouse Gas Emission Projections     The lower number represents the probable scenario, the higher number represents a high-growth scenario. Index: 1990=100 a     2000 2010 Carbon dioxide 75/78 81/90 Methane 75/80 63/69 Source: Russian Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring Service a Emissions for 2000 are significantly lower than 1990 because of the drop in industrial activity following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Government Focusing on Economy Russian political leaders and bureaucrats lack the commitment, resources, and organizational capabilities to address environmental issues effectively, according to a 1997 study by Demosthenes James Peterson written under the auspices of the National Council for Eurasian and East European Research. Some features of the government's latest economic plan, such as its support for ailing and highly polluting state enterprises, will further complicate environmental cleanup if they are implemented: The Ministry of Natural Resources and the State Committee for Environmental Protection, which are responsible for natural resources management and environmental protection, respectively, lack the incentive and capability to craft and enforce environmental legislation. Businesses or individuals that violate environmental codes typically avoid or minimize penalties, often by paying bribes. The Ministries of Economics and Finance--the two institutions that have the greatest de facto influence on environmental conditions in Russia--are focusing on stopping Russia's economic deterioration and stabilizing the country's financial markets, not on the environmental impact of their actions. Government spending on the environment is extremely low--even by comparison with limited spending of the Soviet regime during the late 1980s--and is likely to remain so. Less than 0.5 percent of total federal budget spending, or about $480 million, was allocated in 1997. Spending on water quality dropped 90 percent from levels of the 1980s. The actual amount the Ministry of Finance disbursed, moreover, was about one-third less because of government budgetary adjustments intended to limit the federal deficit. Russia's parliament has passed a range of environmental legislation since 1991, but the provisions are poorly drafted and unrealistic given limited fiscal resources, institutional capacity, and technology. Russian environmental assessments often are arbitrary and subject to political manipulation. They also are too imprecise to provide sound guidance for the protection of natural resources. Government Institutions Charged With Environmental Protection Russia has an extensive bureaucracy devoted to environmental protection and natural resources management: The Ministry of Natural Resources (Minresursov) is the key unit of the government responsible for natural resources management. The Yel'tsin administration formed Minresursov in 1997 to oversee federal water, geology, forestry, wildlife, and fisheries issues. The Ministry, however, has little incentive to advance environmental protection because its officials have ties to the industries they are tasked to regulate and because the ministry benefits materially by promoting resource development through the receipt of various fees and from sales. The Forestry Service, for example, earns half of its $500 million annual budget from lumber sales. The State Committee for Environmental Protection (Goskompriroda) monitors air and water pollution and biodiversity preservation. The agency, formerly a ministry with wider powers now held by Minresursov, has focused on developing a "polluter-pays" system of off-budget ecological funds. Goskompriroda's accomplishments have been modest because of staff and funding shortages, turf conflicts with the federal natural resource agencies, and several reorganizations. Its "polluter-pays" efforts have shown little result because many firms either are insolvent or evade collection efforts. The Commission on Ecological Security, which President Yel'tsin formed in 1994, is one of 10 offices within the National Security Council. The Ecology Commission until last year was headed by Professor Aleksey Yablokov, a respected biologist, environmental activist, and onetime personal adviser to the President. Yablokov used his position on the Security Council to bring to light many sensitive issues, including the Soviet government's illegal whaling activities, its illegal dumping of nuclear wastes into oceans, and environmental problems related to poor chemical weapons management. In response, Yablokov was relieved of his government duties in 1997, and it is unlikely that environmental issues will soon regain a prominent status within the National Security Council. Two organizations have primary responsibility for nuclear oversight. The Ministry of Atomic Energy (MINATOM) is responsible for nuclear waste generated at civilian nuclear power plants and at nuclear weapons facilities. The State Service for Atomic and Radiation Safety (Gosatomnadzor) establishes all requirements on the handling and disposal of radioactive material. Both are insufficiently funded to enforce their regulations. Plethora of Federal Environment-Related Legislation 1991-98 1991 Land Code Law on Public Health Law on Land Use Fees Law on Environmental Protection 1994 Framework Convention on Climate Change 1995 Law on Environmental Impact Assessment Law on Continental Shelf of the Russian Federation Forest Code Water Code Law on Use of Atomic Energy Law on Nature Reserves Law on Protection and Use of Fauna Law on Subsurface Resources Ratification of the Convention on Biodiversity Ratification of the Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste 1996 Law on the Radiation Safety of the Population Law on Land Improvement 1998 Law on Solid and Industrial Waste Private Sector Focusing on Survival and Profits Economic transition-related pressures--including the reduction of state subsidies, high interest rates, poor governmental regulation, and pressures to become profitable--are causing most private firms to cut their environmental programs. Such pressures also are fueling completely unregulated black-market economic activities that are harming the environment: Many firms have shut down corporate environmental protection departments and stopped or reduced the installation of pollution control equipment. In some cases, firms have shut off pollution controls. At the same time, managers have become reluctant to report emissions data and grant inspectors access to facilities, claiming they need to protect "commercial secrets." Firms also are rushing to exploit natural resources--such as oil, gas, forests, and fisheries--for their current cash value rather than promoting investment in such resources for their future value. Black-market economic activities that, according to varying estimates, are responsible for 60 to 90 percent of official GDP, exploit natural resources such as timber, metals, and fish with little or no regulation. For example, economists at the Russian Institute for Economic Research estimate that 20 percent of all trade in timber is unregulated, while the newspaper Izvestiya reports that over half the annual 4-million-ton fish catch in Pacific waters is shipped directly to Japan without clearing Russian customs. Table 2 Huge Drop in New Pollution Control Equipment Installed      Index: 1976-80=100   1976-80 1981-85 1986-90 1991-95   Wastewater treatment 100 63 53 21 Industrial water recirculation 100 144 139 36 Smokestack scrubbers 100 98 110 31 Source: Russian Committee for Environmental Protection Environmental Activism Waning Although several of Russia's largest nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)--the Socio-Ecological Union, Ecopress, and the Russian Green Party, for example--continue to have a formal advisory role in government councils, the effectiveness of Russia's environmental NGOs has waned since the early 1990s: During the late Soviet period, environmental concerns became the focal point for broader political discontent. The public's focus has shifted from environmental concerns to economic issues, political liberalization, crime, and ethnic conflict. Only 20 percent of respondents in one poll, for example, named pollution as one of Russia's worst problems, while Russian respondents in a 24-nation poll by the Canadian firm Environomics in 1997 ranked it near the bottom when asked if they would give priority to environmental protection over economic development or give up part of their income to prevent pollution. Few Russians, moreover, are motivated to become activists. The recession, an unfavorable tax code, a lack of familiarity with fundraising, and the absence of a tradition of public philanthropy have hampered the NGOs' ability to raise money. At the same time, economic reforms have led to sharp increases in the cost of office space, telecommunications, publishing, and travel. Government officials and business interests have increased pressure on environmental activists through the expansion of secrecy laws, restrictions on their activities, and, some NGOs claim, eavesdropping on their communications. New Environmental Secrecy Measures The Yel'tsin administration in October 1997 and January 1998 made broad new categories of environmentally related information subject to secret classification. These include defense-related mete- orological, geological, and cartographic work; the surveying and production of precious minerals; and the use of land and water by security services. The Yel'tsin administration also has instituted policies mandating that all information pertaining to military nuclear facilities be classified state secrets in response to damaging revelations about environmental problems by former military officers. In 1996, the Federal Security Service (FSB) arrested Aleksandr Nikitin, a former Navy officer, and charged him with high treason. He spent 10 months in jail for allegedly revealing classified information about environmental problems of Russia's Northern Fleet--information Nikitin asserts was in the public domain. At Nikitin's October 1998 trial, the judge sent the case back to the prosecutor for additional investigation--a victory for Nikitin. He remains, however, under city arrest in St. Petersburg. Journalist and former Navy officer Grigorii Pasko remains in prison since his 1997 arrest by the FSB for treason for publicizing nuclear waste problems of the Pacific Fleet. International Assistance and Investment Offer Some Hope Given the renewed economic turmoil in Russia, even minor environmental improvements during the next few years will require international pressure, aid, management expertise, and foreign investment. These will compensate to some extent for Russia's lack of the capital, institutional capacity, and political will to devise and implement an effective environmental action program, but any government shift toward greater state involvement in the economy to deal with the ongoing economic crisis would jeopardize at least some prospective foreign aid and investment. The Positive Impact of Foreign Aid Although Russia is not a candidate for European Union (EU) membership like many East European countries, and therefore will not be under the same intense pressure to improve its environmental performance in preparation for EU membership, it is receiving considerable international advice and assistance on its environmental efforts. The World Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), EU, and environmental NGOs have provided Russia with substantial aid, technical training, and assistance on policy priorities, reform, institution-building, and environmental legislation: The World Bank has designed and implemented regional programs for the Baltic and Black Seas and has provided environmental project loans to Russia amounting to several hundred million dollars for cleaning up major oil spills and other environmental reclamation and improvement projects. The EBRD has provided Russia with financing for several major environmental projects, including one aimed at revamping St. Petersburg's dilapidated water and sewerage network. These and other EBRD-supported projects must meet rigorous environmental impact criteria. The EU provides aid, technical assistance, and training for environmental impact assessments, coastal zone management in connection with the Black Sea Regional Environmental Program, and public awareness of environmental issues. The EU also provides training for government officials on the use and adaptation of EU environmental legislation. The Environmental Working Group of the US-Russian Joint Commission on Economic and Technical Cooperation is a major bilateral channel through which the United States engages Russia on environmental issues (see figure 11). The Greening Effect of Foreign Investment Although much of the $10 billion invested in Russian from 1989 to 1997 has focused on pollution-intensive sectors such as oil, logging, and consumer goods, most multinational corporations employ more efficient equipment and technology and generally use more "environmentally friendly" practices than Russian firms, according to another 1997 study by Peterson produced under the auspices of the National Council for Eurasian and East European Research: An international consortium developing oil and gas off Sakhalin Island is using the latest equipment and practices. Elsewhere, the Polar Lights joint venture between CONOCO and its Russian partners received an environmental achievement award. The numerous oil development projects by western companies currently under way in the Caspian Sea region pose fewer environmental threats than comparable Russian and Soviet projects undertaken over the last 40 years. The Russian Industrial Consortium for Protecting the Environment, a group of international packagers, is attempting to improve waste management and recycling schemes to lessen the impact of disposable packaging in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Moreover, multinational corporations that observe environmental standards are likely to press the Russian Government to enforce environmental regulations to prevent Russian competitor firms from gaining a cost advantage. How Much Would Cleanup Cost? The costs of substantially reducing Russia's environmental pollution will be prohibitively high, given Moscow's chronic fiscal problems. For example: The cost of cleaning the coast of Russia's maritime territory in the Russian Far East would be about $5 billion and take 20 years, according to a group of Russian, US, and Norwegian experts. Bringing the quality of Russia's entire drinking water supply up to official standards would require expenditures of about $200 billion, according to a statement attributed to Viktor Danilov-Danilyan, Chairman of Russia's State Committee for Environmental Protection, by Murray Feshbach in a 1998 study on environmental and health problems in the former Soviet Union. The cost of raising the nuclear safety levels to official standards for the entire former Soviet Union, most of which would have to be borne by Russia, would be about $26 billion, according to Russian estimates. But Russian Reforms and Public Support Needed The outlook for substantial environmental progress over the longer term will depend less on foreign help and more on whether Russian leaders--regardless of political orientation--muster the courage and skill to implement reforms that boost investor confidence and fuel the economic growth needed to fund environmental institution-building and improvements. It also will depend on the growth of government institutional capacity and accountability and on whether the Russian public overcomes its political apathy and becomes more focused on environmental issues. At best, such trends may begin to appear toward the end of our 10-year time frame at the earliest, but major progress is probably decades away, especially if neo-Communist or nationalist forces come to power and pursue decidedly xenophobic and antireformist policies that curtail foreign aid and investment and limit economic recovery. Retaining the support of the international financial community, while also boosting direct and equity investment, will require reducing the uncertainties related to fiscal and tax policy, property ownership, and corporate governance: Tax and regulatory simplification and better definition of property and shareholder rights would encourage property holders and corporate decisionmakers to plan with a longer term view. Bringing a significant share of Russia's underground economy into the open would facilitate tax collection and environmental monitoring efforts. Tax and other incentives would encourage purchase of new plant and equipment, which would lower industry's use of energy and cut pollution: According to the Ministry of Fuels and Energy, upgrading equipment in fuel and energy sectors could cut carbon emissions by 25 percent. Russia's Energy Research Institute estimates that better matching of regional generating capacity with electricity demand could conserve up to $1 billion of fuel per year. Further government cuts in subsidies for industrial production, fertilizers, and pesticides would prompt heavy industry and mining firms increasingly to use more efficient technologies and to adopt more environmentally friendly practices: Uralmash, Russia's biggest privatized heavy machinery plant, already has taken conservation measures that have held its energy bill at 22 percent of its total costs, compared to 41 percent had the company done nothing. The St. Petersburg power utility, Lenenergo, replaced a conventional boiler with a gas turbine, manufactured locally by a joint venture with a European firm, that probably will reduce nitrogen oxide emissions by 50 percent and save up to 20,000 tons of fuel. Figure 11 United States--Russia Environmental Working Group Figure 12 Value of Modern Technology: Reduction in Projected Russian Emissions With New Equipment Compliant With EU Standards Business incentives also could help Russia move away from using high carbon-emitting fuels--probably with little dislocation. Russia has about one-third of the world's natural gas reserves and most industry experts estimatethat gas prices will remain low for the next decade: A major source of natural gas from the Yamal area of western Siberia is likely to come on line during the next 10 years, for example, and UES, the national power utility, plans to increase the share of natural gas in thermal power generation from about one-half to two-thirds in the same period. Should Russia experience a prolonged economic recovery that satisfies basic needs such as jobs and housing, Russians would be inclined to focus more than in the past on quality-of-life issues such as the environment--particularly its impact on public health. Neither the public nor environmental NGOs would be likely to overcome their current apathy and lobby actively for environmental causes, however, unless Russian leaders become more responsive to public opinion in general and environmentalists conclude that activism can have an impact. Figure 13 Russian Vegetation and the Extent of the Boreal Forest (U) Annex Carbon Exchange and the Role of the Russian Boreal Forest MEDEA has examined the role of the Russian boreal forestand its relationship to carbon issues in the context of the Environmental Working Group of the US-Russian Joint Commission on Economic and Technical Cooperation and the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Climate Change Convention. MEDEA's efforts included reviewing the state of knowledge of the Russian boreal forest region and assessing the uncertainties in estimating the rates of carbon exchange between terrestrial and atmospheric systems. The boreal forests of the world are predominantly coniferous woodlands occupying a continuous zone around the world at northern latitudes just south of the Arctic tundra zone. In the boreal forest, aboveground vegetation is dominated by species of spruce, fir, pine, and larch, that can withstand cold and harsh conditions most of the year. Much of the forest area is underlain by permafrost and wetland areas, called peatlands. Approximately two-thirds of all boreal forests are located in Russia. The Russian Federal Forest Service (FFS) manages 1,110 million hectares 2 (Mha) of land area, of which 886 Mha is forest land, with 763 Mha actually covered by trees. Russia's boreal forest region is one of the largest single reservoirs of carbon in the world, storing more than one-fifth of carbon found in all terrestrial biomes. This carbon pool is 20 percent larger than that found in temperate and tropical forests combined. The soils and peat contain about 80 to 90 percent of the carbon. (See figure 14.) Russian scientists and foresters claim that the Russian boreal forest can be managed for the purpose of increasing carbon removal from the atmosphere, arguing that the current carbon removal rate is well below its potential: Russian Government studies conclude that the Russian boreal forest is absorbing atmospheric carbon at a rate of 160 million tons of carbon per year. 3 The studies also predict that the Russian forest will continue to represent an important sink beyond 2040. Figure 14 Storage of Carbon in the Russian Boreal Forest Sink or Source? Opinions in the scientific community differ about whether Russia's boreal forest is acting as a net sink (absorber) or source (emitter) of atmospheric carbon: Those arguing that the boreal forest is a net sink note that, historically, boreal forests store carbon because of accumulation of large amounts of dead organic matter in peatlands and forests underlain by permafrost. They also note decreases in logging in the boreal forest region. Others, arguing that the boreal forest is a net source of atmospheric carbon, maintain that warming in the boreal region during the past 30 years has increased thawing of the permafrost, causing carbon to be released into the atmosphere. Moreover, they note that fires in the region have increased, causing more carbon to be released into the atmosphere than is being sequestered. MEDEA, however, after reviewing the Russian studies, believes that it is extremely difficult to conclude that the Russian boreal forest functions either as a net source or net sink of atmospheric carbon. In particular, MEDEA believes that the extent of disturbance to the boreal forest region because of fire, insect infestation, and logging is significantly underestimated. MEDEA also is skeptical of the Russian studies' conclusions because of uncertainties in Russian models that estimate the amount of carbon in the soil and the rate that it cycles to the atmosphere. MEDEA believes that, during the next decade, use of multiresolution imagery from civil and national security systems and field data can reduce scientific uncertainties about the role of the boreal region in atmospheric carbon control. Multistaged sampling offers a means to map and quantify Russian boreal forest land cover change, carbon-related forest parameters, permafrost dynamics, and the frequency and significance of disturbances. Footnotes (1) MEDEA is a group of about 40 US environmental and global change scientists. It is an outgrowth of a CIA-sponsored Environmental Task Force formed in 1992 to use classified systems to examine key environmental questions. (2) 1 hectare = 10,000 m2 = 2.471 acres. (U) (3) The total fossil fuel emissions from the Russian Federation in 1990 was 654 million tons of carbon.

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Environmental Pollution in Canada

1. introduction.

Canada is a beautiful land from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from the glacial Christian Islands to the wide expanse of the tundra of Yukon. It is a land that deserves to be loved and cherished. Its natural wealth is as vast as its geography, but this wealth is under threat from increasing exposure to various forms of environmental pollution. Our traditional concerns about noise, water, and air pollution have become more sophisticated and are now accompanied by worries about toxic chemicals, hazardous waste, the destruction of entire ecosystems, and the thinning of the protective shield against the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. There are frequent references to Canada's deteriorating environment, although the pace sometimes appears all too leisurely. National attention seems selective in focusing on the most serious hazards only after much persistent prodding. Government involvement is recent and, at many levels, is more symbolic than practical. In the following pages, the author proposes to describe Canadian reactions, particularly through government action and non-governmental recommendations, which raise concern on a national or international level, and to summarize significant characteristics and features of some 33 types of specific environmental pollution involving Canada.

1.1. Background and significance

Canada has many natural and beautiful spaces that attract Canadians and non-Canadians alike. It also hosts many clean and healthy environments that include air, water, and land. Nevertheless, along with most industrial countries, Canada has a pollution problem. Many natural spaces are spoiled and unhealthy environments are deteriorating further. National attention on these problems has increased in recent years, partly because of important regional variations in environmental degradation of Canadian federal-provincial agreements and the federal strategy on measures to combat pollution. Also, with the establishment of the Department of the Environment, a federal agency has a mandate to assure national standards throughout Canada. In the case of air pollution, concern over the regulations to in the future off-shore oil and mineral exploration has also promoted national interest. There is a growing awareness in Canada that a direct and heavy price is paid when people ignore the impact of pollution. Environmental pollution has immediate and acute harmful effects on the human body. It also has long-term and insidious effects. Such knowledge carries changes in the public's perception of the benefits of policies aimed at controlling pollution. Economic wages for loss in wages and increased medical costs are immediate concerns when pollution is severe. With other levels of pollution, however, efforts to provide strict enforcement of so-called rights period pollutants is often hurt by a public indifference to the indirect, long-term, and cumulative costs of pollution. Since these long-term costs continue to rise with increased population and industrial production, the changes in public perception can influence which groups of people gain and lose the most from strict get-as-long out action.

2. Types of Environmental Pollution

"Environmental pollution" is a term referring to the release of dangerous particles or substances into the environment. Pollution takes many forms, including the heavy metals and clophen type chemicals involved in international debate, the discharges from pulp and paper production, and the other chemical discharges from industries such as petrochemicals or plastics. In fact, some of the proportion of the toxic substances released into the environment comes from the natural biogeochemical cycles of the planet. Without the cycle of volcanoes or the production and release of toxic substances from organic material, the Earth's population might be struggling less with the problems of persistent toxic substances since they are volcanogenic in character. The issue of environmental pollution is one of concern to the Government of Canada and the policy debate is constantly focused on this. A list of pollutants about which Canadians are becoming increasingly concerned includes such different items as fluorides, dioxins, and furans. PCBs and PAHs, as well as other smoke and debris emissions from fires, are also pollutants which can create problems. Most Canadians take clean and safe air for granted, but in some areas of the country pollution has already had an adverse effect on the condition of the environment.

2.1. Air Pollution

Although the air in Canada is clean and free of man-made pollution compared with many other industrialized countries, there are still several localized air quality problems, particularly in urban areas, where industrial and vehicular emissions are major sources. In many cases, parameters such as lead, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO) have fallen because of technical changes that reduce these substances as part of the overall operation of the process generating emissions. In appearance, the majority of emissions rise as a function of population size, and a strong relationship can be established. However, it still does not explain the large variation in the amount of Greater Toronto Area (GTA) emission factors and air quality parameters from similar sources in the other areas included in the study dataset, especially assuming that the predominant source in the GTA is motor vehicles.

2.2. Water Pollution

The second largest source of industrial discharges of harmful toxic substances into the Canadian environment is from the manufacture of pulp and paper. Pulp and paper operations release materials that are harmful to the aquatic ecosystem, including chlorinated substances that have been linked to the feminization of fish and brominated compounds that act as hormone disruptors and may cause freshwater fish to change gender. Many of the toxins and pathogens continue to be dumped untreated into the water from pulp and paper and mining operations. The mining and pulp and paper industries are managed separately by different government departments, and this lack of coordination has resulted in a lack of regulation related to the cumulative impacts of these industrial facilities that are often located in the same areas. The waste and effluent/disposed material discharged by these industries contribute to 500,000 tons of dissolved solids being deposited into Canadian rivers, which affects freshwater quality. The towns and cities that rely on water from the affected rivers, as well as the fish and wildlife, are affected, which disrupts local economies that relied on these natural resources in the process.

2.3. Soil Pollution

As outlined in the previous chapter, the most serious soil pollution situations that arise in the context of energy production result from the transport and application of soil pollutants. These soil pollutants are produced by the conversion of raw materials to energy, either directly within the transforming units or by the user in the process of extracting energy. Self-contained mobile wastes represent the manner in which agricultural and forestry operations disperse air pollutants without the mediation of the natural environment or of energy conversion. While these wastes generally do not reach levels that damage human public health or decline environmental amenity, localized damage through odors and emissions of ammonia or particulate matter can develop. Gaseous emissions can transport nonvolatile waste particles and precursors to other parts of the environment where energy transformation occurs. The pollutants ultimately fall back to Earth's surface, frequently much further away than the pollutants that originally flowed as a gas from the conversion site. In determining environmental degradation, it is usually the transport and deposition of the pollutants that are most damaging, through the production of soil and water that is contaminated by pre-polluted dust and aerosols. The implementation of Amenity Standards for soil resources would recognize these pre-existing concentrations, known more technically as "background." Recognition of the different levels of background pollution is essential for maintaining or restoring the natural capacity of the affected landscape.

3. Causes of Environmental Pollution

Pollution is damage caused to air, water, and soil by harmful substances. These harmful substances are described as pollutants. Pollutants can take various forms and can be products we produce, such as wastes, sewage, and industrial effluents. Pollutants can also be non-material, such as noises and radiation. Physical conditions, such as temperature, can also be considered pollutants if they give rise to nuisance from which health problems arise. The likeliest causes of environmental pollution in Canada include poor agricultural and recreational practices, industrial operation, and inadequate regulation and enforcement. A great deal of pollution results from our everyday activities, including such activities as driving a car, cleaning house, spraying pesticide, using coal, disposing of batteries, and using air fresheners and mothballs. These are activities now regarded as perfectly normal, social, and legal activities but may give rise to environmental hazards. The interaction of social and environmental policies in many realms, such as industrial regulation, wastewater pollution, and solid waste management, also increases the environmental pollution levels in Canada. In effect, many of our choices about economic development - about what industries to promote or discourage, about what energy sources to use, and about where and how to live - affect the quality of the environment and, in turn, people's quality of life. Environmental quality, then, should be one of the principle and common goals shared by both environmental and social policies in support of sustainable community development.

3.1. Industrial Activities

Industrial activities that release contaminants to air, water, and land are widely dispersed across Canada, with hundreds of thousands of facilities reported under federal, provincial, and territorial pollution prevention and control programs. Industries are a key component of the Canadian economy, generating income, providing jobs, and contributing in varying degrees to the well-being of all Canadians. Industrial activities are also a key source of pollution. While pollution by industry has declined in tandem with growing economic activity and more stringent environmental policies, this association presents myriad challenges for the assessment of the health and vitality of Canadian ecosystems and the species that are a part of them, as well as for the determination of cause and effect relationships between pollution sources and their impacts. Under the 2001-2006 Federal Sustainable Development Strategy, Environment Canada and its agency focused on five priorities for reducing industrial pollution - the four targeted areas of discharges of suspended solids, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls, and dioxins and furans which increased in priority between the original and revised FSDS, and air emissions, principally particulates. A variety of policy tools, information strategies, partnerships, and direct action were to be used to reduce pollutants from industrial sources. Following is a brief summary of activity on each pollutant/emission source.

3.2. Transportation Emissions

Transportation is also a major contributor to Canada's pollution problems, accounting for approximately 33% of all greenhouse gas releases, including over 40% of all nitrous oxide (NOx) emissions. Other pollutants are also affected by motor vehicle emissions. For example, motor vehicles are responsible for approximately 70% of the carbon monoxide released. They contribute to 50% of all volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and the figure is still over 20% for sulphur dioxide. Other problems associated with transportation include the production of smog, the dispersion of decayed dead organisms created in motor vehicle accidents, and the loss of trees and costs associated with reforestation. Growth in both pressures and legislative requirements will continue to influence vehicle emissions. The greatest pressures will be increased fuel economy and therefore reductions in carbon dioxide releases. This requirement will also reduce emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide. Large-scale mitigation will also be made in the area of the other two legislated emissions, the reductions of nitrous oxides and non-methane volatile organic compounds that form ozone. In addition to the country, local air quality legislation is also being phased in. The specific objective is to limit smog, effectively reducing nitrous oxides and ozone found around ground level. These effects will effectively decrease the concentrations of ozone and summer smog. There are also requirements for winter oxygenated fuels that will require their use in eastern Canada for two winter months. There is also the guarantee of reduction activities for all regions in Canada. Another critical area is the role alternative fuels or technology advancements will play in any emissions programs. Mitigations are defined in all cases and, through implementation, effectively control requirements and their associated impacts.

4. Impact on Human Health and Ecosystems

This section discusses the possible impacts of air pollution on both human health and ecosystems in Canada. Air pollution can affect the population in various ways. It can cause irritation, injury, and illness, ranging from mild coughing, sneezing, and eye irritation to permanent lung damage, breathing problems, and diseases. Heat and sunlight can convert some air pollutants into new, potentially more harmful compounds. Children, the elderly, and those with respiratory and cardiovascular conditions are at a greater risk of suffering from the effects of air pollution. This includes those who live in close proximity to pollutant sources or in areas with poor air quality. Air pollution does not only affect humans, it may also result in damage to natural ecosystems. In Canada, damage to terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems has been documented. For example, air pollutants have the potential to alter plant functions including photosynthesis, growth, and reproduction. Agricultural crops and forests are particularly vulnerable to environmental pollution, particularly when pollutants are deposited as dust or in precipitation. In Canadian aquatic ecosystems, nutrient enrichment can lead to environmental damage, such as changes to the structure and function of the ecosystem. In sensitive ecosystems, this can lead to wildlife habitat degradation, reductions in species diversity, increased stress on native biota, deterioration of the surrounding community, and increased susceptibility to invasive species.

4.1. Health Effects of Pollution

The protective effects of healthy living environments include access to clean drinking water, housing, and a safe food supply. These provide a stable foundation for leading a healthy life. Polluted environments, by contrast, lead to poor health and deaths, are a burden on health systems, and reduce productivity. While the environmental problems in Canada may not be among the most serious in the world, there are health effects of pollution, and the global environment cannot afford the cumulative impact of countries that allow their environments to sustain high levels of pollution with the consequent risk to the global environment. Chapter 1 discussed links between a range of global environmental problems and local environmental problems. A characteristic of many environmental pollutants is that people can be exposed over a long time to very small amounts of many different types of chemicals, and that some are fat-soluble so they can accumulate in body fat. Some affect the body's own hormone systems, and some can persist in the environment and may therefore find their way into the diet. There is uncertainty about how these chemicals can interact with one another at these low levels of exposure. However, despite these complex interactions, regulatory agencies still tend to address chemicals on the basis of their actions when they are eaten in 'pure' form.

4.2. Ecosystem Degradation

Ecosystem degradation may result in part from the introduction of unwanted species into an environment - species for which the environment cannot offer controls or checks. These newcomers may have been transported unintentionally by historical and human activities in air, fresh and effluent water, live and dead vegetation, and processed and unprocessed goods. The prosperous existence of a rainforest could also be threatened when the space lands are modified or destroyed for reasons similar to those applicable to other grass and forest lands throughout the world. Fires, which only consume dead material, renew natural systems, can also reach into living plants where the trees are in a very productive condition. These trees have difficulty in surviving both thawing and then freezing events. The use of water for thermal electric power generation can also be converted from a benign agent into a power industry threat to the global system with the concomitant resulting change from the original system steady and fixed abiotic and biotic community components and dynamics that are dependent on those components.

5. Government Policies and Regulations

Governments are responding to the growing public concern about the quality of the environment by introducing and enforcing stricter regulations and by deploying complex economic tools and related public policies aimed at controlling or reducing pollution. This involves creating and then operating environmentally related laws, regulations, standards, guidelines, economic instruments, incentive programs, or funding mechanisms to control or reduce pollution. The Canadian legal system involves both a federal and ten provincial and three territorial jurisdictions, and the regulation of industrial pollutants has been shared between them. An effective regulatory system involves setting standards or targets, developing means for individuals, firms, and others to meet the standards and targets, and establishing ways and means for enforcement and compliance monitoring. The Canadian Government as well as those of the provinces and territories have enacted hundreds of statutes that deal with the environment in some fashion. From the federal level, one of the more pivotal laws is the federal Canadian Environment Protection Act (CEPA) (CEPA 1988), which is now undergoing a long-awaited updating and strengthening through the development of new regulatory tools. Created to address the marketing and use of substances new to Canada, the Act contained no legislated timelines for decisions to be made nor penalties for non-compliance and was used sparingly. Since 1999, the use of the Act is expanding and stronger enforcement options and closer links with other environmental laws are being established, and new regulations have since come into force.

5.1. Federal Regulations

Federal oversight of environmental pollution in Canada is the responsibility of several government departments and agencies. The key agency at the federal level is Environment Canada. However, the new legislative approach to environmental pollution, particularly as it relates to air and water pollution, requires a somewhat diversified examination since prevention and control methods emanate from diverse legislation. Some examples of this diversity include the Petroleum and Natural Gas Act, which controls the proposed export of crude oil through the use of royalty charges; the Fisheries Act, which controls the pollution arising from means and activities harmful to fish and fish habitat; the Marine Pollution Control Act, implemented through the least number of simplistic principles governing international shipping practice; and the Canada Shipping Act, which exercises strict restrictions on pollution from ships in the navigable waters of Canada. One significant piece of legislation is the basic guideline enacted in the Environmental Contaminants Act, and given the necessary regulations from February 1979 through 1988, designed to ensure that contaminants do not accumulate in the Canadian environment to the extent that would result in danger to human life or health or harm to living species' life and health. The main thrust of this legislation, of considerable interest to the export of crude oil from conventional or non-conventional sources in view of the present and future measures and standards that might be deemed necessary for Canada, is the prohibition against the production, importation, exportation, and use of such a substance and the prohibition against discharging such a substance into such conditions.

5.2. Provincial and Municipal Initiatives

Now that we have considered the responsible role of the federal government with respect to pollution abatement and control in Canada, let us take a look at the roles played by the provincial and municipal governments in pollution control through regulation and devices such as effluent charges. Despite the fact that serious ecological consequences may be linked to industrial activity that is often regulated by the federal government, almost all of the significant instruments available for designing and enforcing abatement policies, such as taxes and effluent charges or penalties, are controlled by provincial or municipal jurisdictions. The following is a case study of the Quebec situation in 1973, when the province's environmental protection legislation was one of the most comprehensive in Canada. More recently, however, developments have been occurring at the municipal level although the province is also considering a collective approach to some problems. Legally and economically, it is difficult to have a coordinated tax and cost approach to polluters at different levels of government. It is important that collective arrangements achieve efficiency in applying economic principles to pollution abatement and control, since the environment requires defenders. Such defenders are more likely to appear if individuals and firms find it in their interest. It seems that the most logical jurisdiction should be linked with the activity occurring at the level relevant to abatement responsibility. Indeed, if there is mixed or uncertain jurisdiction, there can be confusion since levels of government often have inconsistent objectives and this can sometimes produce inefficient results. In Quebec, where environmental protection is seen as a provincial responsibility, the government undertook in 1972 to compensate municipalities concerned with more localized and frequently costly problems of public health arising from the disposal of industrial or other forms of waste in neighboring localities. Indeed, critics arose from provincial legislation passed in 1972 concerning rainy day problems that left a fair amount of room for interpretation.

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Yale Climate Connections

Climate change is affecting mental health literally everywhere

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Farmers who can’t sleep, worrying they’ll lose everything amid increasing drought. Youth struggling with depression over a future that feels hopeless. Indigenous people grief-stricken over devastated ecosystems. For all these people and more, climate change is taking a clear toll on mental health — in every part of the world.  

Experts shared these examples and others during a recent summit organized by the Connecting Climate Minds network that brought together hundreds of scientists, doctors, community leaders, and other experts from dozens of countries who have spent the past year studying how climate change is harming mental health in their regions. 

Although mental illnesses are often viewed as an individual problem, the experts made clear that climate change is contributing to mental health challenges everywhere. 

The Connecting Climate Minds youth ambassador from Borneo, Jhonatan Yuditya Pratama, said his Indigenous community views nature as a sacred extension of being. Seeing the devastation of climate change on ancestral lands has brought his community “a profound sense of grief and loss,” he said.

“For us, mental health isn’t just about individuals,” he said. “It’s about the collective well-being of our communities and the land itself. When nature suffers, so do we.”  

Extreme weather and air pollution are taking a toll 

In her keynote, Marina Romanello, executive director of the Lancet Countdown and a Connecting Climate Minds advisory board member, explained the key ways that climate change threatens mental health. 

• Extreme heat is associated with increased self-harm and violence as well as more general feelings of negativity. It also leads to feelings of isolation when people feel trapped inside their relatively cooler homes.
• Wildfire or extreme weather stokes anxiety leading up to an event — and afterward — that can lead to PTSD or depression for survivors who have seen cherished places or lives lost.
• Farmers, fisherpeople, and others whose livelihoods are tied to the environment experience chronic stress, worry, and depression over things they can’t control, like extreme weather, habitat loss, and drought.
• Water scarcity increases stress for people in charge of seeking and transporting household water. Water scarcity also makes it hard for people to stay clean, potentially leading to isolation, loneliness, and depression. 
• Air pollution can keep kids out of school, leading to social isolation and, over time, a sense of hopelessness about the future. 

What’s more, people are experiencing the compounding effects of multiple disasters, said Emma Lawrance, who leads the Climate Cares Centre, a U.K.-based team that researches and supports mental health in the face of environmental crises: “With more frequent disasters, people can no longer recover psychologically from one before another occurs,” Lawrance said.  

And these escalating hazards are exacerbating social inequality, said Alaa Abelgawad, the Connecting Climate Minds youth ambassador representing northern Africa and western Asia. “[It’s] manifesting as anxiety, depression, and a profound sense of disempowerment among marginalized populations.”

Who is most vulnerable to climate change and mental health challenges? 

Many Indigenous communities have already been facing intergenerational trauma and a sense of deep disconnect from land and culture. Recurring climate devastation can intensify feelings of grief, stress, and disillusionment about the future, contributing to increased rates of addiction and suicide, participants said. 

Farmers, too, are among the most vulnerable. Changing seasonal norms, increasing drought, and a higher risk of severe weather are directly affecting their livelihoods. 

Sacha Wright, head of research at the youth-focused organization Force of Nature and part of Connecting Climate Minds’s “lived experience” working group, said that in Kenya, many small farmers are struggling with declining harvests and out of desperation have resorted to cutting down trees for charcoal. Though they felt they had no choice, some said cutting down the trees made the whole situation feel even worse. She spoke of high rates of depression, hopelessness, trauma, and a widespread feeling of “not knowing what to do.” 

For young people, climate change can also evoke a sense of hopelessness and powerlessness. In the Yucatan, one young person Wright interviewed said the only choices in life there are to migrate or enter the military. 

“When I see drought, I see my community leaving school and going to the military,” the person interviewed said. 

Mercy Njeru, a member of Connecting Climate Mind’s sub-Saharan Africa working group, said extreme heat is often leading to school closures across the region, setting youth up for failure and a sense of hopelessness. 

“When it’s so hot and you’re so anxious you can’t work, you can’t do anything because you’re feeling anxious or you’re feeling so sad from all the heat around you,” she said. 

In addition to environmental impacts, generational inequity and a sense of moral distress also contribute to anxiety for many youth. Britt Wray, director of Stanford Medicine’s Special Initiative on Climate Change and Mental Health, said she hears from many young people that power holders aren’t taking sufficient action, instead depending entirely on their generation to solve climate change. 

“This offloading of responsibility — without adequate partnership from the elder and more powerful contingents among us — can make burdensome climate anxiety and distress much worse,” she said.

Read: What baby boomers can do about climate change, according to Bill McKibben

What can be done to protect mental health as the climate changes? 

To help address the rising tide of mental health challenges, governments and public health leaders need to know exactly what kinds of impacts people are experiencing in their own communities.

First step: looking at experiences in every region. 

“We will only be successful if we can continue to connect and engage people from very different sectors, from neighborhoods all the way to multilateral organizations,” said Pamela Collins, chair of the department of mental health at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. 

Other examples of ways forward include everything from expanding health insurance to include climate-related mental health impacts to ensuring government policy supports people whose work has been affected by climate change to improve their job prospects. Several participants also spoke of the importance of returning to the wisdom of ancestral knowledge to address climate change in general, including mental health impacts. 

Other specific solutions offered by Connecting Climate Minds participants include:

• More public green space. Collins, the Hopkins professor, cited a study highlighting the need for more accessible green space in cities, a move that could have multiple positive outcomes, including on mental health. Forest bathing , AKA spending dedicated time in nature, reduces stress and anxiety, increases serotonin production, and improves mood regulation and overall mental health — all while being low-intensity and low-cost, said Niaya Harper Igarashi, part of Connecting Climate Mind’s eastern and southeastern Asia working group. 
• Focusing on reducing inequity. Making sure everyone has access to nutritious food, clean air and water, and sustainable energy sources is good for the climate and community. 
• Talking helps. In many communities, mental health is a taboo topic. By talking more openly about it on a personal level, in social or spiritual settings, at the dinner table, or in your doctor’s office, individuals can combat stigma and contribute to a growing understanding of these issues. 
• Meeting people where they are. From using vocabulary that makes sense for different communities to meeting people’s basic needs, solutions are most effective when they’re tailored for what real people are actually going through. For example, Wray, the Stanford expert, said meeting kids where they are includes screening for climate distress where many of them are every day: at school.

Lawrance, the Climate Cares lead who helped organize the summit, said it was heartening to see solutions being advanced around the world. 

“The dialogue showed this really strongly: that many solutions do already exist,” she said. “And it’s by learning from each other’s ways of knowing and doing that we can best find the ones that work for our context, and ensure people experiencing the worst climate impacts have a future where they cannot just survive, but thrive.”

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Wars cause widespread pollution and environmental damage − here’s how to address it in peace accords

Assistant Professor of Environment, Peace, and Global Affairs at the Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies in the Keough School of Global Affairs at the University of Notre Dame, University of Notre Dame

Professor of the Practice in International Peace Studies, University of Notre Dame

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As wars grind on in Ukraine and Gaza , another location ravaged by conflict is taking steps to implement a historic peace agreement. From the mid-1960s through 2016, Colombia was torn by conflict between the government, leftist guerrilla movements and right-wing paramilitary groups. Now the government and rebels are working to carry out a sweeping accord that addresses many critical sectors, including environmental damages and restoration.

University of Notre Dame researchers Richard Marcantonio and Josefina Echavarria Alvarez study peace and conflict issues, including their effects on the environment. They currently are advising negotiations between the Colombian government and several rebel factions over wartime damage to soil, water and other natural resources. They explain that while Colombia’s transition from war to peace has been difficult, the accord offers a model for addressing the ravages of war in places such as Gaza and Ukraine.

Is it common for peace settlements to address environmental harm?

Few agreements include environmental provisions, and even fewer see them carried out, even though research shows that many drivers of conflict can be directly or indirectly related to the environment .

We work with a research program at the University of Notre Dame called the Peace Accords Matrix , which monitors the implementation of comprehensive peace accords in 34 countries worldwide. Only 10 of the accords have natural resource management provisions agreements, and these typically have not triggered major steps to protect the environment.

How is the Colombia accord different?

Colombia’s is seen as the most comprehensive peace accord that has been signed to date. It considers issues ranging from security to social justice and political participation, in great detail.

The accord acknowledges that a peaceful postwar society requires not only respect for human rights but also “protection of the environment, respect for nature and its renewable and nonrenewable resources and biodiversity .” More than 20% of the commitments in the agreement have an environmental connection.

They fall into four main categories:

– Adapting and responding to climate change

– Preserving natural resources and habitats

– Protecting environmental health through measures such as access to clean water

– Process issues, such as ensuring that communities can participate in decisions about rural programs and resource management

There also are gaps. For example, many protected areas have been deforested for ranching and coca production in the postaccord period. And there are no provisions addressing toxic pollution, an issue other agreements also neglect .

Often there are power vacuums during transitions between war and peace , when government agencies are working to reestablish their operations. Natural resources and environmental health need protection during these phases.

In Sierra Leone, for example, resource extraction by foreign companies drastically ramped up immediately after the Lome Peace Agreement eventually ended that nation’s civil war in 2002. Companies exploited a lack of governance and support in the rural areas and often mined metals illegally or hazardously without any regulatory oversight. Today these areas still struggle with mining impacts, including contaminated drinking water and fish , the primary protein source in the area.

What is the environmental toll of war in Ukraine?

The damage is vast: There’s air, water and soil contamination, deforestation and enormous quantities of waste, including ruined buildings, burned-out cars and thousands of tons of destroyed military equipment. Russia’s destruction of the Kakhovka Dam flooded villages, destroyed crops and wrecked irrigation systems.

The cost estimates are staggering. A joint commission of the World Bank, the government of Ukraine and other institutions currently estimate direct damages at roughly US$152 billion .

In addition, cleaning up sites, rebuilding infrastructure and other repairs could cost more than $486 billion over the next decade, as of late 2023. That figure rises every day that the war continues .

There’s broad interest in a green and sustainable reconstruction that would include steps like using sustainable building materials and powering the electricity grid with renewable energy. President Volodymyr Zelenskyy has been adamant that Russia must pay for the damage it has caused. It’s still unclear how this would work, although some U.S. and European lawmakers support seizing frozen Russian assets held in Western banks to help cover the cost.

There is a legal basis for holding Russia accountable. In 2022, the U.N. General Assembly adopted a set of principles for protecting the environment during armed conflicts . Among other existing statutes, they draw on a protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 that prohibits using “methods or means of warfare which are intended, or may be expected, to cause widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment .”

There has been only modest discussion so far of how to integrate these principles into a formal peace agreement between Ukraine and Russia. But a working group that included Ukrainian and European Union officials and former leaders from Sweden, Finland, Ireland and Brazil has recommended a framework for addressing environmental damage and holding perpetrators accountable .

What environmental impacts are known or asserted in Gaza?

Environmental damage in Gaza also is devastating . The U.N. estimated in early 2024 that over 100,000 cubic meters (26 million gallons) of untreated sewage and wastewater were flowing daily onto land or into the Mediterranean Sea .

Gaza’s drinking water system was insufficient before the war and has been further weakened by military strikes . On average, Gazans now have access to about 3 liters of water per person per day – less than 1 gallon.

Thousands of buildings have been destroyed, spreading hazardous materials such as asbestos . Every bomb that’s dropped disperses toxic materials that will persist in the soil unless it’s remediated. Simultaneous environmental and infrastructure impacts, such as water and power shortages, are contributing to larger crises , such as the collapse of Gaza’s health care system, that will have long-lasting human costs.

How can future peace accords address these impacts?

Integrating the environment into peace accords isn’t easy. Resources such as energy, clean soil and water are vital for life, which is precisely why military forces may seek to control or destroy them . This is happening in both Ukraine and Gaza .

Peace negotiators tend to focus on social, political and economic issues, rather than environmental reparations. But leaving environmental damage unresolved until after a peace accord is signed keeps people who have been displaced and marginalized by conflict in precarious positions .

It may even cause fighting to resume. According to the U.N. Environment Program, at least 40% of all wars within states in the past 60 years have had a link to natural resources. In those cases, fighting was twice as likely to resume within five years after conflict ended .

We see some lessons for future negotiations.

First, it’s important for accords to recognize environmental harm as one of war’s main consequences and to acknowledge that a healthy environment is essential for sustainable livelihoods and peace.

Second, connecting environmental provisions with other issues, such as rural reform and political participation, can create better, more sustainable and equal conditions for reestablishing democracy. The Colombia accords are an example.

Third, it is important to clearly define goals, such as what infrastructure and institutions need to be rebuilt, who is in charge of getting those tasks done, and the timetable for doing it. This can help ensure that environmental restoration doesn’t become a secondary goal.

Fourth, the international community has an important role to play in monitoring and verifying environmental restoration and providing financial and technical support. Foreign donors have already pledged $66 billion for rebuilding Ukraine and have said that they will require grantees to follow strict environmental standards in order to receive financing.

Reconstructing nations and simultaneously regenerating communities and ecosystems after wars is a daunting mission, but it’s also an opportunity to build something better . We see Ukraine and Gaza as potential test cases for addressing war’s toll on the environment and creating a more sustainable future.

• International law
• Environment
• Reparations
• Peace accord
• Colombia peace agreement
• Russia-Ukraine
• Environmental harms
• Kakhovka dam
• Israel-Hamas conflict

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Guest Essay

A Giant Crater in Siberia Is Belching Up Russia’s Past

By Sophie Pinkham

Ms. Pinkham is a professor at Cornell. Her forthcoming book is a cultural history of the Russian forest.

As the world warms, permafrost is thawing across two-thirds of Russia, threatening cities and towns that were constructed to house miners sent to dig up a subterranean trove of oil, gas, gold and diamonds. Even the roads are buckling, cracking and collapsing, as if in a slow-motion earthquake. And outside a small town called Batagay, deep in the Siberian hinterland, a crater is rapidly opening up — known to local residents as the gateway to the underworld.

From space, it resembles a stingray impressed on the coniferous forest. Already more than half a mile deep and about 3,000 feet wide, the Batagaika crater is growing as the ground beneath it melts. The cliff face retreats 40 feet every year , revealing buried treasures once locked in the ice.

The land is belching up the past and swallowing the present — creating a yawning hole even more dizzying than the huge open-pit mines that already scar the Siberian landscape. It should be a warning about the dangers of extraction, but Russia, like many other countries, continues to pillage its natural resources, undaunted by the threat of greater disruption still to come with climate change.

Russia is not the only country confronting the problems caused by dangerous permafrost melt. In Canada , slumps like Batagaika have transformed scenic forests into bleak mudscapes. In China , the Tibetan Plateau is collapsing. In Alaska houses in rural villages are sinking into the ground, as the shoreline falls into the sea.

Many consequences of climate change fall hardest on developing countries, which historically have contributed little to global emissions. But permafrost melt is disfiguring land in many of the countries that bear the largest responsibility for the crisis — as if mocking the human error that led them to pillage the oil and minerals in the ground without considering the consequences.

While Batagaika is slumping primarily as a result of climate change, mineral extraction helped to trigger it. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Russia conquered Siberia mostly out of a desire for the furs that could be extracted from its boreal forests. In the 20th, hungry for minerals and isolated from global trade networks, the Soviets searched desperately for resources to fuel their rapid industrial and technological expansion; diamonds, gold, silver, tungsten, nickel, tin, coal and, of course, oil and gas had to be wrested as quickly as possible from the vast eastern territories. The Soviets sent gulag prisoners to labor in permafrost country because that was where the treasure was buried. Prisoners died as they helped extract it from the earth — and many ended up in the ground themselves.

In 1937 a Moscow geologist discovered tin ore near the present-day town of Batagay. As the Soviets settled and mined the area, they cut down the forest that shielded the land from warming sunlight and held the earth in place. The permafrost survived previous warming cycles without melting, but this deforestation, it seems, pushed it over the edge. In his largely autobiographical collection of short stories, “Kolyma Tales,” Varlam Shalamov, a former gulag prisoner, described a mass grave that had burst out of the stony ground. “The earth opened,” he wrote, “baring its subterranean storerooms, for they contained not only gold and lead, tungsten and uranium, but also undecaying human bodies.” The permafrost can keep secrets, but it can also testify to crimes.

For scientists, Batagaika provides an invaluable glimpse into the past 650,000 years or so of Siberia’s history, including its long-vanished animals. In 2018 hunters found a 42,000-year-old foal from an extinct horse species in Batagaika.

Elsewhere in the region, gulag prisoners in 1946 found a nest of mummified 30,000-year-old Arctic squirrels. Other cryonic secrets of the permafrost have included a cave lion cub , a severed wolf’s head from the Pleistocene and a woolly rhinoceros . The melting permafrost has become a muddy, stinking treasure trove for people searching for mammoth remains, which can be sold at a high price. In some parts of the tundra, one can trip on prehistoric bones jutting out of the ground.

Sometimes the materials that come out of the permafrost aren’t even dead. In another part of Siberia, the warming ground has yielded a 24,000-year-old invertebrate that was able to reproduce once it was thawed and 46,000-year-old worms that scientists reportedly revived in 2018.

Permafrost is crucial to the global climate because of what it holds on to. Once it starts telling its secrets, it sets off a dangerous feedback loop : The thaw causes more precipitation and thicker snow cover, which in turn keeps warmth in and cold air out and deepens the active layer at the top of the permafrost that thaws seasonally. Worldwide, soil in the permafrost zone contains about 1.6 trillion tons of carbon — about twice as much as there is in Earth’s atmosphere. Scientists call this deep legacy carbon , composed of plants and animals that froze before they had a chance to decay. Batagaika releases 4,000 to 5,000 tons of carbon per year, along with immense quantities of water and sediment.

For better or worse, the Batagaika crater is reaching the limits of its expansion, as the ground erodes all the way to the bedrock that marks the end of the permafrost. But across Siberia, wildfires and deforestation, along with air warming much faster than the global average, are speeding up the permafrost thaw, creating more problems. The carbon of hundreds of millenniums is bursting up into the atmosphere, reeking of decay and warming the earth further still. The mammoths and squirrels, the worms and bacteria and the masses of carbon unearthed by the thaw are ghosts of the past, demanding a reckoning.

Sophie Pinkham is a professor at Cornell. Her forthcoming book is a cultural history of the Russian forest.

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Air pollution decreased, but still causes hundreds of deaths a year in Allegheny County

A new report by the Breathe Project finds that residents of Allegheny County are more likely to die from air pollution than people in other parts of the U.S. 

The report looked specifically at exposures to fine particulate matter, also called PM2.5 , ​​which largely comes from industrial sources. The particles are so tiny, with diameters 2.5 micrometers or smaller, that when people breathe them in, they can get deep into the lungs and the bloodstream . 

The latest analysis found that air pollution in Allegheny County improved between 2020 and 2022, and that it had been reduced 28.5 percent over the preceding decade. Still, an estimated 640 – 1373 people died each year in the county from PM2.5 from 2020 to 2022, which is lower than when the report was first issued in 2018 .

“Just due to breathing the air — something that we all have to do to stay alive — it killed them,” said Qiyam Ansari of the group Valley Clean Air Now. He spoke at an online town hall meeting held Wednesday to discuss the findings in the report.

PM2.5 is a mix of pollutants that includes sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide. “Whenever people say PM2.5, think ‘toxic soup’ that’s getting into my lungs,” Ansari said. 

Pollution disproportionately affects certain populations

According to the findings, 80 percent of the PM2.5 deaths in Allegheny County occurred in people over age 65. 

The American Lung Association 2024 State of the Air report also finds that children under age 18, people with respiratory diseases such as asthma and COPD, and those with lung and cardiovascular diseases are at risk from this pollution.

Mortality rates from this pollution were higher in communities with more people living under the poverty line and where more than 30 percent were people of color. Liberty and North Braddock in the Mon Valley near U.S. Steel’s facilities were among those disproportionately affected. 

“Where you live should not determine your life expectancy, your health, your access to clean air, or your ability to start or grow a thriving family,” said activist Ebony Flowers, who is a resident of the Mon Valley. “But that is precisely what is happening right now in our community.” 

Where does PM2.5 come from, and what’s being done

Around the country, PM2.5 pollution can come from different sources, such as wildfires and traffic. In Allegheny County, much of it comes from industrial sources, like U.S. Steel’s Clairton Coke Works.

“So steel, coal, other chemical productions, lots of that’s a highly industrial source of PM2.5. That, in some research, has been shown to potentially carry more toxicity than other types of PM 2.5.” explained Dr. Gillian Goobie of Vancouver, British Columbia, who treats patients with lung disease and who studied air pollution, including PM 2.5 pollution and lung disease, while doing her PhD work at the University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health. 

She advocated on behalf of the American Thoracic Society  for new federal PM2.5 standards, which were finalized earlier this year. 

  Goobie, who was not involved in the report, said the Breathe Project used “fairly well-validated methodology,” and the report seems “fairly accurate.” 

The report relied on two widely accepted studies to estimate the mortality calculations, and on detailed health data at the local level and refined estimates of annual PM2.5.

Goobie suggested that the work should go through a peer-reviewed process to verify its validity.

“I do think that it would be very valuable to reproduce this data and have it go through a structured or rigorous peer review,” Goobie said.

The Breathe Project report was commissioned by The Heinz Endowments, which also funds The Allegheny Front. 

The Allegheny County Health Department did not respond to a request for a comment.

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