a different language is a different vision of life essay

Why Bilinguals Experience the World Differently

Multilingualism alters what you see and hear..

Posted June 26, 2019 | Reviewed by Gary Drevitch

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Co-authored by Sayuri Hayakawa, Ph.D.

First, the gold/blue dress “ melted the internet .” Then, Yanny/Laurel “ divided America .” Illusions like these ignite interest and controversy because they violate the intuition that our perceptions are direct, unfiltered versions of the external environment. Color, after all, shouldn’t be a matter of opinion. Which is why it blows our minds when someone insists that the gold dress we see is blue , or that what we clearly hear as “ Yanny” sounds to them like “Laurel. ”

The reality is that sensory perception can be nudged, distorted, and radically transformed by anything from the languages we speak to the surrounding visual context –something that is dramatically illustrated by the strength of perceptual illusions. Like a virus, a well-designed illusion contains just the right combination of features to essentially hijack the “machinery” of the perceptual system, including learned heuristics and innate functions, and make it do what it always does – interpret sensory input based on (usually) reliable cues. Unlike a virus, perceptual illusions are generally harmless, and can even provide a glimpse into the inner workings of our minds. They can also shed light on how our personal experiences, such as experiences with different languages, shape how we perceive the world around us.

To illustrate, consider the audiovisual illusion called the McGurk Effect: When we hear a speech sound, such as “ba,” but see an incongruent lip movement, such as “ga,” the brain tries to reconcile this discrepancy, often resulting in the perception of a completely different sound, such as “da.” Our research shows that bilinguals are more likely to experience the McGurk Effect than monolinguals , suggesting that multilingual experience alters multisensory integration. One potential explanation is that bilinguals may, at least initially, need to rely more on visual information to make sense of complex, multilingual speech. Indeed, there is evidence that babies growing up in multilingual households attend to the mouths of speakers to a greater degree than infants in monolingual households . In a recent paper , we show that early differences in how bilinguals and monolinguals attend to speech-relevant inputs continue to shape how, and even how well, individuals process sensory information throughout their lives.

Utilizing neuroimaging tools such as EEG and fMRI, researchers have demonstrated that bilingual children and adults show visible differences in the processing of auditory stimuli compared to monolingual peers. These effects have been observed in neural regions devoted to higher-level cognitive functions , such as those responsible for controlling attention , as well as in the evolutionarily ancient auditory brainstem , which can encode sounds so faithfully that it is possible to play back recognizable speech and music using the electrical signals generated by the brain.

Bilingualism can, therefore, alter bottom-up processes that deliver light and sound waves up to the brain, as well as top-down processes that guide how we interpret and organize this information. It is possible that bilingualism generally increases audiovisual integration due to a stronger encoding of sensory stimuli—think a more sensitive mic or camera. However, because bilingualism also impacts top-down functions, the influence of language experience on sensory perception is likely to be more nuanced. Specifically, bilinguals may integrate sensory information differently due to more precise control over whether inputs should be combined. Indeed, researchers have found that auditory and visual stimuli need to be timed more perfectly for bilinguals to experience the double-flash illusion , whereby hearing two tones transforms a single flash of light into what appears to be two flashes. In other words, bilinguals are better able to determine when sights and sounds likely originated from different sources (based on features such as timing), and subsequently suppress inputs that would distort their perception.

Over time, changes to how the neurocognitive system functions can even alter the physical structure of the brain. For instance, it has been shown that bilingual experience can lead to greater brain matter density and volume in regions associated with sensory processing , such as the primary auditory cortex (PAC), as well as executive function, such as the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The behavioral correlates of these physical changes can be significant, as greater gray matter in Heschl’s gyrus (in the PAC) predicts better speech perception , while the increased gray matter in the PFC is associated with enhanced cognitive control .

Given the importance of both sensory and executive functions for language learning, one of the consequences of bilingualism is a greater capacity to continue learning new languages , thereby perpetuating the cycle of neural reconfiguration that can begin with exposure to multilingual speech.

Filmmaker Federico Fellini famously said that “a different language is a different vision of life." Through a combination of behavioral and neurological investigations, it has now been confirmed that learning a different language can literally change what you see.

An earlier version of this article was published in On Biology.

Facebook /LinkedIn image: BaanTaksinStudio/Shutterstock

Viorica Marian is a professor at Northwestern University and the author of the 2023 popular science book THE POWER OF LANGUAGE .

Viorica Marian, Ph.D., is the Ralph and Jean Sundin Endowed Professor of Communication Sciences and Disorders at Northwestern University.

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Jain: How a new language can change your world

Nikhita Jain , Staff Writer November 5, 2021

“A different language is a different vision of life.”

In a few words, this quote effectively embodies the inherent power of language and how it is truly a gift to learn one. However, those who attended high school in the United States’ probably think differently. Presumably, your minds immediately wander to those burdensome moments in a language class, forced to learn various numbers and phrases in a language you probably had no interest in and likely already forgot. High school ruins learning a new language by turning it into an unenjoyable and insufferable task, but there is more to it in reality. It is the gateway to new opportunities, a new perspective on the world and a new way of living. Language classes in high school often fail to make us see the benefits, which is why I am writing to showcase just how beneficial learning a new language can be. 

Firstly, language can open our world to different people, cultures and viewpoints. Language is often the barrier preventing us from interacting and connecting with a broader range of people since we lack the means to communicate with more people. 

This barrier is something I have struggled with personally. Being from an Indian background, most of my family speaks Hindi—a common Indian language. When I was young, I used to speak Hindi; however, the more I was surrounded by English as I grew up, I quickly lost my ability to speak Hindi, and English became my primary language. While I can still understand Hindi, I can barely speak it. Because of this, when I visit my grandparents and relatives in India, I can barely interact and connect with them, which saddens me and sometimes leaves me feeling like an outsider. My experience with Hindi has allowed me to realize just how important language is. Language is what unites people and bridges the gap between them. Thus, I have now been trying to regain my ability to speak Hindi, so that the next time I visit my relatives in India, I can finally talk with them on the native level and deepen our relationship.

By connecting with people through language, you can also learn from them and their differing perspectives on the world, directly affecting your outlook. Hence, learning a new language is tantamount to developing a new way of thinking.

Language not only opens the door to new people and cultures, but also to foreign media and entertainment. With learning a language, you have the ability to comprehend and enjoy new music, movies and dramas from other countries. Consuming foreign media also allows you to learn more about different cultures and experience part of a foreign country.

Learning a new language also enables you to gain more insight into your own language and culture and perhaps develop a greater appreciation for it. When we explore new languages and cultures, we instinctively draw parallels to what is already known. This is something I find myself doing all the time. For instance, as I have been relearning Hindi, I have been consuming more Indian media, such as Bollywood movies I watched when I was younger. I noticed how those movies seemed more theatrical and boisterous compared to Hollywood movies, which I found to be very fascinating. 

Another benefit to knowing multiple languages—which is probably widely recognized—is undoubtedly the advantage in the professional world. It can grant you access to more career opportunities. Specifically, now that our country is becoming increasingly globalized and diverse, the demand for bilingual professionals is rising exponentially. 

Furthermore, learning a new language raises your confidence by pushing you outside your comfort zone. Without a doubt, when initially learning a new language, you will likely make mistakes and perhaps make a fool of yourself. But that is okay because it is all a part of the learning process. 

Most language learners can affirm that learning a language is not easy, and you will definitely encounter roadblocks along the way. However, it will all be worth it in the end. 

Learning a new language is not simply just remembering words and phrases, but instead, it is discovering a world and existence outside your own. As such, I hope you will give language learning a try and realize for yourself the true value of language. 

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Essay: The Translated Life, From Immigrant to Valedictorian

I came to America from Vietnam in the middle of the 2012 heat wave that swept across California. The heat was almost unbearable, and it reminded me of home. But that was where the resemblance ended. Loneliness had become my constant companion. That was when I took refuge in my love of language.

The English language, or language in general, is my passion. I remember begging my father to let me take Japanese night classes the summer after I graduated from middle school. I saved my lunch money to buy French textbooks and CDs to learn by myself. I used my brother’s computer to practice speaking English with people from all over the world. And it was studying language that kept me from breaking down during my parents’ divorce a year before we left Vietnam.

"Starting a new life is like learning a new language. They both take time, effort, and determination."

I never asked my mother why we came to America. I did not need to. Although no one spoke openly about it in Vietnam, everyone knew the U.S. as a land of opportunity. Only obsolete Community Party propaganda would say otherwise. But opportunities here did not fall from the sky. Without skills, education, and experience, neither my mother nor brother could find a decent job. It was mostly their lack of English holding them back. I was a witness to the power of language; only it worked against our family’s favor.

Ultimately, language gave me a clear purpose in life: to help others. In the winter of 2013, using my self-study of Norwegian, I created an online Norwegian course for English speakers. Today, it has 21,000 learners.

A recent phone call — from Norway of all places — clarified my determination to pursue linguistics in college. In the wake of the conflict in Syria, I learned of a refugee family of five who went through an unimaginable journey to reach a safe haven in Norway. They became lost in a foreign land and felt vulnerable because they could not speak Norwegian or English. With the help of a nearby library, they went online and found my course.

The day the mother found a job at a local supermarket and once all three of the children were admitted to a regular academic program at school with other native Norwegian students, they called me. These were not random strangers whom I had helped, it was those who endured the same struggle that my family did.

During my four years at Franklin High School, many individuals and organizations associated with Franklin and the Highland Park community have given me tremendous support. Franklin's Academic Decathlon team helped me prepare for the rigors of college and it certainly came as a surprise that we finished with the second-highest combined score in the national competition — beating teams with greater resources from across the United States. The nonprofit organization, College Match Los Angeles, played a crucial role in helping me win the battle of getting into college. I’m honored that my accomplishments have been recognized by my school and most recently by Congressman Xavier Becerra, who honored me with an award for academic excellence. And I know that these would not have been possible without my family, friends, community, and a passion to guide me.

For those who have recently come to America and feel overwhelmed and lonely, dejected, and disorientated: never lose hope. My aunts and uncles came here on boats 40 years ago; my family came here four years ago on an airplane; and the Syrian family traveled most of their journey on foot and by bus. Being immigrants, we are bound to feel off-balance. But we also have the incredible ability to persevere and to adapt. Director and screenwriter Federico Fellini once said, “A different language is a different vision of life.” Starting a new life is like learning a new language. They both take time, effort, and determination. You make mistakes, but they are a vital part of success. You fail, but you learn to become better. Unlike a new language, a new life opens up a world of not just words, but of valuable gifts — gifts that we can bestow on those who may make the same journey we once did.

Khai Tran is the valedictorian at Benjamin Franklin High School in Los Angeles, California. He will attend Yale University this fall.

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Speaking, writing and reading are integral to everyday life, where language is the primary tool for expression and communication. Studying how people use language – what words and phrases they unconsciously choose and combine – can help us better understand ourselves and why we behave the way we do.

Linguistics scholars seek to determine what is unique and universal about the language we use, how it is acquired and the ways it changes over time. They consider language as a cultural, social and psychological phenomenon.

“Understanding why and how languages differ tells about the range of what is human,” said Dan Jurafsky , the Jackson Eli Reynolds Professor in Humanities and chair of the Department of Linguistics in the School of Humanities and Sciences at Stanford . “Discovering what’s universal about languages can help us understand the core of our humanity.”

The stories below represent some of the ways linguists have investigated many aspects of language, including its semantics and syntax, phonetics and phonology, and its social, psychological and computational aspects.

Understanding stereotypes

Stanford linguists and psychologists study how language is interpreted by people. Even the slightest differences in language use can correspond with biased beliefs of the speakers, according to research.

One study showed that a relatively harmless sentence, such as “girls are as good as boys at math,” can subtly perpetuate sexist stereotypes. Because of the statement’s grammatical structure, it implies that being good at math is more common or natural for boys than girls, the researchers said.

Language can play a big role in how we and others perceive the world, and linguists work to discover what words and phrases can influence us, unknowingly.

How well-meaning statements can spread stereotypes unintentionally

New Stanford research shows that sentences that frame one gender as the standard for the other can unintentionally perpetuate biases.

Algorithms reveal changes in stereotypes

New Stanford research shows that, over the past century, linguistic changes in gender and ethnic stereotypes correlated with major social movements and demographic changes in the U.S. Census data.

Exploring what an interruption is in conversation

Stanford doctoral candidate Katherine Hilton found that people perceive interruptions in conversation differently, and those perceptions differ depending on the listener’s own conversational style as well as gender.

Cops speak less respectfully to black community members

Professors Jennifer Eberhardt and Dan Jurafsky, along with other Stanford researchers, detected racial disparities in police officers’ speech after analyzing more than 100 hours of body camera footage from Oakland Police.

How other languages inform our own

People speak roughly 7,000 languages worldwide. Although there is a lot in common among languages, each one is unique, both in its structure and in the way it reflects the culture of the people who speak it.

Jurafsky said it’s important to study languages other than our own and how they develop over time because it can help scholars understand what lies at the foundation of humans’ unique way of communicating with one another.

“All this research can help us discover what it means to be human,” Jurafsky said.

Stanford PhD student documents indigenous language of Papua New Guinea

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Students explore Esperanto across Europe

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Chris Manning: How computers are learning to understand language​

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Stanford research explores novel perspectives on the evolution of Spanish

Using digital tools and literature to explore the evolution of the Spanish language, Stanford researcher Cuauhtémoc García-García reveals a new historical perspective on linguistic changes in Latin America and Spain.

Language as a lens into behavior

Linguists analyze how certain speech patterns correspond to particular behaviors, including how language can impact people’s buying decisions or influence their social media use.

For example, in one research paper, a group of Stanford researchers examined the differences in how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online to better understand how a polarization of beliefs can occur on social media.

“We live in a very polarized time,” Jurafsky said. “Understanding what different groups of people say and why is the first step in determining how we can help bring people together.”

Analyzing the tweets of Republicans and Democrats

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Examining bilingual behavior of children at Texas preschool

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Predicting sales of online products from advertising language

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Language can help the elderly cope with the challenges of aging, says Stanford professor

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"A different language is a different vision of life". My vision of life changed in the USA

gwu - studying abroad essay

“A different language is a different vision of life.” – Federico Fellini

It sounds like one of those motivational phrases you’d read on a daily quote calendar. You might nod your head in agreement or make a quick internal “aww”, but in reality, you’re not totally buying it. It just sounds… fluffy , right?

But those of us who have learned, or are learning, another language, we know that behind the warm, fuzzy feeling, there’s a real sentiment to that statement. A language can hide bits and pieces of a society’s culture, and learning that language discloses the details.

In Japan, for example, the highly valued qualities of honor and respect are literally built in to the language . The language employs various honorifics to demonstrate polite, respectful, and humble speech. Honorifics are also used to “beautify” words; even daily objects are spoken of with a reverence in Japanese. The prefix “O”, roughly translated to English as “honorable,” precedes nouns like water (O-mizu) or rice crackers (O-senbei). In this way, the Japanese are constantly expressing their respect and gratitude for their belongings.

Languages can influence far more than our thoughts—they can even impact our abilities and actions. Nearly one third of the world’s languages speak of space in terms of absolute directions (think north, south, east and west instead of left and right). Speakers of these languages, like the Pormpuraaw language of Australia, have an uncanny sense of direction and orientation, even in unfamiliar places.

Some researchers believe the connection runs much deeper, researching how the languages we speak subconsciously influence our behaviors. This TED Talk , for example, seeks to answer whether or not your language affects your ability to save money. (Hint: presenter Keith Chen argues it does.) Whether you’re a die hard Whorfian believer or a staunch opponent to any such hypothesis, it’s hard to view language and culture as entirely.

So, what languages are you learning? What have they revealed about other cultures? Let’s expand this list of examples!

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About the Author: meaghan

Meaghan is the Marketing Communications Manager at Transparent Language. She speaks enough French and Spanish to survive, and remembers enough Hausa to say "Hello my name is Meaghan, I'm studying Hausa." (But sadly that's it).

As for addressing people, there’s an interesting phenomenon. Poles address each other politely by using forms ‘pan’, ‘pani’ which till 18th century were in use only for gentry and in feudal relations. The later attempt to introduce forms like ‘wy’ (vy in Russian, vous in French) backfired and whoever used them was seen as bureaucratic representative of the regime. The form recommended by Communist authorities was ‘Obywatel’ (citizen) plus III person sing. This one was even strongly rejected by society and finally were used only by late militia (communist police). And of course cabaret artist had a field day with it. The pan/pani form survived thus the exile period and still testifies the love of conservative forms. The latest tendencies to address everybody by ‘ty’ are popular rather amongst youth. It’s strongly discouraged to use them in more formal situations.

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Essays About Language: Top 5 Examples and 7 Prompts

Language is the key to expressive communication; let our essay examples and writing prompts inspire you if you are writing essays about language.

When we communicate with one another, we use a system called language. It mainly consists of words, which, when combined, form phrases and sentences we use to talk to one another. However, some forms of language do not require written or verbal communication, such as sign language. 

Language can also refer to how we write or say things. For example, we can speak to friends using colloquial expressions and slang, while academic writing demands precise, formal language. Language is a complex concept with many meanings; discover the secrets of language in our informative guide.

5 Top Essay Examples

1. a global language: english language by dallas ryan , 2. language and its importance to society by shelly shah, 3. language: the essence of culture by kelsey holmes.

• 4.  Foreign Language Speech by Sophie Carson
• 5. ​​Attitudes to Language by Kurt Medina

1. My Native Language

2. the advantages of bilingualism, 3. language and technology, 4. why language matters, 5. slang and communication, 6. english is the official language of the u.s..

“Furthermore, using English, people can have more friends, widen peer relationships with foreigners and can not get lost. Overall, English becomes a global language; people may have more chances in communication. Another crucial advantage is improving business. If English was spoken widespread and everyone could use it, they would likely have more opportunities in business. Foreign investments from rich countries might be supported to the poorer countries.”

In this essay, Ryan enumerates both the advantages and disadvantages of using English; it seems that Ryan proposes uniting the world under the English language. English, a well-known and commonly-spoken language can help people to communicate better, which can foster better connections with one another. However, people would lose their native language and promote a specific culture rather than diversity. Ultimately, Ryan believes that English is a “global language,” and the advantages outweigh the disadvantages

“Language is a constituent element of civilization. It raised man from a savage state to the plane which he was capable of reaching. Man could not become man except by language. An essential point in which man differs from animals is that man alone is the sole possessor of language. No doubt animals also exhibit certain degree of power of communication but that is not only inferior in degree to human language, but also radically diverse in kind from it.”

Shah writes about the meaning of language, its role in society, and its place as an institution serving the purposes of the people using it. Most importantly, she writes about why it is necessary; the way we communicate through language separates us as humans from all other living things. It also carries individual culture and allows one to convey their thoughts. You might find our list of TOEFL writing topics helpful.

“Cultural identity is heavily dependent on a number of factors including ethnicity, gender, geographic location, religion, language, and so much more.  Culture is defined as a “historically transmitted system of symbols, meanings, and norms.”  Knowing a language automatically enables someone to identify with others who speak the same language.  This connection is such an important part of cultural exchange”

In this short essay, Homes discusses how language reflects a person’s cultural identity and the importance of communication in a civilized society. Different communities and cultures use specific sounds and understand their meanings to communicate. From this, writing was developed. Knowing a language makes connecting with others of the same culture easier. 

4.   Foreign Language Speech by Sophie Carson

“Ultimately, learning a foreign language will improve a child’s overall thinking and learning skills in general, making them smarter in many different unrelated areas. Their creativity is highly improved as they are more trained to look at problems from different angles and think outside of the box. This flexible thinking makes them better problem solvers since they can see problems from different perspectives. The better thinking skills developed from learning a foreign language have also been seen through testing scores.”

Carson writes about some of the benefits of learning a foreign language, especially during childhood. During childhood, the brain is more flexible, and it is easier for one to learn a new language in their younger years. Among many other benefits, bilingualism has been shown to improve memory and open up more parts of a child’s brain, helping them hone their critical thinking skills. Teaching children a foreign language makes them more aware of the world around them and can open up opportunities in the future.

5. ​​ Attitudes to Language by Kurt Medina

“Increasingly, educators are becoming aware that a person’s native language is an integral part of who that person is and marginalizing the language can have severe damaging effects on that person’s psyche. Many linguists consistently make a case for teaching native languages alongside the target languages so that children can clearly differentiate among the codes”

As its title suggests, Medina’s essay revolves around different attitudes towards types of language, whether it be vernacular language or dialects. He discusses this in the context of Caribbean cultures, where different dialects and languages are widespread, and people switch between languages quickly. Medina mentions how we tend to modify the language we use in different situations, depending on how formal or informal we need to be. 

6 Prompts for Essays About Language

In your essay, you can write about your native language. For example, explain how it originated and some of its characteristics. Write about why you are proud of it or persuade others to try learning it. To add depth to your essay, include a section with common phrases or idioms from your native language and explain their meaning.

Bilingualism has been said to enhance a whole range of cognitive skills, from a longer attention span to better memory. Look into the different advantages of speaking two or more languages, and use these to promote bilingualism. Cite scientific research papers and reference their findings in your essay for a compelling piece of writing.

In the 21st century, the development of new technology has blurred the lines between communication and isolation; it has undoubtedly changed how we interact and use language. For example, many words have been replaced in day-to-day communication by texting lingo and slang. In addition, technology has made us communicate more virtually and non-verbally. Research and discuss how the 21st century has changed how we interact and “do language” worldwide, whether it has improved or worsened. 

We often change how we speak depending on the situation; we use different words and expressions. Why do we do this? Based on a combination of personal experience and research, reflect on why it is essential to use appropriate language in different scenarios.

Different cultures use different forms of slang. Slang is a type of language consisting of informal words and expressions. Some hold negative views towards slang, saying that it degrades the language system, while others believe it allows people to express their culture. Write about whether you believe slang should be acceptable or not: defend your position by giving evidence either that slang is detrimental to language or that it poses no threat.

English is the most spoken language in the United States and is used in government documents; it is all but the country’s official language. Do you believe the government should finally declare English the country’s official language? Research the viewpoints of both sides and form a conclusion; support your argument with sufficient details and research. 

Check out our guide packed full of transition words for essays .If you’re stuck picking your next essay topic, check out our guide on how to write an essay about diversity .

Martin is an avid writer specializing in editing and proofreading. He also enjoys literary analysis and writing about food and travel.

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Essay on The Importance of Language

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Published: Mar 14, 2024

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Quote by Federico Fellini

A different language is a different vision of life..

This quote suggests that language is not merely a tool for communication, but a lens through which we view and understand the world around us. Each language reflects a unique perspective, cultural context, and way of thinking. The quote highlights the idea that by learning a different language, we gain the ability to explore and embrace new ways of perceiving and interpreting life. It emphasizes the importance of multilingualism in broadening our horizons and enabling us to appreciate diverse perspectives and experiences. In essence, language shapes our worldview and expands our understanding of the rich tapestry of human existence.

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A different language is a different vision of life. Generally, children have begun studying foreign languages at their secondary school

IELTS essay A different language is a different vision of life. Generally, children have begun studying foreign languages at their secondary school

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How Neanderthal language differed from modern human – they probably didn’t use metaphors

Professor of Early Prehistory, University of Reading

Disclosure statement

Steven Mithen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

University of Reading provides funding as a member of The Conversation UK.

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The Neanderthals ( Homo neanderthalensis ) fascinate researchers and the general public alike. They remain central to debates about the nature of the genus Homo (the broad biological classification that humans and their relatives fall into). Neanderthals are also vital for understanding the uniqueness or otherwise of our species, Homo sapiens .

We shared an ancestor with the Neanderthals around 600,000 years ago. They evolved in Europe while we did so in Africa, before dispersing multiple times into Eurasia. The Neanderthals became extinct around 40,000 years ago. We populated the world and continue to flourish. Whether that different outcome is a consequence of differences in language and thought has been long debated.

But the evidence points to key differences in the brains of our species and those of Neanderthals that allowed modern humans ( H. sapiens ) to come up with abstract and complex ideas through metaphor – the ability to compare two unrelated things. For this to happen, our species had to diverge from the Neanderthals in our brain architecture.

Some experts interpret the skeletal and archaeological evidence as indicating profound differences. Others believe there were none. And some take the middle ground .

Disagreement is not surprising when trying to infer such intangibles from material remains such as bones and artefacts. The evidence is piecemeal and ambiguous, providing us with a complex puzzle for how, when and why language evolved. Fortunately, recent discoveries in archaeology and other disciplines have added several new pieces to this language puzzle, enabling a viable picture of the Neanderthal mind to emerge.

New anatomical evidence indicates the Neanderthals had vocal tracts and auditory pathways not significantly different to our own, indicating that, from an anatomical perspective, they were as capable as us at communicating through speech . The discovery of Neanderthal genes in our own species indicates multiple episodes of interbreeding, which implies effective inter-species communication and social relationships.

The discovery of Neanderthal wooden spears, and the use of resins for making tools from separate components, have also enhanced our views of their technical skills . Pendants made from bird talons and the likely use of feathers as body adornments are claimed as examples of symbolism, along with geometric engravings on stone and bone .

Cave painters?

The most striking claim is that Neanderthals made art, painting red pigment on cave walls in Spain . But several of these cave art claims remain problematic. The evidence for Neanderthal cave art is compromised by unresolved methodological issues and is unlikely to be correct, in my view.

Rapidly accumulating evidence for the pre-40,000-year presence of modern humans in Europe challenges the idea that Neanderthals made these geometric designs, or at least that they did so prior to the influence of the symbol-using modern humans. However well-crafted, a wooden spear is little more than a pointed stick, and evidence of technological progress is absent throughout the entirety of Neanderthal existence.

While the archaeological evidence remains contested, that from neuroscience and genetics provides a compelling case for linguistic and cognitive differences between H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens .

A 3D digital reconstruction of the Neanderthal brain, created by deforming that of H. sapiens and fitting it into a cast of the brain (endocast) from a Neanderthal, indicates significant differences in structure . The Neanderthals had a relatively large occipital lobe, devoting more brain matter to visual processing and making less available for other tasks such as language.

They also had a relatively small and differently shaped cerebellum. This sub-cortical structure, which is packed with neurons, contributes to many tasks including language processing, speaking and fluency . The uniquely spherical shape of the modern human brain evolved after the first Homo sapiens had appeared at 300,000 years ago.

Some of the genetic mutations associated with that development are associated with neuronal development and how neurons are connected in the brain. The authors of a comprehensive study of all mutations known to be unique to H. sapiens (as of 2019) concluded that “modifications of a complex network in cognition or learning took place in modern human evolution”.

Iconic words

While such evidence has been accumulating, our understanding of language has also changed. Three developments are of particular significance. First is the 2016 discovery via brain scanning that we store words, or rather the concepts we associate with words, throughout both brain hemispheres and in clusters , or semantic groups, of similar concepts in the brain. This is significant because, as we’ll see, the way these clusters of ideas are connected – or not – was probably different between H. sapiens and Neanderthals.

Second is the recognition that iconic sounds – those that provide a sensory impression of the thing they represent – had provided the evolutionary bridge between ape-like calls of our common ancestor of 6 million years ago and the first words spoken by Homo – though we’re not sure which species that was.

Iconic words remain pervasive in languages today , capturing aspects of the sound, size, movement and texture of the concept the word represents. This contrasts with words that are only arbitrarily related to the thing they refer to. For example, a canine can equally be called a dog, chien or hund – none of which provide a sensory impression of the animal.

Third, computer simulation models of language transmission between generations have shown that syntax – consistent rules for how words are ordered to generate meaning – can spontaneously emerge . This shift of emphasis from genetic encoding of syntax to spontaneous emergence suggests that both H.sapiens and Neanderthal language contained these rules.

The key difference

While it may be possible to join the puzzle pieces in several different ways, my long wrestle with the multi-disciplinary evidence has found only one solution. This begins with iconic words being spoken by the ancient human species Homo erectus around 1.6 million years ago.

As these types of words were transmitted from generation to generation, arbitrary words and rules of syntax emerged, providing the early Neanderthals and H. sapiens with equivalent linguistic and cognitive capacities.

But these diverged as both species continued to evolve. The H. sapiens brain developed its spherical form with neural networks connecting what had been isolated semantic clusters of words. These remained isolated in the Neanderthal brain. So, while H. sapiens and Neanderthals had equivalent capacity for iconic words and syntax, they appear to have differed with respect to storing ideas in semantic clusters in the brain.

By linking up different clusters in the brain that are responsible for storing groups of concepts, our species gained the capacity to think and communicate using metaphor. This allowed modern humans to draw a line between widely different concepts and ideas.

This was arguably the most important of our cognitive tools, enabling us to come up with complex and abstract concepts . While iconic words and syntax were shared between H. sapiens and Neanderthals, metaphor transformed the language, thought and culture of our species, creating a deep divide with the Neanderthals. They went extinct, while we populated the world and continue to flourish.

• Archaeology
• Human evolution
• Homo sapiens
• Neanderthals
• Interbreeding
• Stone tools
• Modern humans
• Paleoanthropology
• Language evolution
• Language use

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