What is the Scientific Method: How does it work and why is it important?
The scientific method is a systematic process involving steps like defining questions, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analyzing data. It minimizes biases and enables replicable research, leading to groundbreaking discoveries like Einstein's theory of relativity, penicillin, and the structure of DNA. This ongoing approach promotes reason, evidence, and the pursuit of truth in science.
Updated on November 18, 2023
Beginning in elementary school, we are exposed to the scientific method and taught how to put it into practice. As a tool for learning, it prepares children to think logically and use reasoning when seeking answers to questions.
Rather than jumping to conclusions, the scientific method gives us a recipe for exploring the world through observation and trial and error. We use it regularly, sometimes knowingly in academics or research, and sometimes subconsciously in our daily lives.
In this article we will refresh our memories on the particulars of the scientific method, discussing where it comes from, which elements comprise it, and how it is put into practice. Then, we will consider the importance of the scientific method, who uses it and under what circumstances.
What is the scientific method?
The scientific method is a dynamic process that involves objectively investigating questions through observation and experimentation . Applicable to all scientific disciplines, this systematic approach to answering questions is more accurately described as a flexible set of principles than as a fixed series of steps.
The following representations of the scientific method illustrate how it can be both condensed into broad categories and also expanded to reveal more and more details of the process. These graphics capture the adaptability that makes this concept universally valuable as it is relevant and accessible not only across age groups and educational levels but also within various contexts.
Steps in the scientific method
While the scientific method is versatile in form and function, it encompasses a collection of principles that create a logical progression to the process of problem solving:
- Define a question : Constructing a clear and precise problem statement that identifies the main question or goal of the investigation is the first step. The wording must lend itself to experimentation by posing a question that is both testable and measurable.
- Gather information and resources : Researching the topic in question to find out what is already known and what types of related questions others are asking is the next step in this process. This background information is vital to gaining a full understanding of the subject and in determining the best design for experiments.
- Form a hypothesis : Composing a concise statement that identifies specific variables and potential results, which can then be tested, is a crucial step that must be completed before any experimentation. An imperfection in the composition of a hypothesis can result in weaknesses to the entire design of an experiment.
- Perform the experiments : Testing the hypothesis by performing replicable experiments and collecting resultant data is another fundamental step of the scientific method. By controlling some elements of an experiment while purposely manipulating others, cause and effect relationships are established.
- Analyze the data : Interpreting the experimental process and results by recognizing trends in the data is a necessary step for comprehending its meaning and supporting the conclusions. Drawing inferences through this systematic process lends substantive evidence for either supporting or rejecting the hypothesis.
- Report the results : Sharing the outcomes of an experiment, through an essay, presentation, graphic, or journal article, is often regarded as a final step in this process. Detailing the project's design, methods, and results not only promotes transparency and replicability but also adds to the body of knowledge for future research.
- Retest the hypothesis : Repeating experiments to see if a hypothesis holds up in all cases is a step that is manifested through varying scenarios. Sometimes a researcher immediately checks their own work or replicates it at a future time, or another researcher will repeat the experiments to further test the hypothesis.
Where did the scientific method come from?
Oftentimes, ancient peoples attempted to answer questions about the unknown by:
- Making simple observations
- Discussing the possibilities with others deemed worthy of a debate
- Drawing conclusions based on dominant opinions and preexisting beliefs
For example, take Greek and Roman mythology. Myths were used to explain everything from the seasons and stars to the sun and death itself.
However, as societies began to grow through advancements in agriculture and language, ancient civilizations like Egypt and Babylonia shifted to a more rational analysis for understanding the natural world. They increasingly employed empirical methods of observation and experimentation that would one day evolve into the scientific method .
In the 4th century, Aristotle, considered the Father of Science by many, suggested these elements , which closely resemble the contemporary scientific method, as part of his approach for conducting science:
- Study what others have written about the subject.
- Look for the general consensus about the subject.
- Perform a systematic study of everything even partially related to the topic.
By continuing to emphasize systematic observation and controlled experiments, scholars such as Al-Kindi and Ibn al-Haytham helped expand this concept throughout the Islamic Golden Age .
In his 1620 treatise, Novum Organum , Sir Francis Bacon codified the scientific method, arguing not only that hypotheses must be tested through experiments but also that the results must be replicated to establish a truth. Coming at the height of the Scientific Revolution, this text made the scientific method accessible to European thinkers like Galileo and Isaac Newton who then put the method into practice.
As science modernized in the 19th century, the scientific method became more formalized, leading to significant breakthroughs in fields such as evolution and germ theory. Today, it continues to evolve, underpinning scientific progress in diverse areas like quantum mechanics, genetics, and artificial intelligence.
Why is the scientific method important?
The history of the scientific method illustrates how the concept developed out of a need to find objective answers to scientific questions by overcoming biases based on fear, religion, power, and cultural norms. This still holds true today.
By implementing this standardized approach to conducting experiments, the impacts of researchers’ personal opinions and preconceived notions are minimized. The organized manner of the scientific method prevents these and other mistakes while promoting the replicability and transparency necessary for solid scientific research.
The importance of the scientific method is best observed through its successes, for example:
- “ Albert Einstein stands out among modern physicists as the scientist who not only formulated a theory of revolutionary significance but also had the genius to reflect in a conscious and technical way on the scientific method he was using.” Devising a hypothesis based on the prevailing understanding of Newtonian physics eventually led Einstein to devise the theory of general relativity .
- Howard Florey “Perhaps the most useful lesson which has come out of the work on penicillin has been the demonstration that success in this field depends on the development and coordinated use of technical methods.” After discovering a mold that prevented the growth of Staphylococcus bacteria, Dr. Alexander Flemimg designed experiments to identify and reproduce it in the lab, thus leading to the development of penicillin .
- James D. Watson “Every time you understand something, religion becomes less likely. Only with the discovery of the double helix and the ensuing genetic revolution have we had grounds for thinking that the powers held traditionally to be the exclusive property of the gods might one day be ours. . . .” By using wire models to conceive a structure for DNA, Watson and Crick crafted a hypothesis for testing combinations of amino acids, X-ray diffraction images, and the current research in atomic physics, resulting in the discovery of DNA’s double helix structure .
Final thoughts
As the cases exemplify, the scientific method is never truly completed, but rather started and restarted. It gave these researchers a structured process that was easily replicated, modified, and built upon.
While the scientific method may “end” in one context, it never literally ends. When a hypothesis, design, methods, and experiments are revisited, the scientific method simply picks up where it left off. Each time a researcher builds upon previous knowledge, the scientific method is restored with the pieces of past efforts.
By guiding researchers towards objective results based on transparency and reproducibility, the scientific method acts as a defense against bias, superstition, and preconceived notions. As we embrace the scientific method's enduring principles, we ensure that our quest for knowledge remains firmly rooted in reason, evidence, and the pursuit of truth.
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What Are The Steps Of The Scientific Method?
Julia Simkus
Editor at Simply Psychology
BA (Hons) Psychology, Princeton University
Julia Simkus is a graduate of Princeton University with a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology. She is currently studying for a Master's Degree in Counseling for Mental Health and Wellness in September 2023. Julia's research has been published in peer reviewed journals.
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Saul McLeod, PhD
Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
Associate Editor for Simply Psychology
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
On This Page:
Science is not just knowledge. It is also a method for obtaining knowledge. Scientific understanding is organized into theories.
The scientific method is a step-by-step process used by researchers and scientists to determine if there is a relationship between two or more variables. Psychologists use this method to conduct psychological research, gather data, process information, and describe behaviors.
It involves careful observation, asking questions, formulating hypotheses, experimental testing, and refining hypotheses based on experimental findings.
How it is Used
The scientific method can be applied broadly in science across many different fields, such as chemistry, physics, geology, and psychology. In a typical application of this process, a researcher will develop a hypothesis, test this hypothesis, and then modify the hypothesis based on the outcomes of the experiment.
The process is then repeated with the modified hypothesis until the results align with the observed phenomena. Detailed steps of the scientific method are described below.
Keep in mind that the scientific method does not have to follow this fixed sequence of steps; rather, these steps represent a set of general principles or guidelines.
7 Steps of the Scientific Method
Psychology uses an empirical approach.
Empiricism (founded by John Locke) states that the only source of knowledge comes through our senses – e.g., sight, hearing, touch, etc.
Empirical evidence does not rely on argument or belief. Thus, empiricism is the view that all knowledge is based on or may come from direct observation and experience.
The empiricist approach of gaining knowledge through experience quickly became the scientific approach and greatly influenced the development of physics and chemistry in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Step 1: Make an Observation (Theory Construction)
Every researcher starts at the very beginning. Before diving in and exploring something, one must first determine what they will study – it seems simple enough!
By making observations, researchers can establish an area of interest. Once this topic of study has been chosen, a researcher should review existing literature to gain insight into what has already been tested and determine what questions remain unanswered.
This assessment will provide helpful information about what has already been comprehended about the specific topic and what questions remain, and if one can go and answer them.
Specifically, a literature review might implicate examining a substantial amount of documented material from academic journals to books dating back decades. The most appropriate information gathered by the researcher will be shown in the introduction section or abstract of the published study results.
The background material and knowledge will help the researcher with the first significant step in conducting a psychology study, which is formulating a research question.
This is the inductive phase of the scientific process. Observations yield information that is used to formulate theories as explanations. A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena.
Inductive reasoning moves from specific premises to a general conclusion. It starts with observations of phenomena in the natural world and derives a general law.
Step 2: Ask a Question
Once a researcher has made observations and conducted background research, the next step is to ask a scientific question. A scientific question must be defined, testable, and measurable.
A useful approach to develop a scientific question is: “What is the effect of…?” or “How does X affect Y?”
To answer an experimental question, a researcher must identify two variables: the independent and dependent variables.
The independent variable is the variable manipulated (the cause), and the dependent variable is the variable being measured (the effect).
An example of a research question could be, “Is handwriting or typing more effective for retaining information?” Answering the research question and proposing a relationship between the two variables is discussed in the next step.
Step 3: Form a Hypothesis (Make Predictions)
A hypothesis is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables. A hypothesis is an attempt to answer your research question based on prior observation and background research. Theories tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.
For example, a researcher might ask about the connection between sleep and educational performance. Do students who get less sleep perform worse on tests at school?
It is crucial to think about different questions one might have about a particular topic to formulate a reasonable hypothesis. It would help if one also considered how one could investigate the causalities.
It is important that the hypothesis is both testable against reality and falsifiable. This means that it can be tested through an experiment and can be proven wrong.
The falsification principle, proposed by Karl Popper , is a way of demarcating science from non-science. It suggests that for a theory to be considered scientific, it must be able to be tested and conceivably proven false.
To test a hypothesis, we first assume that there is no difference between the populations from which the samples were taken. This is known as the null hypothesis and predicts that the independent variable will not influence the dependent variable.
Examples of “if…then…” Hypotheses:
- If one gets less than 6 hours of sleep, then one will do worse on tests than if one obtains more rest.
- If one drinks lots of water before going to bed, one will have to use the bathroom often at night.
- If one practices exercising and lighting weights, then one’s body will begin to build muscle.
The research hypothesis is often called the alternative hypothesis and predicts what change(s) will occur in the dependent variable when the independent variable is manipulated.
It states that the results are not due to chance and that they are significant in terms of supporting the theory being investigated.
Although one could state and write a scientific hypothesis in many ways, hypotheses are usually built like “if…then…” statements.
Step 4: Run an Experiment (Gather Data)
The next step in the scientific method is to test your hypothesis and collect data. A researcher will design an experiment to test the hypothesis and gather data that will either support or refute the hypothesis.
The exact research methods used to examine a hypothesis depend on what is being studied. A psychologist might utilize two primary forms of research, experimental research, and descriptive research.
The scientific method is objective in that researchers do not let preconceived ideas or biases influence the collection of data and is systematic in that experiments are conducted in a logical way.
Experimental Research
Experimental research is used to investigate cause-and-effect associations between two or more variables. This type of research systematically controls an independent variable and measures its effect on a specified dependent variable.
Experimental research involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring the effect(s) on the dependent variable. Repeating the experiment multiple times is important to confirm that your results are accurate and consistent.
One of the significant advantages of this method is that it permits researchers to determine if changes in one variable cause shifts in each other.
While experiments in psychology typically have many moving parts (and can be relatively complex), an easy investigation is rather fundamental. Still, it does allow researchers to specify cause-and-effect associations between variables.
Most simple experiments use a control group, which involves those who do not receive the treatment, and an experimental group, which involves those who do receive the treatment.
An example of experimental research would be when a pharmaceutical company wants to test a new drug. They give one group a placebo (control group) and the other the actual pill (experimental group).
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is generally used when it is challenging or even impossible to control the variables in question. Examples of descriptive analysis include naturalistic observation, case studies , and correlation studies .
One example of descriptive research includes phone surveys that marketers often use. While they typically do not allow researchers to identify cause and effect, correlational studies are quite common in psychology research. They make it possible to spot associations between distinct variables and measure the solidity of those relationships.
Step 5: Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions
Once a researcher has designed and done the investigation and collected sufficient data, it is time to inspect this gathered information and judge what has been found. Researchers can summarize the data, interpret the results, and draw conclusions based on this evidence using analyses and statistics.
Upon completion of the experiment, you can collect your measurements and analyze the data using statistics. Based on the outcomes, you will either reject or confirm your hypothesis.
Analyze the Data
So, how does a researcher determine what the results of their study mean? Statistical analysis can either support or refute a researcher’s hypothesis and can also be used to determine if the conclusions are statistically significant.
When outcomes are said to be “statistically significant,” it is improbable that these results are due to luck or chance. Based on these observations, investigators must then determine what the results mean.
An experiment will support a hypothesis in some circumstances, but sometimes it fails to be truthful in other cases.
What occurs if the developments of a psychology investigation do not endorse the researcher’s hypothesis? It does mean that the study was worthless. Simply because the findings fail to defend the researcher’s hypothesis does not mean that the examination is not helpful or instructive.
This kind of research plays a vital role in supporting scientists in developing unexplored questions and hypotheses to investigate in the future. After decisions have been made, the next step is to communicate the results with the rest of the scientific community.
This is an integral part of the process because it contributes to the general knowledge base and can assist other scientists in finding new research routes to explore.
If the hypothesis is not supported, a researcher should acknowledge the experiment’s results, formulate a new hypothesis, and develop a new experiment.
We must avoid any reference to results proving a theory as this implies 100% certainty, and there is always a chance that evidence may exist that could refute a theory.
Draw Conclusions and Interpret the Data
When the empirical observations disagree with the hypothesis, a number of possibilities must be considered. It might be that the theory is incorrect, in which case it needs altering, so it fully explains the data.
Alternatively, it might be that the hypothesis was poorly derived from the original theory, in which case the scientists were expecting the wrong thing to happen.
It might also be that the research was poorly conducted, or used an inappropriate method, or there were factors in play that the researchers did not consider. This will begin the process of the scientific method again.
If the hypothesis is supported, the researcher can find more evidence to support their hypothesis or look for counter-evidence to strengthen their hypothesis further.
In either scenario, the researcher should share their results with the greater scientific community.
Step 6: Share Your Results
One of the final stages of the research cycle involves the publication of the research. Once the report is written, the researcher(s) may submit the work for publication in an appropriate journal.
Usually, this is done by writing up a study description and publishing the article in a professional or academic journal. The studies and conclusions of psychological work can be seen in peer-reviewed journals such as Developmental Psychology , Psychological Bulletin, the Journal of Social Psychology, and numerous others.
Scientists should report their findings by writing up a description of their study and any subsequent findings. This enables other researchers to build upon the present research or replicate the results.
As outlined by the American Psychological Association (APA), there is a typical structure of a journal article that follows a specified format. In these articles, researchers:
- Supply a brief narrative and background on previous research
- Give their hypothesis
- Specify who participated in the study and how they were chosen
- Provide operational definitions for each variable
- Explain the measures and methods used to collect data
- Describe how the data collected was interpreted
- Discuss what the outcomes mean
A detailed record of psychological studies and all scientific studies is vital to clearly explain the steps and procedures used throughout the study. So that other researchers can try this experiment too and replicate the results.
The editorial process utilized by academic and professional journals guarantees that each submitted article undergoes a thorough peer review to help assure that the study is scientifically sound. Once published, the investigation becomes another piece of the current puzzle of our knowledge “base” on that subject.
This last step is important because all results, whether they supported or did not support the hypothesis, can contribute to the scientific community. Publication of empirical observations leads to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular.
The editorial process utilized by academic and professional journals guarantees that each submitted article undergoes a thorough peer review to help assure that the study is scientifically sound.
Once published, the investigation becomes another piece of the current puzzle of our knowledge “base” on that subject.
By replicating studies, psychologists can reduce errors, validate theories, and gain a stronger understanding of a particular topic.
Step 7: Repeat the Scientific Method (Iteration)
Now, if one’s hypothesis turns out to be accurate, find more evidence or find counter-evidence. If one’s hypothesis is false, create a new hypothesis or try again.
One may wish to revise their first hypothesis to make a more niche experiment to design or a different specific question to test.
The amazingness of the scientific method is that it is a comprehensive and straightforward process that scientists, and everyone, can utilize over and over again.
So, draw conclusions and repeat because the scientific method is never-ending, and no result is ever considered perfect.
The scientific method is a process of:
- Making an observation.
- Forming a hypothesis.
- Making a prediction.
- Experimenting to test the hypothesis.
The procedure of repeating the scientific method is crucial to science and all fields of human knowledge.
Further Information
- Karl Popper – Falsification
- Thomas – Kuhn Paradigm Shift
- Positivism in Sociology: Definition, Theory & Examples
- Is Psychology a Science?
- Psychology as a Science (PDF)
List the 6 steps of the scientific methods in order
- Make an observation (theory construction)
- Ask a question. A scientific question must be defined, testable, and measurable.
- Form a hypothesis (make predictions)
- Run an experiment to test the hypothesis (gather data)
- Analyze the data and draw conclusions
- Share your results so that other researchers can make new hypotheses
What is the first step of the scientific method?
The first step of the scientific method is making an observation. This involves noticing and describing a phenomenon or group of phenomena that one finds interesting and wishes to explain.
Observations can occur in a natural setting or within the confines of a laboratory. The key point is that the observation provides the initial question or problem that the rest of the scientific method seeks to answer or solve.
What is the scientific method?
The scientific method is a step-by-step process that investigators can follow to determine if there is a causal connection between two or more variables.
Psychologists and other scientists regularly suggest motivations for human behavior. On a more casual level, people judge other people’s intentions, incentives, and actions daily.
While our standard assessments of human behavior are subjective and anecdotal, researchers use the scientific method to study psychology objectively and systematically.
All utilize a scientific method to study distinct aspects of people’s thinking and behavior. This process allows scientists to analyze and understand various psychological phenomena, but it also provides investigators and others a way to disseminate and debate the results of their studies.
The outcomes of these studies are often noted in popular media, which leads numerous to think about how or why researchers came to the findings they did.
Why Use the Six Steps of the Scientific Method
The goal of scientists is to understand better the world that surrounds us. Scientific research is the most critical tool for navigating and learning about our complex world.
Without it, we would be compelled to rely solely on intuition, other people’s power, and luck. We can eliminate our preconceived concepts and superstitions through methodical scientific research and gain an objective sense of ourselves and our world.
All psychological studies aim to explain, predict, and even control or impact mental behaviors or processes. So, psychologists use and repeat the scientific method (and its six steps) to perform and record essential psychological research.
So, psychologists focus on understanding behavior and the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes underlying behavior.
In the real world, people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience. The hallmark of scientific research is evidence to support a claim.
Scientific knowledge is empirical, meaning it is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed repeatedly, regardless of who is watching.
The scientific method is crucial because it minimizes the impact of bias or prejudice on the experimenter. Regardless of how hard one tries, even the best-intentioned scientists can’t escape discrimination. can’t
It stems from personal opinions and cultural beliefs, meaning any mortal filters data based on one’s experience. Sadly, this “filtering” process can cause a scientist to favor one outcome over another.
For an everyday person trying to solve a minor issue at home or work, succumbing to these biases is not such a big deal; in fact, most times, it is important.
But in the scientific community, where results must be inspected and reproduced, bias or discrimination must be avoided.
When to Use the Six Steps of the Scientific Method ?
One can use the scientific method anytime, anywhere! From the smallest conundrum to solving global problems, it is a process that can be applied to any science and any investigation.
Even if you are not considered a “scientist,” you will be surprised to know that people of all disciplines use it for all kinds of dilemmas.
Try to catch yourself next time you come by a question and see how you subconsciously or consciously use the scientific method.
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- University of Nevada, Reno - College of Agriculture, Biotechnology and Natural Resources Extension - The Scientific Method
- World History Encyclopedia - Scientific Method
- LiveScience - What Is Science?
- Verywell Mind - Scientific Method Steps in Psychology Research
- WebMD - What is the Scientific Method?
- Chemistry LibreTexts - The Scientific Method
- National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Redefining the scientific method: as the use of sophisticated scientific methods that extend our mind
- Khan Academy - The scientific method
- Simply Psychology - What are the steps in the Scientific Method?
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Scientific Method
scientific method , mathematical and experimental technique employed in the sciences . More specifically, it is the technique used in the construction and testing of a scientific hypothesis .
The process of observing, asking questions, and seeking answers through tests and experiments is not unique to any one field of science. In fact, the scientific method is applied broadly in science, across many different fields. Many empirical sciences, especially the social sciences , use mathematical tools borrowed from probability theory and statistics , together with outgrowths of these, such as decision theory , game theory , utility theory, and operations research . Philosophers of science have addressed general methodological problems, such as the nature of scientific explanation and the justification of induction .
The scientific method is critical to the development of scientific theories , which explain empirical (experiential) laws in a scientifically rational manner. In a typical application of the scientific method, a researcher develops a hypothesis , tests it through various means, and then modifies the hypothesis on the basis of the outcome of the tests and experiments. The modified hypothesis is then retested, further modified, and tested again, until it becomes consistent with observed phenomena and testing outcomes. In this way, hypotheses serve as tools by which scientists gather data. From that data and the many different scientific investigations undertaken to explore hypotheses, scientists are able to develop broad general explanations, or scientific theories.
See also Mill’s methods ; hypothetico-deductive method .
Six Steps of the Scientific Method
Learn What Makes Each Stage Important
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The scientific method is a systematic way of learning about the world around us. The key difference between the scientific method and other ways of acquiring knowledge is that, when using the scientific method, we make hypotheses and then test them with an experiment.
Anyone can use the scientific method to acquire knowledge by asking questions and then working to find the answers to those questions. Below are the six steps involved in the scientific method and variables you may encounter when working with this method.
The Six Steps
The number of steps in the scientific method can vary from one description to another (which mainly happens when data and analysis are separated into separate steps), however, below is a fairly standard list of the six steps you'll likely be expected to know for any science class:
- Purpose/Question Ask a question.
- Research Conduct background research. Write down your sources so you can cite your references. In the modern era, you might conduct much of your research online. As you read articles and papers online, ensure you scroll to the bottom of the text to check the author's references. Even if you can't access the full text of a published article, you can usually view the abstract to see the summary of other experiments . Interview experts on a topic. The more you know about a subject, the easier it'll be to conduct your investigation.
- Hypothesis Propose a hypothesis . This is a sort of educated guess about what you expect your research to reveal. A hypothesis is a statement used to predict the outcome of an experiment. Usually, a hypothesis is written in terms of cause and effect. Alternatively, it may describe the relationship between two phenomena. The null hypothesis or the no-difference hypothesis is one type of hypothesis that's easy to test because it assumes changing a variable will not affect the outcome. In reality, you probably expect a change, but rejecting a hypothesis may be more useful than accepting one.
- Experiment Design and experiment to test your hypothesis. An experiment has an independent and dependent variable. You change or control the independent variable and record the effect it has on the dependent variable . It's important to change only one variable for an experiment rather than try to combine the effects of variables in an experiment. For example, if you want to test the effects of light intensity and fertilizer concentration on the growth rate of a plant, you're looking at two separate experiments.
- Data/Analysis Record observations and analyze the meaning of the data. Often, you'll prepare a table or graph of the data. Don't throw out data points you think are bad or that don't support your predictions. Some of the most incredible discoveries in science were made because the data looked wrong! Once you have the data, you may need to perform a mathematical analysis to support or refute your hypothesis.
- Conclusion Conclude whether to accept or reject your hypothesis. There's no right or wrong outcome to an experiment, so either result is fine. Accepting a hypothesis doesn't necessarily mean it's correct! Sometimes repeating an experiment may give a different result. In other cases, a hypothesis may predict an outcome, yet you might draw an incorrect conclusion. Communicate your results. You can compile your results into a lab report or formally submit them as a paper . Whether you accept or reject the hypothesis, you likely learned something about the subject and may wish to revise the original hypothesis or form a new one for a future experiment.
When Are There Seven Steps?
Some teach the scientific method with seven steps instead of six. In the seven-step model, the first step is to make observations. Even if you don't make observations formally, you should think about prior experiences with a subject to ask a question or solve a problem.
Formal observations are a type of brainstorming that can help you find an idea and form a hypothesis. Observe your subject and record everything about it. Include colors, timing, sounds, temperatures, changes, behavior, and anything that strikes you as interesting or significant.
When you design an experiment, you're controlling and measuring variables. There are three types of variables:
- Controlled Variables: You can have as many controlled variables as you like. These are parts of the experiment that you try to keep constant throughout an experiment so they won't interfere with your test. Writing down controlled variables is a good idea because it helps make your experiment reproducible , which is important in science! If you have trouble duplicating results from one experiment to another, there may be a controlled variable you missed.
- Independent Variable: This is the variable you control.
- Dependent Variable: This is the variable you measure. It's called the dependent variable because it depends on the independent variable.
- Null Hypothesis Examples
- Scientific Method Flow Chart
- Random Error vs. Systematic Error
- What Is an Experimental Constant?
- Scientific Variable
- What Is a Hypothesis? (Science)
- What Are the Elements of a Good Hypothesis?
- What Are Examples of a Hypothesis?
- What Is a Testable Hypothesis?
- Scientific Hypothesis Examples
- Scientific Method Vocabulary Terms
- Understanding Simple vs Controlled Experiments
- The Role of a Controlled Variable in an Experiment
- What Is the Difference Between a Control Variable and Control Group?
- What Is a Controlled Experiment?
- DRY MIX Experiment Variables Acronym
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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles
Edward barroga.
1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.
Glafera Janet Matanguihan
2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.
The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.
INTRODUCTION
Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6
It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4
There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.
DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5
On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4
Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8
Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13
There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10
TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .
Quantitative research questions | Quantitative research hypotheses |
---|---|
Descriptive research questions | Simple hypothesis |
Comparative research questions | Complex hypothesis |
Relationship research questions | Directional hypothesis |
Non-directional hypothesis | |
Associative hypothesis | |
Causal hypothesis | |
Null hypothesis | |
Alternative hypothesis | |
Working hypothesis | |
Statistical hypothesis | |
Logical hypothesis | |
Hypothesis-testing | |
Qualitative research questions | Qualitative research hypotheses |
Contextual research questions | Hypothesis-generating |
Descriptive research questions | |
Evaluation research questions | |
Explanatory research questions | |
Exploratory research questions | |
Generative research questions | |
Ideological research questions | |
Ethnographic research questions | |
Phenomenological research questions | |
Grounded theory questions | |
Qualitative case study questions |
Research questions in quantitative research
In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .
Quantitative research questions | |
---|---|
Descriptive research question | |
- Measures responses of subjects to variables | |
- Presents variables to measure, analyze, or assess | |
What is the proportion of resident doctors in the hospital who have mastered ultrasonography (response of subjects to a variable) as a diagnostic technique in their clinical training? | |
Comparative research question | |
- Clarifies difference between one group with outcome variable and another group without outcome variable | |
Is there a difference in the reduction of lung metastasis in osteosarcoma patients who received the vitamin D adjunctive therapy (group with outcome variable) compared with osteosarcoma patients who did not receive the vitamin D adjunctive therapy (group without outcome variable)? | |
- Compares the effects of variables | |
How does the vitamin D analogue 22-Oxacalcitriol (variable 1) mimic the antiproliferative activity of 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D (variable 2) in osteosarcoma cells? | |
Relationship research question | |
- Defines trends, association, relationships, or interactions between dependent variable and independent variable | |
Is there a relationship between the number of medical student suicide (dependent variable) and the level of medical student stress (independent variable) in Japan during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic? |
Hypotheses in quantitative research
In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .
Quantitative research hypotheses | |
---|---|
Simple hypothesis | |
- Predicts relationship between single dependent variable and single independent variable | |
If the dose of the new medication (single independent variable) is high, blood pressure (single dependent variable) is lowered. | |
Complex hypothesis | |
- Foretells relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables | |
The higher the use of anticancer drugs, radiation therapy, and adjunctive agents (3 independent variables), the higher would be the survival rate (1 dependent variable). | |
Directional hypothesis | |
- Identifies study direction based on theory towards particular outcome to clarify relationship between variables | |
Privately funded research projects will have a larger international scope (study direction) than publicly funded research projects. | |
Non-directional hypothesis | |
- Nature of relationship between two variables or exact study direction is not identified | |
- Does not involve a theory | |
Women and men are different in terms of helpfulness. (Exact study direction is not identified) | |
Associative hypothesis | |
- Describes variable interdependency | |
- Change in one variable causes change in another variable | |
A larger number of people vaccinated against COVID-19 in the region (change in independent variable) will reduce the region’s incidence of COVID-19 infection (change in dependent variable). | |
Causal hypothesis | |
- An effect on dependent variable is predicted from manipulation of independent variable | |
A change into a high-fiber diet (independent variable) will reduce the blood sugar level (dependent variable) of the patient. | |
Null hypothesis | |
- A negative statement indicating no relationship or difference between 2 variables | |
There is no significant difference in the severity of pulmonary metastases between the new drug (variable 1) and the current drug (variable 2). | |
Alternative hypothesis | |
- Following a null hypothesis, an alternative hypothesis predicts a relationship between 2 study variables | |
The new drug (variable 1) is better on average in reducing the level of pain from pulmonary metastasis than the current drug (variable 2). | |
Working hypothesis | |
- A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory | |
Dairy cows fed with concentrates of different formulations will produce different amounts of milk. | |
Statistical hypothesis | |
- Assumption about the value of population parameter or relationship among several population characteristics | |
- Validity tested by a statistical experiment or analysis | |
The mean recovery rate from COVID-19 infection (value of population parameter) is not significantly different between population 1 and population 2. | |
There is a positive correlation between the level of stress at the workplace and the number of suicides (population characteristics) among working people in Japan. | |
Logical hypothesis | |
- Offers or proposes an explanation with limited or no extensive evidence | |
If healthcare workers provide more educational programs about contraception methods, the number of adolescent pregnancies will be less. | |
Hypothesis-testing (Quantitative hypothesis-testing research) | |
- Quantitative research uses deductive reasoning. | |
- This involves the formation of a hypothesis, collection of data in the investigation of the problem, analysis and use of the data from the investigation, and drawing of conclusions to validate or nullify the hypotheses. |
Research questions in qualitative research
Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15
There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .
Qualitative research questions | |
---|---|
Contextual research question | |
- Ask the nature of what already exists | |
- Individuals or groups function to further clarify and understand the natural context of real-world problems | |
What are the experiences of nurses working night shifts in healthcare during the COVID-19 pandemic? (natural context of real-world problems) | |
Descriptive research question | |
- Aims to describe a phenomenon | |
What are the different forms of disrespect and abuse (phenomenon) experienced by Tanzanian women when giving birth in healthcare facilities? | |
Evaluation research question | |
- Examines the effectiveness of existing practice or accepted frameworks | |
How effective are decision aids (effectiveness of existing practice) in helping decide whether to give birth at home or in a healthcare facility? | |
Explanatory research question | |
- Clarifies a previously studied phenomenon and explains why it occurs | |
Why is there an increase in teenage pregnancy (phenomenon) in Tanzania? | |
Exploratory research question | |
- Explores areas that have not been fully investigated to have a deeper understanding of the research problem | |
What factors affect the mental health of medical students (areas that have not yet been fully investigated) during the COVID-19 pandemic? | |
Generative research question | |
- Develops an in-depth understanding of people’s behavior by asking ‘how would’ or ‘what if’ to identify problems and find solutions | |
How would the extensive research experience of the behavior of new staff impact the success of the novel drug initiative? | |
Ideological research question | |
- Aims to advance specific ideas or ideologies of a position | |
Are Japanese nurses who volunteer in remote African hospitals able to promote humanized care of patients (specific ideas or ideologies) in the areas of safe patient environment, respect of patient privacy, and provision of accurate information related to health and care? | |
Ethnographic research question | |
- Clarifies peoples’ nature, activities, their interactions, and the outcomes of their actions in specific settings | |
What are the demographic characteristics, rehabilitative treatments, community interactions, and disease outcomes (nature, activities, their interactions, and the outcomes) of people in China who are suffering from pneumoconiosis? | |
Phenomenological research question | |
- Knows more about the phenomena that have impacted an individual | |
What are the lived experiences of parents who have been living with and caring for children with a diagnosis of autism? (phenomena that have impacted an individual) | |
Grounded theory question | |
- Focuses on social processes asking about what happens and how people interact, or uncovering social relationships and behaviors of groups | |
What are the problems that pregnant adolescents face in terms of social and cultural norms (social processes), and how can these be addressed? | |
Qualitative case study question | |
- Assesses a phenomenon using different sources of data to answer “why” and “how” questions | |
- Considers how the phenomenon is influenced by its contextual situation. | |
How does quitting work and assuming the role of a full-time mother (phenomenon assessed) change the lives of women in Japan? |
Qualitative research hypotheses | |
---|---|
Hypothesis-generating (Qualitative hypothesis-generating research) | |
- Qualitative research uses inductive reasoning. | |
- This involves data collection from study participants or the literature regarding a phenomenon of interest, using the collected data to develop a formal hypothesis, and using the formal hypothesis as a framework for testing the hypothesis. | |
- Qualitative exploratory studies explore areas deeper, clarifying subjective experience and allowing formulation of a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach. |
Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15
Hypotheses in qualitative research
Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1
FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14
The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14
As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.
Variables | Unclear and weak statement (Statement 1) | Clear and good statement (Statement 2) | Points to avoid |
---|---|---|---|
Research question | Which is more effective between smoke moxibustion and smokeless moxibustion? | “Moreover, regarding smoke moxibustion versus smokeless moxibustion, it remains unclear which is more effective, safe, and acceptable to pregnant women, and whether there is any difference in the amount of heat generated.” | 1) Vague and unfocused questions |
2) Closed questions simply answerable by yes or no | |||
3) Questions requiring a simple choice | |||
Hypothesis | The smoke moxibustion group will have higher cephalic presentation. | “Hypothesis 1. The smoke moxibustion stick group (SM group) and smokeless moxibustion stick group (-SLM group) will have higher rates of cephalic presentation after treatment than the control group. | 1) Unverifiable hypotheses |
Hypothesis 2. The SM group and SLM group will have higher rates of cephalic presentation at birth than the control group. | 2) Incompletely stated groups of comparison | ||
Hypothesis 3. There will be no significant differences in the well-being of the mother and child among the three groups in terms of the following outcomes: premature birth, premature rupture of membranes (PROM) at < 37 weeks, Apgar score < 7 at 5 min, umbilical cord blood pH < 7.1, admission to neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), and intrauterine fetal death.” | 3) Insufficiently described variables or outcomes | ||
Research objective | To determine which is more effective between smoke moxibustion and smokeless moxibustion. | “The specific aims of this pilot study were (a) to compare the effects of smoke moxibustion and smokeless moxibustion treatments with the control group as a possible supplement to ECV for converting breech presentation to cephalic presentation and increasing adherence to the newly obtained cephalic position, and (b) to assess the effects of these treatments on the well-being of the mother and child.” | 1) Poor understanding of the research question and hypotheses |
2) Insufficient description of population, variables, or study outcomes |
a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.
b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16
Variables | Unclear and weak statement (Statement 1) | Clear and good statement (Statement 2) | Points to avoid |
---|---|---|---|
Research question | Does disrespect and abuse (D&A) occur in childbirth in Tanzania? | How does disrespect and abuse (D&A) occur and what are the types of physical and psychological abuses observed in midwives’ actual care during facility-based childbirth in urban Tanzania? | 1) Ambiguous or oversimplistic questions |
2) Questions unverifiable by data collection and analysis | |||
Hypothesis | Disrespect and abuse (D&A) occur in childbirth in Tanzania. | Hypothesis 1: Several types of physical and psychological abuse by midwives in actual care occur during facility-based childbirth in urban Tanzania. | 1) Statements simply expressing facts |
Hypothesis 2: Weak nursing and midwifery management contribute to the D&A of women during facility-based childbirth in urban Tanzania. | 2) Insufficiently described concepts or variables | ||
Research objective | To describe disrespect and abuse (D&A) in childbirth in Tanzania. | “This study aimed to describe from actual observations the respectful and disrespectful care received by women from midwives during their labor period in two hospitals in urban Tanzania.” | 1) Statements unrelated to the research question and hypotheses |
2) Unattainable or unexplorable objectives |
a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17
The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.
CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .
Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.
Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12
In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.
EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES
- EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
- - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
- “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
- RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
- EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
- - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
- “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
- Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
- EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
- - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
- “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
- RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
- STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
- EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
- - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
- “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
- EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
- - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
- “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23
EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES
- EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
- - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
- “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
- “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
- EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
- - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
- “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
- “Conclusion
- Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
- EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
- “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
- Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
- EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
- - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
- “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
- “Statistical Analysis
- ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27
EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS
- EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
- “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
- “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
- “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
- EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
- “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
- “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
- EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
- “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
- “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
- “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30
Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.
Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.
Author Contributions:
- Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
- Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
- Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
- Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
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Scientific Method Steps in Psychology Research
Steps, Uses, and Key Terms
Verywell / Theresa Chiechi
How do researchers investigate psychological phenomena? They utilize a process known as the scientific method to study different aspects of how people think and behave.
When conducting research, the scientific method steps to follow are:
- Observe what you want to investigate
- Ask a research question and make predictions
- Test the hypothesis and collect data
- Examine the results and draw conclusions
- Report and share the results
This process not only allows scientists to investigate and understand different psychological phenomena but also provides researchers and others a way to share and discuss the results of their studies.
Generally, there are five main steps in the scientific method, although some may break down this process into six or seven steps. An additional step in the process can also include developing new research questions based on your findings.
What Is the Scientific Method?
What is the scientific method and how is it used in psychology?
The scientific method consists of five steps. It is essentially a step-by-step process that researchers can follow to determine if there is some type of relationship between two or more variables.
By knowing the steps of the scientific method, you can better understand the process researchers go through to arrive at conclusions about human behavior.
Scientific Method Steps
While research studies can vary, these are the basic steps that psychologists and scientists use when investigating human behavior.
The following are the scientific method steps:
Step 1. Make an Observation
Before a researcher can begin, they must choose a topic to study. Once an area of interest has been chosen, the researchers must then conduct a thorough review of the existing literature on the subject. This review will provide valuable information about what has already been learned about the topic and what questions remain to be answered.
A literature review might involve looking at a considerable amount of written material from both books and academic journals dating back decades.
The relevant information collected by the researcher will be presented in the introduction section of the final published study results. This background material will also help the researcher with the first major step in conducting a psychology study: formulating a hypothesis.
Step 2. Ask a Question
Once a researcher has observed something and gained some background information on the topic, the next step is to ask a question. The researcher will form a hypothesis, which is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables
For example, a researcher might ask a question about the relationship between sleep and academic performance: Do students who get more sleep perform better on tests at school?
In order to formulate a good hypothesis, it is important to think about different questions you might have about a particular topic.
You should also consider how you could investigate the causes. Falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In other words, if a hypothesis was false, there needs to be a way for scientists to demonstrate that it is false.
Step 3. Test Your Hypothesis and Collect Data
Once you have a solid hypothesis, the next step of the scientific method is to put this hunch to the test by collecting data. The exact methods used to investigate a hypothesis depend on exactly what is being studied. There are two basic forms of research that a psychologist might utilize: descriptive research or experimental research.
Descriptive research is typically used when it would be difficult or even impossible to manipulate the variables in question. Examples of descriptive research include case studies, naturalistic observation , and correlation studies. Phone surveys that are often used by marketers are one example of descriptive research.
Correlational studies are quite common in psychology research. While they do not allow researchers to determine cause-and-effect, they do make it possible to spot relationships between different variables and to measure the strength of those relationships.
Experimental research is used to explore cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables. This type of research involves systematically manipulating an independent variable and then measuring the effect that it has on a defined dependent variable .
One of the major advantages of this method is that it allows researchers to actually determine if changes in one variable actually cause changes in another.
While psychology experiments are often quite complex, a simple experiment is fairly basic but does allow researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Most simple experiments use a control group (those who do not receive the treatment) and an experimental group (those who do receive the treatment).
Step 4. Examine the Results and Draw Conclusions
Once a researcher has designed the study and collected the data, it is time to examine this information and draw conclusions about what has been found. Using statistics , researchers can summarize the data, analyze the results, and draw conclusions based on this evidence.
So how does a researcher decide what the results of a study mean? Not only can statistical analysis support (or refute) the researcher’s hypothesis; it can also be used to determine if the findings are statistically significant.
When results are said to be statistically significant, it means that it is unlikely that these results are due to chance.
Based on these observations, researchers must then determine what the results mean. In some cases, an experiment will support a hypothesis, but in other cases, it will fail to support the hypothesis.
So what happens if the results of a psychology experiment do not support the researcher's hypothesis? Does this mean that the study was worthless?
Just because the findings fail to support the hypothesis does not mean that the research is not useful or informative. In fact, such research plays an important role in helping scientists develop new questions and hypotheses to explore in the future.
After conclusions have been drawn, the next step is to share the results with the rest of the scientific community. This is an important part of the process because it contributes to the overall knowledge base and can help other scientists find new research avenues to explore.
Step 5. Report the Results
The final step in a psychology study is to report the findings. This is often done by writing up a description of the study and publishing the article in an academic or professional journal. The results of psychological studies can be seen in peer-reviewed journals such as Psychological Bulletin , the Journal of Social Psychology , Developmental Psychology , and many others.
The structure of a journal article follows a specified format that has been outlined by the American Psychological Association (APA) . In these articles, researchers:
- Provide a brief history and background on previous research
- Present their hypothesis
- Identify who participated in the study and how they were selected
- Provide operational definitions for each variable
- Describe the measures and procedures that were used to collect data
- Explain how the information collected was analyzed
- Discuss what the results mean
Why is such a detailed record of a psychological study so important? By clearly explaining the steps and procedures used throughout the study, other researchers can then replicate the results. The editorial process employed by academic and professional journals ensures that each article that is submitted undergoes a thorough peer review, which helps ensure that the study is scientifically sound.
Once published, the study becomes another piece of the existing puzzle of our knowledge base on that topic.
Before you begin exploring the scientific method steps, here's a review of some key terms and definitions that you should be familiar with:
- Falsifiable : The variables can be measured so that if a hypothesis is false, it can be proven false
- Hypothesis : An educated guess about the possible relationship between two or more variables
- Variable : A factor or element that can change in observable and measurable ways
- Operational definition : A full description of exactly how variables are defined, how they will be manipulated, and how they will be measured
Uses for the Scientific Method
The goals of psychological studies are to describe, explain, predict and perhaps influence mental processes or behaviors. In order to do this, psychologists utilize the scientific method to conduct psychological research. The scientific method is a set of principles and procedures that are used by researchers to develop questions, collect data, and reach conclusions.
Goals of Scientific Research in Psychology
Researchers seek not only to describe behaviors and explain why these behaviors occur; they also strive to create research that can be used to predict and even change human behavior.
Psychologists and other social scientists regularly propose explanations for human behavior. On a more informal level, people make judgments about the intentions, motivations , and actions of others on a daily basis.
While the everyday judgments we make about human behavior are subjective and anecdotal, researchers use the scientific method to study psychology in an objective and systematic way. The results of these studies are often reported in popular media, which leads many to wonder just how or why researchers arrived at the conclusions they did.
Examples of the Scientific Method
Now that you're familiar with the scientific method steps, it's useful to see how each step could work with a real-life example.
Say, for instance, that researchers set out to discover what the relationship is between psychotherapy and anxiety .
- Step 1. Make an observation : The researchers choose to focus their study on adults ages 25 to 40 with generalized anxiety disorder.
- Step 2. Ask a question : The question they want to answer in their study is: Do weekly psychotherapy sessions reduce symptoms in adults ages 25 to 40 with generalized anxiety disorder?
- Step 3. Test your hypothesis : Researchers collect data on participants' anxiety symptoms . They work with therapists to create a consistent program that all participants undergo. Group 1 may attend therapy once per week, whereas group 2 does not attend therapy.
- Step 4. Examine the results : Participants record their symptoms and any changes over a period of three months. After this period, people in group 1 report significant improvements in their anxiety symptoms, whereas those in group 2 report no significant changes.
- Step 5. Report the results : Researchers write a report that includes their hypothesis, information on participants, variables, procedure, and conclusions drawn from the study. In this case, they say that "Weekly therapy sessions are shown to reduce anxiety symptoms in adults ages 25 to 40."
Of course, there are many details that go into planning and executing a study such as this. But this general outline gives you an idea of how an idea is formulated and tested, and how researchers arrive at results using the scientific method.
Erol A. How to conduct scientific research ? Noro Psikiyatr Ars . 2017;54(2):97-98. doi:10.5152/npa.2017.0120102
University of Minnesota. Psychologists use the scientific method to guide their research .
Shaughnessy, JJ, Zechmeister, EB, & Zechmeister, JS. Research Methods In Psychology . New York: McGraw Hill Education; 2015.
By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."
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- Knowledge Base
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- 10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project
10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project
Published on October 30, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on October 19, 2023.
The research question is one of the most important parts of your research paper , thesis or dissertation . It’s important to spend some time assessing and refining your question before you get started.
The exact form of your question will depend on a few things, such as the length of your project, the type of research you’re conducting, the topic , and the research problem . However, all research questions should be focused, specific, and relevant to a timely social or scholarly issue.
Once you’ve read our guide on how to write a research question , you can use these examples to craft your own.
Research question | Explanation |
---|---|
The first question is not enough. The second question is more , using . | |
Starting with “why” often means that your question is not enough: there are too many possible answers. By targeting just one aspect of the problem, the second question offers a clear path for research. | |
The first question is too broad and subjective: there’s no clear criteria for what counts as “better.” The second question is much more . It uses clearly defined terms and narrows its focus to a specific population. | |
It is generally not for academic research to answer broad normative questions. The second question is more specific, aiming to gain an understanding of possible solutions in order to make informed recommendations. | |
The first question is too simple: it can be answered with a simple yes or no. The second question is , requiring in-depth investigation and the development of an original argument. | |
The first question is too broad and not very . The second question identifies an underexplored aspect of the topic that requires investigation of various to answer. | |
The first question is not enough: it tries to address two different (the quality of sexual health services and LGBT support services). Even though the two issues are related, it’s not clear how the research will bring them together. The second integrates the two problems into one focused, specific question. | |
The first question is too simple, asking for a straightforward fact that can be easily found online. The second is a more question that requires and detailed discussion to answer. | |
? dealt with the theme of racism through casting, staging, and allusion to contemporary events? | The first question is not — it would be very difficult to contribute anything new. The second question takes a specific angle to make an original argument, and has more relevance to current social concerns and debates. |
The first question asks for a ready-made solution, and is not . The second question is a clearer comparative question, but note that it may not be practically . For a smaller research project or thesis, it could be narrowed down further to focus on the effectiveness of drunk driving laws in just one or two countries. |
Note that the design of your research question can depend on what method you are pursuing. Here are a few options for qualitative, quantitative, and statistical research questions.
Type of research | Example question |
---|---|
Qualitative research question | |
Quantitative research question | |
Statistical research question |
Other interesting articles
If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Methodology
- Sampling methods
- Simple random sampling
- Stratified sampling
- Cluster sampling
- Likert scales
- Reproducibility
Statistics
- Null hypothesis
- Statistical power
- Probability distribution
- Effect size
- Poisson distribution
Research bias
- Optimism bias
- Cognitive bias
- Implicit bias
- Hawthorne effect
- Anchoring bias
- Explicit bias
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Biased: when someone presents only one viewpoint. Biased articles do not give all the facts and often mislead the reader.
Conclusion: what a person decides based on information they get through research including experiments.
Method: following a certain set of steps to make something, or find an answer to a question. Like baking a pie or fixing the tire on a bicycle.
Research: looking for answers to questions using tools like the scientific method.
What is the Scientific Method?
If you have ever seen something going on and wondered why or how it happened, you have started down the road to discovery. If you continue your journey, you are likely to guess at some of your own answers for your question. Even further along the road you might think of ways to find out if your answers are correct. At this point, whether you know it or not, you are following a path that scientists call the scientific method. If you do some experiments to see if your answer is correct and write down what you learn in a report, you have pretty much completed everything a scientist might do in a laboratory or out in the field when doing research. In fact, the scientific method works well for many things that don’t usually seem so scientific.
The Flashlight Mystery...
Like a crime detective, you can use the elements of the scientific method to find the answer to everyday problems. For example you pick up a flashlight and turn it on, but the light does not work. You have observed that the light does not work. You ask the question, Why doesn't it work? With what you already know about flashlights, you might guess (hypothesize) that the batteries are dead. You say to yourself, if I buy new batteries and replace the old ones in the flashlight, the light should work. To test this prediction you replace the old batteries with new ones from the store. You click the switch on. Does the flashlight work? No?
What else could be the answer? You go back and hypothesize that it might be a broken light bulb. Your new prediction is if you replace the broken light bulb the flashlight will work. It’s time to go back to the store and buy a new light bulb. Now you test this new hypothesis and prediction by replacing the bulb in the flashlight. You flip the switch again. The flashlight lights up. Success!
If this were a scientific project, you would also have written down the results of your tests and a conclusion of your experiments. The results of only the light bulb hypothesis stood up to the test, and we had to reject the battery hypothesis. You would also communicate what you learned to others with a published report, article, or scientific paper.
More to the Mystery...
Not all questions can be answered with only two experiments. It can often take a lot more work and tests to find an answer. Even when you find an answer it may not always be the only answer to the question. This is one reason that different scientists will work on the same question and do their own experiments.
In our flashlight example, you might never get the light to turn on. This probably means you haven’t made enough different guesses (hypotheses) to test the problem. Were the new batteries in the right way? Was the switch rusty, or maybe a wire is broken. Think of all the possible guesses you could test.
No matter what the question, you can use the scientific method to guide you towards an answer. Even those questions that do not seem to be scientific can be solved using this process. Like with the flashlight, you might need to repeat several of the elements of the scientific method to find an answer. No matter how complex the diagram, the scientific method will include the following pieces in order to be complete.
The elements of the scientific method can be used by anyone to help answer questions. Even though these elements can be used in an ordered manner, they do not have to follow the same order. It is better to think of the scientific method as fluid process that can take different paths depending on the situation. Just be sure to incorporate all of the elements when seeking unbiased answers. You may also need to go back a few steps (or a few times) to test several different hypotheses before you come to a conclusion. Click on the image to see other versions of the scientific method.
- Observation – seeing, hearing, touching…
- Asking a question – why or how?
- Hypothesis – a fancy name for an educated guess about what causes something to happen.
- Prediction – what you think will happen if…
- Testing – this is where you get to experiment and be creative.
- Conclusion – decide how your test results relate to your predictions.
- Communicate – share your results so others can learn from your work.
Other Parts of the Scientific Method…
Now that you have an idea of how the scientific method works there are a few other things to learn so that you will be able test out your new skills and test your hypotheses.
- Control - A group that is similar to other groups but is left alone so that it can be compared to see what happened to the other groups that are tested.
- Data - the numbers and measurements you get from the test in a scientific experiment.
- Independent variable - a variable that you change as part of your experiment. It is important to only change one independent variable for each experiment.
- Dependent variable - a variable that changes when the independent variable is changed.
- Controlled Variable - these are variables that you never change in your experiment.
Practicing Observations and Wondering How and Why...
It is really hard not to notice things around us and wonder about them. This is how the scientific method begins, by observing and wondering why and how. Why do leaves on trees in many parts of the world turn from green to red, orange, or yellow and fall to the ground when winter comes? How does a spider move around their web without getting stuck like its victims? Both of these questions start with observing something and asking questions. The next time you see something and ask yourself, “I wonder why that does that, or how can it do that?” try out your new detective skills, and see what answer you can find.
Try Out Your Detective Skills
Now that you have the basics of the scientific method, why not test your skills? The Science Detectives Training Room will test your problem solving ability. Step inside and see if you can escape the room. While you are there, look around and see what other interesting things might be waiting. We think you find this game a great way to learn the scientific method. In fact, we bet you will discover that you already use the scientific method and didn't even know it.
After you've learned the basics of being a detective, practice those skills in The Case of the Mystery Images . While you are there, pay attention to what's around you as you figure out just what is happening in the mystery photos that surround you.
Ready for your next challenge? Try Science Detectives: Case of the Mystery Images for even more mysteries to solve. Take your scientific abilities one step further by making observations and formulating hypothesis about the mysterious images you find within.
Acknowledgements:
We thank John Alcock for his feedback and suggestions on this article.
Science Detectives - Mystery Room Escape was produced in partnership with the Arizona Science Education Collaborative (ASEC) and funded by ASU Women & Philanthropy.
Flashlight image via Wikimedia Commons - The Oxygen Team
Read more about: Using the Scientific Method to Solve Mysteries
View citation, bibliographic details:.
- Article: Using the Scientific Method to Solve Mysteries
- Author(s): CJ Kazilek and David Pearson
- Publisher: Arizona State University School of Life Sciences Ask A Biologist
- Site name: ASU - Ask A Biologist
- Date published: October 8, 2009
- Date accessed: August 8, 2024
- Link: https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/scientific-method
CJ Kazilek and David Pearson. (2009, October 08). Using the Scientific Method to Solve Mysteries . ASU - Ask A Biologist. Retrieved August 8, 2024 from https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/scientific-method
Chicago Manual of Style
CJ Kazilek and David Pearson. "Using the Scientific Method to Solve Mysteries ". ASU - Ask A Biologist. 08 October, 2009. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/scientific-method
MLA 2017 Style
CJ Kazilek and David Pearson. "Using the Scientific Method to Solve Mysteries ". ASU - Ask A Biologist. 08 Oct 2009. ASU - Ask A Biologist, Web. 8 Aug 2024. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/scientific-method
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The Scientific Method
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Scientific Method | Modules
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One of the most important things for new students to remember when they are trying to think like a scientist is to utilize the scientific method . This is a straightforward path of analysis that can help us solve tough problems or answer hard questions with a reliable and repeatable set-up. The scientific method helps scientists stay focused on their problem, gather various kinds of evidence, evaluate or analyze the evidence, and point to a possible solution. It also helps other scientists replicate or duplicate past studies to confirm or refute the analysis performed or the stated results.
The scientific method begins with observations and questions, which leads to research, hypotheses, and predictions. Once scientists have completed some observations and research, they often have specific questions (or hypotheses) they wish to test with experiments, models, or additional analysis (e.g., statistical). These tests or experiments are then completed, leading scientists to a final result or conclusion. Not all scientists will arrive at the same conclusion, even if they start from the same evidence and/or data, and the variety of conclusions can create some excellent discussions or debates.
Please explore the sections below on the importance and the use of the scientific method.
Learning Outcomes
After completing this online module, you should be able to:
- List and describe the general steps of the scientific method,
- Apply the scientific method critically in your academic work,
- Use the scientific method to ask critical and logical questions, and
- Design appropriate experiments.
The Scientific Method in a Nutshell
This video outlines and describes the inter-connections and flow of the Scientific Method within science, utilizing global climate change as our example, as it combines all the various science disciplines: Earth, Chemistry, Physics, and Biology.
Introduction
It can be challenging to understand all the Earth's processes and inter-workings because our planet is a dynamic body with many internal parts and a complex formation history. Throughout time, Earth has been experiencing continuous change, and this will continue into the foreseeable future. Occasionally, the changes are rapid and violent (e.g., earthquakes and volcanic eruptions); other times, they are small and slow (e.g., erosion and weathering). Scales of size, space, and time can vary greatly between the various phenomena found on our planet, further complicated by the addition of people and infrastructure.
A great deal of Earth Science and Geology is based on observing the Earth throughout time, and the changes and modifications it undergoes, and often requires expertise from many scientific and mathematic disciplines. It is the study of how the natural world works, how our environment affects us, and how we, in turn, affect the natural environment around us.
Earth and Environmental Science is part of the broader endeavor of SCIENCE, the systematic process for learning and testing our understanding of the world around us. The term SCIENCE also refers to the body of knowledge that arises from problem identification, observations, testing, and the discovery of new and exciting things. Earth and Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary field of study, incorporating concepts and techniques from other realms of science and technology.
Here is a quote from the late Carl Sagan:
“We've arranged a global civilization in which the most crucial elements – transportation, communications, and all other industries; agriculture, medicine, education, entertainment, protecting the environment; and even the key democratic institution of voting – profoundly depend on science and technology.” Sagan, C. (1997). The demon-haunted world: science as a candle in the dark. London: Headline.
Scientific ideas, methods, and knowledge evolve as new information and linkages are discovered, constantly pushing the discipline forward into new frontiers, and helping us avoid the mistakes of the past. Solutions to these new and old problems must be both global in scope, and sustainable over time, in order to be effective.
As we saw in the previous video, the scientific method involves several important and iterative steps:
Description © Course Author(s) and University of Waterloo, Macrostore/iStock/Getty Images (observations, questions, predictions, test and experiment, results and conclusions icon), fleaz/iStock/Getty Images (research and hypothesis icons)
Observations
All advances and studies in science begin with an observation of an interesting phenomenon or process that a scientist wishes to explain or understand more fully. Observations set the scientific method in motion and continue to be an important part of the entire procedure.
stockstudioX/E+/Getty Images
All scientists are naturally curious about the world around them, how it works, and why we observe what we do. Why are certain plants or animals more or less common than at previous times in Earth’s history? Is climate change increasing storms and flooding? What causes the explosive outbreak of toxic algae in Lake Erie each summer? These are all examples of questions Earth and Environmental Scientists ask and attempt to answer during their research.
Imgorthand/E+/Getty Images
As scientists begin to look at a research or scientific problem, they start by identifying the issue, observing the complexity or inter-connections of the issue, and then researching and explaining how these individual processes work. This starts to build the knowledge base a scientist needs in order to attempt to answer or solve a complex real world problem. For example, in order to discover if climate change is increasing the intensity of storms and flooding, research on effects on precipitation factors would need to be undertaken first.
wundervisuals/E+/Getty Images
Before completing any experiment, scientists attempt to answer their own question(s) by devising explanations or statements which can be tested. A hypothesis is an educated guess to explain a phenomenon or what might happen in an experiment. For example, a fresh water scientist looking at algae growth in Lake Erie might state a hypothesis such as:
"Increased use of agriculture fertilizer in overland flow and runoff has increased the volume of nutrients reaching Lake Erie, causing an increase in the development and life cycle of toxic algae."
kirin_photo/E+/Getty Images
INTERESTING FACT:
LEARNING CHECKPOINT 1
Try to answer some of these simple multiple choice questions based on the reading above.
Select which of the following statement(s) are observations:
A hypothesis is ________.
Scientists use hypotheses and observations to make a prediction which they can then test for accuracy. These predictions are statements which can be directly tested. In the previous example of algae growth in Lake Erie, a scientist could predict:
"The addition of nutrients from increased fertilizer runoff will directly increase the amount of algae found in a fresh water body."
This is something which can be directly tested in a controlled experiment to gain more knowledge on the process in question.
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Test and Experiment
Observations, hypotheses, and predictions are all assessed during the experimental phase of the scientific method. An experiment is specifically designed to test a hypothesis or prediction by manipulating a set of variables, and quantifying some answer or result after completion. Depending on the results, the experiment may support (or not) the original observations and hypotheses. Experiments can be either:
- a controlled or manipulative experiment (e.g. testing vegetation growth in a greenhouse), or
- a natural uncontrolled experiment (e.g. testing vegetation growth in an open field).
It is always important for the scientist to accurately describe the experiment and how it is set up and run, so that other scientists can attempt to replicate the results for future studies. An experiment will return information in the form of one (or both) types of data: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative data is often found in more social studies, but in general is data which cannot be easily expressed in numerical or statistical values (e.g., personal interviews, surveys, descriptive observations, etc.). Quantitative data is data which can be expressed with numerical or statistical values (e.g., temperature, speed, volume, mass, etc.).
Results and Conclusions
Once all experiments have been completed, the scientist can logically share their results and conclusions. This is often the form of a scientific research paper, published in an academic journal (e.g. Science, Nature, etc.) which takes the reader through the entire scientific method from start to finish. Experiments with results that support the hypotheses and observations can be explained and discussed, to show the inter-connections. However, experiments which fail to support a hypothesis are just as valid and useful, as it may force the scientist to rethink their understanding, change their hypothesis, and re-do the scientific method for a better result.
Fail to reject hypothesis. Test a new prediction .
Reject hypothesis. Test a new hypothesis .
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LEARNING CHECKPOINT 2
An experiment ________.
You are interested in studying the impact of fertilizer runoff into the environment and decide to conduct a laboratory experiment by observing fertilizer application in a greenhouse. This is an example of a_________.
Take it with You
Here are some questions you can take with you to think about the applications of the scientific method:
- What is the typical sequence of steps in the scientific method, using any real-world example? What is the difference between a manipulative experiment and a natural experiment? Can you provide examples of both?
- What has to happen to a scientist’s research before it is publishable? Why is this process important?
Additional Resources
To enhance your understanding of the scientific method, please have a look at these resources:
- The Teacher’s Pet: The scientific method (YouTube, 4:05)
- Khan Academy: The scientific method (YouTube, 11:48)
- Withgott, J.; Laposata, M.; Murck, B. (2017). Environment: the science behind the stories. (Third Canadian edition). (Chapters 1 and 2). New Jersey, USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
This module has been developed by Dr. Keith Delaney in cooperation with the University of Waterloo Centre for Extended Learning, the Faculty of Science, and the Earth and Environmental Sciences department.
Image Citations
- Banner image courtesy of Man As Thep/iStock/Getty Images.
- Picture frames courtesy of BoxerX/iStock/Getty Images.
- Brain with bulbs courtesy of Polar_lights/iStock/Getty Images.
- Stack of books courtesy of Sonya_illustration/iStock/Getty Images.
Scientific Method: What it is, How to Use It: Scientific Method
- Scientific Method
- Step 1: Question
- Step 2: Research
- Step 3: Hypothesis
- Step 4: Experiment
- Step 5: Data
- Step 6: Conclusion
What is the Scientific Method?
The scientific method is a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results. Does this mean all scientists follow this exact process? No. Some areas of science can be more easily tested than others.
For example, scientists studying how stars change as they age or how dinosaurs digested their food cannot fast-forward a star's life by a million years or run medical exams on feeding dinosaurs to test their hypotheses. When direct experimentation is not possible, scientists modify the scientific method. In fact, there are probably as many versions of the scientific method as there are scientists!
But even when modified, the goal remains the same: to discover cause and effect relationships by asking questions, carefully gathering and examining the evidence, and seeing if all the available information can be combined in to a logical answer.
The Four Factors of Conducting Good Scientific Research
- Replication
- Falsifiable
- Parsimonious
1. Research must be Replicable, meaning that other researchers must be able to repeat the study and get the same results. This is why in a scientific study, researchers take the time not only to describe their results but also the methods they used to achieve their results.
As scientists do their research and make sure that it's replicable, they'll develop a theory and translate that theory into a hypothesis. A Hypothesis is a testable prediction of what will happen given a certain set of conditions. A good theory must do two things: organize many observations in a logical way and allow researchers to come up with clear predictions to check the theory.
A good theory or hypothesis also must be Falsifiable , which means that it must be stated in a way that makes it possible to reject it. In other words, we have to be able to prove a theory or hypothesis wrong.
Theories and hypotheses need to be falsifiable because otherwise research will present confirmation bias. Researchers who display Confirmation Bias look for and accept evidence that supports what they want to believe and ignore or reject evidence that refutes their beliefs.
Falsifiability doesn’t mean that there are currently arguments against a theory, only that it is possible to imagine some kind of argument which would invalidate it. Falsifiability says nothing about an argument's inherent validity or correctness. It is only the basic requirement of a theory which allows it to be considered scientific. An important note however, is that falsifiability is not simply any claim that has yet to be proven true.
- Does Science Need Falsifiability? An article by Kate Becker in PBS's Nova explains the value and necessity of making scientific research falsifiable.
By stating hypotheses precisely, scientists ensure that they can replicate their own and others’ research. To make hypotheses more precise, researchers use operational definitions to define the variables they study. Operational Definitions state exactly how a variable will be measured.
Precision and accuracy are two ways that scientists think about error. Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value. Precision refers to how close measurements of the same item are to each other. Precision is independent of accuracy which means it is possible to be very precise but not very accurate , and it is also possible to be accurate without being precise. The best quality scientific observations are both accurate and precise.
The easiest way to illustrate the difference between precision and accuracy is with the analogy of a dartboard.
- In example A, the darts are neither close to the bulls-eye, nor close to each other, meaning there is neither accuracy, nor precision.
- In example B, all of the darts land very close together, but far from the bulls-eye. There is precision, but not accuracy
- In example C, the darts are all about an equal distance from and spaced equally around the bulls-eye there is accuracy because the average of the darts would be in the bulls-eye. This represents data that is accurate, but not precise.
- In example D, the darts land close to the bulls-eye and close together. Meaning there is both accuracy and precision.
Parsimonious means “being thrifty or stingy.” A person who values parsimony will apply the thriftiest or most logically economical explanation for a set of phenomena.
The Principle Of Parsimony , also called Occam’s Razor , maintains that researchers should apply the simplest explanation possible to any set of observations. For instance, scientists try to explain results by using well-accepted theories instead of elaborate new hypotheses. Parsimony prevents researchers from inventing and pursuing outlandish theories.
What Parsimony means in practice is we should go with the weight of the evidence available to us. This will probably seem very obvious, but in practice it is essential that we have a philosophically justified method of choosing between explanations of our data. After all, when there is good evidence to support one idea and only slightly less good evidence to support another – can you really chose between them? Well, yes. You *MUST* take number 1.
Scientific Method (Infographic)
Scientific Method (Video)
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The six steps of the scientific method include: 1) asking a question about something you observe, 2) doing background research to learn what is already known about the topic, 3) constructing a hypothesis, 4) experimenting to test the hypothesis, 5) analyzing the data from the experiment and drawing conclusions, and 6) communicating the results ...
The scientific method is a system scientists and other people use to ask and answer questions about the natural world. In a nutshell, the scientific method works by making observations, asking a question or identifying a problem, and then designing and analyzing an experiment to test a prediction of what you expect will happen. ... Research the ...
The scientific method is a systematic process involving steps like defining questions, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analyzing data. It minimizes biases and enables replicable research, leading to groundbreaking discoveries like Einstein's theory of relativity, penicillin, and the structure of DNA.
The scientific method is a process that includes several steps: First, an observation or question arises about a phenomenon. Then a hypothesis is formulated to explain the phenomenon, which is used to make predictions about other related occurrences or to predict the results of new observations quantitatively. Finally, these predictions are put to the test through experiments or further ...
Regina Bailey. Updated on August 16, 2024. The scientific method is a series of steps that scientific investigators follow to answer specific questions about the natural world. Scientists use the scientific method to make observations, formulate hypotheses, and conduct scientific experiments . A scientific inquiry starts with an observation.
scientific method, mathematical and experimental technique employed in the sciences. More specifically, it is the technique used in the construction and testing of a scientific hypothesis. The process of observing, asking questions, and seeking answers through tests and experiments is not unique to any one field of science.
Steps of the Scientific Method Key Info • The scientific method is a way to ask and answer scientific questions by making observations and doing experiments. • The steps of the scientific method are to: o Ask a Question o Do Background Research o Construct a Hypothesis o Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment o Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion
The number of steps in the scientific method can vary from one description to another (which mainly happens when data and analysis are separated into separate steps), however, below is a fairly standard list of the six steps you'll likely be expected to know for any science class: Purpose/Question. Ask a question. Research.
INTRODUCTION. Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses.1,2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results.3,4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the ...
When conducting research, the scientific method steps to follow are: Observe what you want to investigate. Ask a research question and make predictions. Test the hypothesis and collect data. Examine the results and draw conclusions. Report and share the results. This process not only allows scientists to investigate and understand different ...
The first question asks for a ready-made solution, and is not focused or researchable. The second question is a clearer comparative question, but note that it may not be practically feasible. For a smaller research project or thesis, it could be narrowed down further to focus on the effectiveness of drunk driving laws in just one or two countries.
The scientific method. At the core of biology and other sciences lies a problem-solving approach called the scientific method. The scientific method has five basic steps, plus one feedback step: Make an observation. Ask a question. Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation. Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
Research: looking for answers to questions using tools like the scientific method. ... No matter what the question, you can use the scientific method to guide you towards an answer. Even those questions that do not seem to be scientific can be solved using this process. Like with the flashlight, you might need to repeat several of the elements ...
The scientific method begins with observations and questions, which leads to research, hypotheses, and predictions. Once scientists have completed some observations and research, they often have specific questions (or hypotheses) they wish to test with experiments, models, or additional analysis (e.g., statistical).
The scientific method is a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results. Does this mean all scientists follow this exact process?No. Some areas of science can be more easily tested than others. For example, scientists studying how stars change as they age or how dinosaurs digested their food cannot fast-forward a star ...
The scientific method is a framework of techniques and questions that scientists use to investigate phenomena with the aim of making scientific discoveries simple and reproducible. It's been loosely observed by experimenters going as far back as the 4th century BC, but the first properly formalized scientific method was coined during the ...
The one we typically learn about in school is the basic method, based in logic and problem solving, typically used in "hard" science fields like biology, chemistry, and physics. It may vary in other fields, such as psychology, but the basic premise of making observations, testing, and continuing to improve a theory from the results remain ...
The scientific method is a procedure that the scientists use to conduct research. Scientific investigators play a crucial role in following a series of steps such as asking questions, setting hypothesis to answer questions, performing multiple experiments to confirm the reliability of data/ results, data collection and interpretation, and ...
Step 4: Peer Review, Publication, and Replication. Scientists share the results of their research by publishing articles in scientific journals, such as Science and Nature.Reputable journals and publishing houses will not publish an experimental study until they have determined its methods are scientifically rigorous and the conclusions are supported by evidence.
The six steps of the scientific method are as follows: 1. Come Up with a Question, 2. Gather Background Research, 3. Make a Hypothesis, 4. Design an Experiment, 5. Analyze the Data, and 6. Form a ...
Step 1: QUESTION. The first step of the scientific method is the "Question." This step may also be referred to as the "Problem." Your question should be worded so that it can be answered through experimentation. Keep your question concise and clear so that everyone knows what you are trying to solve.
The Scientific Process. Scientists use a dynamic, open-ended process to investigate questions. Here are the five steps. 1. Define a Question to Investigate. As scientists conduct their research, they make observations and collect data. The observations and data often lead them to ask why something is the way it is.
The scientific method involves making observations and asking questions. Scientists form hypotheses based on these observations and then develop controlled experiments to collecting and analyze data. Using this data, they are able to draw conclusions and form questions for new scientific research. Scientific method example: Failure to toast.
Discuss the article and questions with your class on your virtual platform. I. Define scientific questions. 1. What is a question and what is the purpose of asking one? A question is a request for ...