Identify
Explore
Discover
Discuss
Summarise
Describe
Last, format your objectives into a numbered list. This is because when you write your thesis or dissertation, you will at times need to make reference to a specific research objective; structuring your research objectives in a numbered list will provide a clear way of doing this.
To bring all this together, let’s compare the first research objective in the previous example with the above guidance:
Research Objective:
1. Develop finite element models using explicit dynamics to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion, initially using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum.
Checking Against Recommended Approach:
Q: Is it specific? A: Yes, it is clear what the student intends to do (produce a finite element model), why they intend to do it (mimic cup/shell blows) and their parameters have been well-defined ( using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum ).
Q: Is it measurable? A: Yes, it is clear that the research objective will be achieved once the finite element model is complete.
Q: Is it achievable? A: Yes, provided the student has access to a computer lab, modelling software and laboratory data.
Q: Is it relevant? A: Yes, mimicking impacts to a cup/shell is fundamental to the overall aim of understanding how they deform when impacted upon.
Q: Is it timebound? A: Yes, it is possible to create a limited-scope finite element model in a relatively short time, especially if you already have experience in modelling.
Q: Does it start with a verb? A: Yes, it starts with ‘develop’, which makes the intent of the objective immediately clear.
Q: Is it a numbered list? A: Yes, it is the first research objective in a list of eight.
1. making your research aim too broad.
Having a research aim too broad becomes very difficult to achieve. Normally, this occurs when a student develops their research aim before they have a good understanding of what they want to research. Remember that at the end of your project and during your viva defence , you will have to prove that you have achieved your research aims; if they are too broad, this will be an almost impossible task. In the early stages of your research project, your priority should be to narrow your study to a specific area. A good way to do this is to take the time to study existing literature, question their current approaches, findings and limitations, and consider whether there are any recurring gaps that could be investigated .
Note: Achieving a set of aims does not necessarily mean proving or disproving a theory or hypothesis, even if your research aim was to, but having done enough work to provide a useful and original insight into the principles that underlie your research aim.
Be realistic about what you can achieve in the time you have available. It is natural to want to set ambitious research objectives that require sophisticated data collection and analysis, but only completing this with six months before the end of your PhD registration period is not a worthwhile trade-off.
Each research objective should have its own purpose and distinct measurable outcome. To this effect, a common mistake is to form research objectives which have large amounts of overlap. This makes it difficult to determine when an objective is truly complete, and also presents challenges in estimating the duration of objectives when creating your project timeline. It also makes it difficult to structure your thesis into unique chapters, making it more challenging for you to write and for your audience to read.
Fortunately, this oversight can be easily avoided by using SMART objectives.
Hopefully, you now have a good idea of how to create an effective set of aims and objectives for your research project, whether it be a thesis, dissertation or research paper. While it may be tempting to dive directly into your research, spending time on getting your aims and objectives right will give your research clear direction. This won’t only reduce the likelihood of problems arising later down the line, but will also lead to a more thorough and coherent research project.
Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.
Join thousands of students.
Join thousands of other students and stay up to date with the latest PhD programmes, funding opportunities and advice.
Statistics By Jim
Making statistics intuitive
By Jim Frost 5 Comments
Qualitative research aims to understand ideas, experiences, and opinions using non-numeric data, such as text, audio, and visual recordings. The focus is on language, behaviors, and social structures. Qualitative researchers want to present personal experiences and produce narrative stories that use natural language to provide meaningful answers to their research questions.
Qualitative research focuses on descriptions, opinions, and experiences rather than numbers. Standard data collection techniques include interviews, diaries, focus groups, documents, artifacts, and direct observations.
Qualitative research provides a sharp contrast to quantitative research, which uses numeric data and statistical analyses to understand a concrete reality. The vast majority of content on my website is about quantitative research and statistical analyses. However, there are areas where qualitative research is more effective at understanding dynamic social structures and subjective perceptions in a real-world that can be convoluted.
Psychologists created qualitative research because the traditional methods failed to understand the human experience. Consequently, they developed a naturalistic approach that focuses on human behavior, what gives people meaning, how they perceive things, and why they act in a particular manner. This process involves understanding the people in their natural settings and social interactions.
Psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, and history frequently use qualitative research. Marketing groups also use it to understand how real people use their products, what factors increase usage, and obstacles that reduce usage. Ultimately, they want to market their products better, which requires understanding consumer mindsets.
Qualitative research can answer a wide range of questions. Below are six example research questions.
Learn how to create research questions for scientific studies .
The researchers embed themselves in the daily lives of their subjects and their social groups. Their goal is to understand their habits, routines, beliefs, and challenges.
For an excellent guide to observing participants in the field, read Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector’s Field Guide [external PDF].
An alternative qualitative approach is to interview several subjects in-depth, gather documents, and collect artifacts. The researchers then piece these multiple lines of evidence together to create a narrative that answers the research question.
Qualitative researchers can study an event as it happens from different vantage points. For instance, they can conduct interviews, record videos, and directly observe the proceedings to understand the participants’ subjective experiences.
This form of qualitative research differs from most other methods. The researchers start with a qualitative dataset and then sort through these data, tagging concepts and ideas. As the study continues, they organize and group the conceptual tags. During this process, the researchers watch for hypotheses to emerge. This method seeks to let the scientists organically react to the dataset but yet ground the results in as much empirical data as possible.
A case study usually examines one subject in great detail. The subject can be a person, business, or other organization. The goal is to understand the subject as much as possible and use that information to understand the larger population to some extent. This qualitative research method can foster understanding of the motivations, influences, and factors that lead to success or failure. Learn more about What is a Case Study? Definition & Examples .
Below are the standard data collection methods for qualitative research. Studies can combine multiple methods.
After collecting their data, qualitative researchers have multiple ways to analyze the content. A common approach is to add codes that represent meaningful ideas to communications, documents, videos, etc. The researchers evaluate frequencies and patterns of these conceptual codes. They can also find the most common words, thematic patterns, communications structure, and the method by which communications obtain specific goals. Analysts refer to these approaches with names such as content analysis, thematic analysis, textual analysis, etc.
Qualitative research has many advantages because it seeks to record the subjects’ lived experiences and understand them in ways that quantitative data cannot. Going beyond just the numbers, they can gain insights into opinions, emotions, and perceptions. These studies frequently occur in natural environments and real-world social contexts rather than labs and other artificial environments that might affect the participants, particularly when talking about personal matters.
Unlike quantitative research, qualitative methods are flexible. Researchers can change their methodology and theories as they gather information. The open-ended nature of qualitative research allows the researchers to uncover new ideas they hadn’t anticipated and adjust accordingly.
However, qualitative research has some disadvantages.
Its primary disadvantage is that it is more subjective than quantitative research. It’s harder to separate the researchers’ opinions and predilections from the more personal nature of qualitative data. Determining what concepts to code and when to apply those codes can be highly subjective. Flexibly adapting the research on the fly can be great, but it also increases the prominence of the researcher’s personal determination of relevance.
Furthermore, consider how ordinary people can observe the same reality in all its real-world messiness and draw different conclusions. Similarly, qualitative researchers can evaluate the same real-world data and produce dissimilar findings.
Qualitative research typically uses small samples that are less likely to be representative , which limits generalizability . Finally, as with other types of observational studies , the real-world settings in qualitative research can be an advantage, but they potentially introduce a host of confounding variables that can bias the results.
August 1, 2023 at 10:42 am
If qualitative data is counted in categorical, ordinal, or binary forms does it become quantitative data?
January 2, 2023 at 11:27 am
Who are the actual people at the foundations of qualitative research as we know it? We know they are generally psychologists, like creswell who seems to have updated a but for the modern era, but who stands out the most in research throughout the age of qualitative research?
November 22, 2022 at 11:04 am
Have you publish on qualitative methods and surveys?
November 22, 2022 at 4:19 pm
I haven’t as of yet. Probably down the road, particularly for surveys.
April 23, 2022 at 2:16 pm
Can regression results from another study be used for my data collection, as a form of secondary data? I believe that the regression results are important to my study, but I don’t know if “results” from another study, specifically taken from their appendix table can be pasted into my “data collection section” of my research paper. I wish to employ a grounded theory research methodology that is mixed methods in approach, because I can apply regression analysis to the regression results, but I question the possibility of doing this for my data collection section.
BMC Medical Education volume 24 , Article number: 1033 ( 2024 ) Cite this article
Metrics details
Inquiry-based learning (IBL) is a type of problem-based learning. While IBL aims at reflecting the work of practicing researchers, only some students will pursue an academic career. We therefore designed a course that provides opportunities for IBL by applying participant observation to internship work experience inside and outside academia. Using this internship course as an example, we investigated, how master’s students in health science executed an IBL assignment regarding the application of participant observation and presentation of findings. In addition, the understanding of occupational fields provided through the IBL assignment was examined.
To determine whether learning objectives were met, a document analysis of IBL assignments comprising presentation slides and field protocols was performed. Within content analysis, a category grid was used examining (a) suitability of chosen research objectives , (b) execution of field protocols , (c) sufficiency of reporting and (d) extent of reflection .
49 IBL assignments from the years 2020–2022 were included. Sides of IBL observations were: (a) organizations providing health care ( n = 28); (b) administrations of health care ( n = 8); and (c) research institutes ( n = 13). Within students’ field protocols, the level of detail of descriptions differed. 30 assignments included reflection on the methods used and research experience. In about a third of IBL assignments, indication of observation type, theoretical background and data analysis was missing.
Using participant observation of internship work-experience for IBL can serve as a teaching tool for students to develop methodological skills. For future courses, we developed a checklist to strengthen reporting, reflection and use of theory. As internships are often integrated in degree programs in health sciences similar courses could be implemented in different programs, given qualified methodological guidance.
Peer Review reports
IBL is a type of problem-based learning in which students apply methods comparable to those of professional researchers in the respective field [ 1 ]. Across disciplines, inquiry-based learning (IBL) is considered an effective way for students to learn through self-directed investigation. Students take an active role while teachers primarily serve as facilitators rather than traditional lecturers. As a basic principle, IBL requires a learning environment that divides the scientific process into smaller units to guide students and draw their attention to specific aspects of scientific thinking. Depending on intended learning outcomes, students’ skills and interests as well as curricula requirements, formats might vary regarding suitable topics’ suitability, comprehensiveness of the learning tasks, teachers’ guidance’ and students’ autonomy (e.g. regarding provision of questions, methods and materials) [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. In higher education, IBL has been shown to be beneficial for developing students’ inquiry skills and for improving their engagement, motivation and performance [ 5 ]. In addition, it helps students to develop skills for working in complex and unpredictable environments, enhancing critical thinking, [ 6 , 7 ]. However, despite the benefits of using IBL, it is still relatively uncommon in higher education [ 5 ].
While IBL aims at reflecting the work of practicing researchers, only some students in health-related courses will pursue an academic career. Work experience, in contrast, aims at applying academic skills to real world work settings offering students insights for the remaining studies and preparing them for the job market after graduation. Participant observation as an ethnographic method based on field work can serve as a method providing both: (a) an opportunity to apply research methods and (b) establish an in-depth understanding of occupational fields. Overall, within health sciences, the potential of participant observation is being increasingly discussed, stressing the benefits to investigate on actual practice itself, instead of indirect questionnaire or interview-accounts, [ 8 , 9 ]. In addition, ethnographic methods can contribute to narrowing the distance between theoretical knowledge and everyday practice in health service research [ 10 ]. Traditionally associated with lengthy presence and intense participation in day-to-day-life to gain holistic insights into the habits of a collective, within health sciences ethnographic data collection is often condensed to gain insights in specific sites or situations [ 11 , 12 ].
Besides general characteristics of scientific practice, learning objectives of IBL assignments based on participant observation have to address specific methodological features: Based on research literature and experience, the following learning objectives can be defined: (a) Research objectives: Participant observation is suitable for research projects seeking to understand participants’ behaviour, interactions and practices in particular situations. It requires settings where direct observations and some degree of participation are sensible. (b) Field protocols: Sound results presume field notes comprising thorough documentation with detailed accounts, separation of description and interpretation and continuing reflection. (c) Presentation of results: These aspects have to be sufficiently reported. (d) Reflection: Reflection of research experience is an inherent part of both IBL and participant observation. For these learning objectives to be met, they have to be aligned with teaching and learning activities and assessment tasks (constructive alignment) [ 13 ].
Using an internship course of a masters’ program in health services research as an example, we aimed to analyze how students executed an IBL assignment with regards to the application of participant observation and presentation of findings. In addition, we aimed to examine the understanding of occupational fields provided through the IBL assignment.
Reflecting the explorative nature of the research aim, a qualitative research design was chosen comprising a document analysis of exam presentation slides and corresponding field protocols. Documents created as part of an educational process can provide empirical insights into the learning experience [ 14 ]. Our analysis is based on exam papers as anonymized aggregated data. The study aims at improving the quality of teaching and learning. With enrolment, students confirm in writing, that study data can be used for administrative and evaluative purposes. In additionethics approval for this study was granted by the Ethics Committee of the Medical Faculty of Heidelberg, Germany (S012/2016). Methods were reported according to the Checklist for the use and reporting of document analysis in health professions education research (CARDA) [ 14 ].
All IBL assignments handed in by students after 2020 were eligible for inclusion, as the curriculum was modified in 2019. Initially collected within the study program for quality management purposes, all data were electronically filed and stored on secure servers at the Department of General Practice and Health Services Research, Heidelberg University Hospital, Germany.
Data analysis focused on content using a category grid reflecting learning objectives and general internship characteristics. This deductive approach of allocating data to pre-identified themes was complemented by inductively adding sub-themes throughout data analysis. To determine whether learning objectives were met, we examined; (a) suitability of chosen research objectives in terms of observable (inter)actions, (b) execution of field protocols in terms of detail and separation of description and analysis, (c) sufficiency of presentation in terms of reporting as well as (d) extent of reflection in terms of internship and research experience. Data were analyzed by three researchers (AA, NK, CU), with prior experience in qualitative methods. Derived themes were discussed and consented regularly within the research team (AA, NK, CU, SZ). Extracted data were analyzed and reported as absolute frequencies. The software package MAXQDA, Analytics Pro 2020 was used for data management and to facilitate coding. No automation or AI tools were used.
The IBL course, which is offered each year and was first taught in 2016, was designed for a master’s degree program in health services research and implementation science at Heidelberg University, Germany. The consecutive master’s program comprises two academic years, corresponding to 120 ECTS credit points (CP), which are equivalent to 3600 h of total student workload. The goal of the master’s degree is to train students at an advanced level of health sciences including empirical research methods. A bachelor’s degree from within health science and a proof of basic skills (180 h/6 CP) in research methods are required for entering the master’s program. However, at the time of entering the program, skills in qualitative research varied and were almost exclusively limited to qualitative interviews. The masters’ program accepts 20 students per year. About 1/3 of the students are trained within a health care profession.
Objectives of the course, which was designed as both an internship accompanying seminar and IBL course, were: (a) providing an opportunity to learn research skills in using (participant) observation as a qualitative research method and (b) establishing an in-depth understanding of occupational fields in health care.
The IBL course was taught by three teachers with a background in health services research and interdisciplinary anthropology (SZ), psychology (NK) and sociology (CU) respectively. Participant observations was introduced in a mandatory 90-minute class (SZ) highlighting its historical origin within anthropology, basic ideas of ethnography, characteristics and reach of participant observation. For writing up field notes towards field protocols, a three-column chart was recommended to distinguish observations and analysis, comprising a) a detailed description of observations, b) analytical notes , documenting the reactions, questions, interpretations and ideas of the researcher c) themes/codes derived from a first round of open coding. Prompts for fieldnotes (e.g., description of situations and participants’, communication styles) and examples for the three-column chart were provided.
The IBL course comprises a 7-week-long work placement accompanied by on-going monthly complementary classes. The total course credit sums up to 12 CP (360 h) including: (a) 280 h internship (b) attending four mandatory classes including the introduction, (c) assignments of keeping a field diary and documentation of three observations and (d) exam: 10–15 min oral presentation and following discussion (see Table 1 ). Students were asked to meet up with one of the teachers at least once to determine a suitable research focus. The course was designed as a pass-fail course; therefore, no mark was given.
In total, 49 IBL assignments from four cohorts (defined by the year students were enrolled in the master’s program) of the years 2020–2022 were included (see Table 2 ). This corresponds to all presentations held during that time. Within two assignments field protocols were missing. Nonetheless, these could be included in the analysis, since the presentations comprised sufficient extracts of the field protocols. Variation in numbers of course participants were related to part-time students. Presentations typically included 15 slides, field protocols on average two to four pages per observation. All presentations and field protocols were in German, the main language of instruction within the master’s program. Of the students providing the presentation, five of the 49 were male and about a third had a professional background in health care, mirroring the general characteristics of the student population. Internship length was 140 to 280 h, either fulfilled over three to eight weeks full-time or part-time over a period of several months.
For the IBL assignment, most students selected internship experience ( n = 40); the remaining students ( n = 9) selected their professional employment in health care. Work places were (a) organizations providing health care ( n = 28), including nursing homes ( n = 2) and hospitals ( n = 26), of which 22 were university hospitals; (b) other organizations in health care ( n = 8), such as government departments and health insurances and (c) research institutes ( n = 13), mostly universities ( n = 8). The focus of work experiences reflected these employer types to some extent: Most students were mainly involved in research activities ( n = 31), such as literature reviews, developing questionnaires and interview guides, data analysis and overall research management. Some students ( n = 5) were involved in academic teaching, mainly in the role of (assistant) teachers. Provision of health care ( n = 4) included assisting nursing and patient involvement. Administrative tasks ( n = 8) included preparation of meetings and reports, often based on literature research.
A research objective was specified in all presentations, most addressed either communication in videoconferences, e.g., concerning active participation or technical difficulties ( n = 14) or some aspect of research practice ( n = 11), e.g., conducting interviews. Further objectives included patient care ( n = 7), teaching ( n = 4) and handling of Covid-19 regulations ( n = 4) (see Table 3 : section A). Observation settings were largely either virtual ( n = 20) or face-to-face meetings ( n = 23), with two observations of telephone conversation and four with mixed settings. Research participants varied and often included a mix of people: Researchers were observed most often ( n = 29), followed by health care providers ( n = 16) and patients/relatives ( n = 11). In 35 cases, observing students included themselves in the descriptions.
Most protocolled observations within reports included room description ( n = 45), most contained direct quotes ( n = 42), some used description of persons ( n = 12) and a few comprised sketches and/or pictures of places observed ( n = 4) (see Table 3 : section B). Overall, detail of description varied, ranging from rather abstract monosyllabic reports with little situation-specific portrayal to comprehensive, in-depth reports with lively accounts. Within all reports ( n = 49), anonymization was used, primarily employing pseudonyms for people observed. However, the degree of anonymization differed, some omitting indicating professions, gender and employment titles and some masking identifying characteristics of employers. While anonymization did not limit documenting observation within most reports, observations were reduced to mere generic enumeration of events in a few exceptional ones. For structuring field protocols all students used the suggested columns to separate observations and analytical notes ( n = 49). All but one also included the third column on emerging codes and themes. The level of detail within columns and accuracy of separation differed.
All IBL assignments included a description of the characteristics of the employer and information on the work activities ( n = 49) (see Table 3 : section C). Most presentations ( n = 39) included literature-based background informationon communication and use of online meetings ( n = 16), challenges in health care ( n = 7), good research practice and scientific integrity ( n = 7), organization and management ( n = 5) or the impact of Covid-19 regulations ( n = 2). Some students explicitly listed theoretical concepts used ( n = 15), which were mostly communication or organizational theories.
Most ( n = 39) presentations included a description of data conduction: The majority was based on participant observation ( n = 30), often using open observation ( n = 16). Overall, methods of data analysis were sparsely reported ( n = 34): General description of data analysis without references to theoretical or methodological schools or authors ( n = 16) usually shortly indicated whether themes/codes were derived inductively and/or deductively. For describing methods of data conduction and data analysis, recommended readings of the IBL course ( n = 18) and/or the overall master’s’ course ( n = 14) were often used. 27 did not refer to methodological literature at all.
All presentations ( n = 49) included some kind of conclusion addressing results, reflections and/or recommendations. Most students discussed their observations on the content level ( n = 34) providing primarily neutral descriptions. This was discernible when students were reporting on “general conditions, settings and factors” ( n = 11) or “factors influencing virtual and face-to-face meetings” ( n = 10). Many students addressed the meaning of their findings in relation to the observed participants ( n = 19) and stated that certain communication strategies ( n = 7) or coping strategies and leadership behavior ( n = 6) could be instructive for them at future work places. Only the minority of students discussed their results on a personal level ( n = 7), and most of them valued the internship combined with the participant observation assessment as an exciting and stimulating experience ( n = 4) which made them aware of new career prospects ( n = 2). Only one student reported that she experienced the internship as a “one-sided activity” ( n = 1).
Reflection on the methods and research experience were part of most presentations ( n = 30) (see Table 3 : section D). Predominantly mentioned topics were observer roles, field access and participants’ consent. The first topic ( n = 23) included problematizations of observing while participating and the risk of overidentifying with observed people’s perspectives (“going native”) as well as observer bias due to previous experience within the field. Additionally, students saw challenges in cases where they perceived that there were too many or too few people and/or interactions accessible for observation. Field access and identification of observable situations ( n = 12) largely referred to limitations within home-office-settings and online-meetings. Reflections on informed consent ( n = 10) addressed the extent of consent, e.g., when, and how many times the student’s own role as researcher should be thematized, whom to inform, and how to handle confidentiality agreements regarding internship content. In addition, some students reflected on difficulties in determining a research focus ( n = 5).
The objective of the IBL assignment and reflection of the internship experience point to an in-depth understanding of the studied participants’ perspectives. In addressing communication and work-culture, participant observation allowed students to investigate how everyday experiences are shaped by institutional contexts. This confirms results of a study on patient shadowing as a teaching tool in premedical undergraduate education [ 17 ] and findings of a participant observations exercise within a medical students’ course on health care for refugees [ 18 ]. This highlights the potential of observations as a data collection method to understand often tacit and hidden rules that influence health care, as it is currently thematized under the term “institutional ethnography” [ 19 , 20 ].
All students embraced the IBL assignment of using participant observation taking up recommended readings and suggested strategies, e.g., the three-column chart, writing a detailed, concrete description and using direct quotes for more vividness. Students addressed significant methodological topics in ethnographic research, such as finding a focus, field access, the observer role and participants’ consent. However, reporting on some methodological aspects was incomplete: Most notably, about a third of the IBL assignments lacked indication of observation type, theoretical background and strategy of data analysis. These results show parallels to findings on reporting quality in the health sciences [ 21 , 22 ] and, in particular, difficulties regarding data analysis and relation to theory [ 23 ].
A meta-analysis of 72 studies suggested that adequate guidance to assist learners is essential to successful inquiry-based learning [ 2 ]. At the same time, there is a need to create a learning environment that allows the freedom to examine a topic independently [ 1 , 5 ]. The discussed assignment was limited to a section of the research process, focusing on formulating an initial research question, documenting three singular observations and reporting of first findings. Students were provided an introductory course, counseling and methodological prompts and references. Completed assignments and students’ feedback suggest that scope, time frame and workload of the assignment were suitable and guidance concerning field protocols sufficient. However, guidance regarding content of the presentation should be specified, highlighting reporting, reflection and the use of theoretical knowledge. Based on these noted discrepancies with recommended research practices and teaching objectives, we developed a checklist for future sources for students as a scaffold to address these topics more explicitly (see supplementary material 1 ) [ 24 ].
This study was limited to one masters’ program only; however, the diverse students’ backgrounds and skills, point to transferability of results. Data of this study were limited to written assignments, wherefore, additional aspects only presented orally were not included. From our experience, discussions in class were often more direct in addressing good scientific practice and work culture. Feedback from teachers often highlighted methodological reflections and the importance of separating normative evaluation from the description. The course was designed as a pass-fail course without specific grades. This setup could have influenced students’ performance either by allowing more freedom and self-direction or by limiting motivation and effort. Additionally, most students took the IBL course as one of the last assignments of the master’s program, often parallel to starting the master’s thesis. This, too, could have influenced motivation and performance.
Our study has shown, that the use of participant observation is not restricted to learning a scientific practice in a narrow sense. It can also provide students a better understanding of organizational culture and hierarchies of potential future work places within and beyond an academic career in health care. Participant observation is a flexible research strategy which is highly adaptable to (changing) research objectives and field settings – within IBL it is also adaptable concerning comprehensiveness of the learning task. As internships are often an inherent part of degree programs in health sciences, given qualified methodological guidance, similar courses could be implemented in other educational programs.
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Credit Points within the ECTS, 1 CP = 30h workload
European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System
Pedaste M, Mäeots M, Siiman LA, de Jong T, van Riesen SAN, Kamp ET, Tsourlidaki E. Phases of inquiry-based learning: definitions and the inquiry cycle. Educational Res Rev. 2015;14:47–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.02.003 .
Article Google Scholar
Lazonder AW, Harmsen R. Meta-analysis of Inquiry-based learning: effects of Guidance. Rev Educ Res. 2016;86(3):681–718. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315627366 .
Willison J. Research skill development spanning higher education: critiques, curricula and connections. J Univ Teach Learn Pract. 2018;15:2–16. https://doi.org/10.53761/1.15.4.1 .
Willison J, Peirce E, Al-Sarawi S, Donnelly F, Ricci M, Ng B. Handbook for research skill development and assessment in the curriculum. University of Adelaide; 2020.
Kori K. Inquiry-based learning in Higher Education. In: Vaz C, de Carvalho, Bauters M, editors. Technology supported active learning: student-centered approaches. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2021. pp. 59–74.
Chapter Google Scholar
Suárez Á, Specht M, Prinsen F, Kalz M, Ternier S. A review of the types of mobile activities in mobile inquiry-based learning. Comput Educ. 2018;118:38–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.11.004 .
Fan JY, Ye JH. The effectiveness of inquiry and practice during roject design courses at a technology university. Front Psychol. 2022;13:859164. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.859164 .
Cupit C, Mackintosh N, Armstrong N. Using ethnography to study improving healthcare: reflections on the ‘ethnographic’ label. BMJ Qual Saf. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjqs-2017-007599 .
Dixon-Woods M. What can ethnography do for quality and safety in health care? Qual Saf Health Care. 2003;12(5):326–7. https://doi.org/10.1136/qhc.12.5.326 .
Cubellis L, Schmid C, von Peter S. Ethnography in Health Services Research: Oscillation between Theory and Practice. Qual Health Res. 2021;31(11):2029–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/10497323211022312 .
Cruz EV, H. G. The use of focused ethnography in nursing research. Nurse Res. 2013;20(4):36–43.
Vindrola-Padros C, Vindrola-Padros B. Quick and dirty? A systematic review of the use of rapid ethnographies in healthcare organisation and delivery. BMJ Qual Saf. 2018;27(4):321–30.
Biggs J, Tang C, Kennedy G. Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Berkshire: Open University Press/McGraw Hill; 2023.
Google Scholar
Cleland J, MacLeod A, Ellaway RH. CARDA: guiding document analyses in health professions education research. Med Educ. 2023;57(5):406–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.14964 . Epub 2022 Nov 17. PMID: 36308050.
Emerson RM, Fretz RI, Shaw LL. Writing ethnographic fieldnotes. ed.). Chicago [u.a.]: Univ. of Chicago Pr; 2011. ([2nd publ.].
Book Google Scholar
Girtler R. (2001). Methoden der Feldforschung (4., völlig neu bearb. Aufl. ed.). Wien; Köln; Weimar: Böhlau.
Wilson JW, Baer RD, Villalona S. (2019). Patient shadowing: a useful Research Method, Teaching Tool, and Approach to Student Professional Development for Premedical undergraduates. Acad Med, 94 (11).
Ziegler S, Wahedi K, Stiller M, Jahn R, Straßner C, Schwill S, Bozorgmehr K. Health and medical care for refugees: design and evaluation of a multidisciplinary clinical elective for medical students. GMS J Med Educ. 2021;38(2):Doc39. https://doi.org/10.3205/zma001435 .
Balcom S, Doucet S, Dubé A. Observation and unstitutional ethnography: helping us to see better. Qual Health Res. 2021;31(8):1534–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/10497323211015966 .
Sinding C. Using Institutional Ethnography to understand the production of Health Care disparities. Qual Health Res. 2010;20(12):1656–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732310377452 .
Malterud K, Hamberg K, Reventlow S. Qualitative methods in PhD theses from general practice in Scandinavia. Scand J Prim Health Care. 2017;35(4):309–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/02813432.2017.1397257 .
Ullrich C, Stürmlinger A, Wensing M, Krug K. Qualitative research methods in medical dissertations: an observational methodological study on prevalence and reporting quality of dissertation abstracts in a German university. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2020;20(1):301.
Wright MC. Making sense of data: how Public Health Graduate Students Build Theory through qualitative research techniques. Qual Health Res. 2007;17(1):94–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732306294296 .
O’Brien BC, Harris IB, Beckman TJ, Reed DA, Cook DA. Standards for reporting qualitative research: a synthesis of recommendations. Acad Med. 2014;89(9):1245–51. https://doi.org/10.1097/acm.0000000000000388 .
Download references
The authors would like to thank Lara Cordes (LC) for contribution to a first draft for data extraction themes in an early phase of the study.
Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.
Authors and affiliations.
Medical Faculty, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
Charlotte Ullrich, Sandra Ziegler, Alicia Armbruster, Michel Wensing & Nadja Klafke
Department of General Practice and Health Services Research, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 130.3, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
Charlotte Ullrich, Sandra Ziegler, Alicia Armbruster & Nadja Klafke
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
NK and CU drafted and prepared the manuscript, AA, MW and SZ provided substantial comments at different stages of the manuscript. MW is the head, CU the coordinator of the master’s program in health services research and implementation science at Heidelberg University, Germany. NK, CU and SZ jointly teach the IBL-course within this program, with SZ teaching the introductory class on ethnographic methods. All three designed this study. AA, LC, NK, CU and SZ collaborated on planning the data analysis. AA supported data management. AA, NK, and CU reviewed, extracted and analyzed the data. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Correspondence to Charlotte Ullrich .
Ethical approval and consent to participate.
Approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Medical Faculty of Heidelberg University Hospital, Germany (S012/2016). With enrolment, students confirm informed in writing that study data can be used for administrative and evaluative purposes. As this study aims at improving quality of teaching and is based on exam papers, a waiver for additional informed consent was granted. Any information with the potential to identify individuals has been anonymized.
There are no conflicts of interest to disclose.
Competing interests.
The authors declare no competing interests.
Publisher’s note.
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Supplementary material 2, rights and permissions.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.
Reprints and permissions
Cite this article.
Ullrich, C., Ziegler, S., Armbruster, A. et al. Participant observation for inquiry-based learning: a document analysis of exam papers from an internship-course for master’s students in health services research in Germany. BMC Med Educ 24 , 1033 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05740-4
Download citation
Received : 07 August 2023
Accepted : 02 July 2024
Published : 23 September 2024
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05740-4
Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:
Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative
ISSN: 1472-6920
An official website of the United States government
The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.
The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.
The PMC website is updating on October 15, 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .
Judith green.
Senior Lecturer in Sociology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
Research design should be appropriate for the research question. If that question is about the effectiveness of treatment, then a randomised controlled trial (RCT) is the best design to choose; if about the prevalence of a particular eye problem within a community, then a sample survey is needed. Other questions raised by the practice of community ophthalmology are essentially qualitative questions – they are not asking ‘how many?’, or ‘what proportion?’, but about the meaning of symptoms, or health behaviour.
As in any area of health care, social factors are as important as clinical ones in determining who suffers from disease, who presents for treatment and how they manage treatment regimes. The aims of qualitative research are to understand the motivations and perceptions of patients and providers and how they impact on health behaviour. Many qualitative studies focus on behaviour in its ‘natural’ or everyday context, and consider how family, community and cultural factors impact on individual beliefs and behaviour.
A number of methods of collecting qualitative data are commonly used in health research and in any one study it is usual to use more than one method of collecting information. These methods include:
Talking to patients (or non-attenders) in depth about their perceptions of eye health and disease, what they do to protect their health, and their beliefs about western and non-western health systems, can help providers understand both risk factors for disease and potential barriers to treatment.
There may be advantages in interviewing people in a group setting, especially within a culture where people are not forthcoming with opinions, or when the researcher is interested in issues which may be difficult to raise in one to one interviews, such as dissatisfaction with services provided.
This refers to the direct observation of behaviour by the researcher who is also a ‘participant’ in social life. What people do can be very different to what they say they do in an interview or in a survey. Living or working within a community provides an opportunity to see health beliefs from the point of view of potential clients, with an insight into the constraints on their behaviour, and the rationale for apparently irrational beliefs.
Nick Mays and Cathy Pope have written an excellent short guide for health researchers on using these methods. 1 The aim of qualitative methods of data collection is to help understand eye care from the point of view of the community, so that issues such as risk-taking behaviour, or non-compliance, or non-attendance can be seen in their cultural context. Martine Donoghue, for instance, in her study of barriers to the use of cataract services, found that the costs of treatment, fear of treatment and perceptions of ageing, rather than ‘ignorance’, were likely causes of non-attendance in India and Nepal. 2 In another example, Parul Christian and colleagues 3 found that women in Nepal saw night blindness as a normal part of pregnancy, and not an illness for which they should seek treatment. Studying the disease in the context of the lives of women allowed the researchers to understand why they did not seek treatment for what appeared to be a disabling condition.
Of course, community health workers also have their own culture which can be studied using qualitative methods. A participant observation of an eye clinic could be used to identify better ways of providing care, or to understand barriers to effective communication with patients.
In community ophthalmology, a study design may be based solely on these qualitative methods, with the aim being to explore one aspect of health beliefs or behaviour in depth. In other studies, they are combined with other methods. Some common uses in larger studies include:
Qualitative methods, such as in depth interviews, can be used to develop the questions for a survey instrument, to ensure that the terms used are meaningful to the respondents, and that the categories used reflect those used by the community.
A local survey or review of clinic records might reveal that the use of traditional remedies is common among people with trachoma, but a more in depth qualitative study could address why traditional remedies are chosen. In a study of trachoma in The Gambia, for instance, Mabey and colleagues found that the provision of antibiotics and free treatment was not enough to eradicate endemic disease. 4 In addition, they suggest that clinicians need to understand what motivates parents to seek treatment (especially if children are asymptomatic) and to understand how everyday practices, such as face washing, as well as social conditions impact on disease prevalence. They suggest that involving the community in a control programme may be the most effective method.
Qualitative methods can be combined with quantitative methods to assess likely service needs. They may be particularly useful for identifying how services could best be provided, and what the likely barriers to use might be.
Professionals reading qualitative research reports often have concerns about how generalisable the research is, particularly when it is based on only one site or a small number of people being interviewed. Unlike samples in quantitative studies, qualitative samples are rarely randomly drawn from the population of interest, so they are not statistically generalisable. However, if done well, qualitative research should be theoretically generalisable, in that the ideas developed should have some relevance beyond the actual participants in the study. Readers can ask themselves two questions to gauge how useful the research is for them:
As for any research design, a well conducted study should demonstrate the sound application of methodological principles and well grounded interpretation. The following criteria are a useful checklist for readers in judging the quality of a qualitative study:
If not randomly chosen, how were the interviewees selected? Were they chosen to represent the range of patients with this eye problem, or were new people interviewed until new conclusions could not be determined from the interviews? (This is often called saturation ).
This might include taping and transcribing interviews to ensure accuracy; using more than one researcher to analyse data to reduce researcher bias; including some basic counts of responses.
In qualitative research, it is important to understand how the context of the study might have affected the data collected: who did the interviews, and might this have affected respondents? Were interviews done in the home or in the clinic? In focus groups, were some participants (such as women, or elders) less able to give their opinions? A summary of this context helps the reader assess the validity and generalisability of the findings.
One key way to strengthen faith in conclusions is deliberately to ‘test’ emerging ideas against negative cases, in order to try to falsify them. The researchers should demonstrate how they looked for cases which disproved their conclusions. 5
Although ‘theory’ may seem irrelevant to practical health research, good qualitative studies will account for health behaviour in the context of a theoretical account of social behaviour. They will make some reference to how a body of theory as well as other research in the area has contributed to the current research question and the interpretation of results. 5
In summary, well conducted qualitative research can provide invaluable insight into eye care related health behaviours and the use of services. Together with other study designs, qualitative studies can improve our understanding of how eye care is managed in the context of everyday life.
Many thanks to Martine Donoghue for drawing my attention to some of the qualitative work on eye care.
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Examples of Specific Research Objectives: 1. "To examine the effects of rising temperatures on the yield of rice crops during the upcoming growth season.". 2. "To assess changes in rainfall patterns in major agricultural regions over the first decade of the twenty-first century (2000-2010).". 3.
Research Aims: Examples. True to the name, research aims usually start with the wording "this research aims to…", "this research seeks to…", and so on. For example: "This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail HR.". "This study sets out to assess the interaction between student ...
I highly recommend writing your qualitative research objective first, and socializing it before beginning any study. Once you have your qualitative research objective, you can make sure that your research questions, and your recruiting criteria all roll up to it. Qualitative analysis doesn't have to be overwhelming. Take Delve's free online ...
Revised on September 5, 2024. Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which ...
Example: Research aim. To examine contributory factors to muscle retention in a group of elderly people. Example: Research objectives. To assess the relationship between sedentary habits and muscle atrophy among the participants. To determine the impact of dietary factors, particularly protein consumption, on the muscular health of the ...
This type of research is known as identifying an experience from an individual's point of view. It tries to identify how different individuals perceive different experiences. Sample Objective: To determine the level of satisfaction of a hotel customer. To understand the unique experience of a mystery shopper who visits a bank branch.
Limitations. Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on gathering and analyzing non-numerical data to gain a deeper understanding of human behavior, experiences, and perspectives. It aims to explore the "why" and "how" of a phenomenon rather than the "what," "where," and "when" typically addressed ...
INTRODUCTION. Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses.1,2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results.3,4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the ...
25 examples of expertly crafted qualitative research questions. It's easy enough to cover the theory of writing a qualitative research question, but sometimes it's best if you can see the process in practice. In this section, we'll list 25 examples of B2B and B2C-related qualitative questions. Let's begin with five questions.
Abstract. This paper aims to provide an overview of the use and assessment of qualitative research methods in the health sciences. Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions ...
Qualitative research investigates "how" or "why" certain phenomena occur. It is about discovering the inherent nature of something. The primary objective of qualitative research is to understand an individual's ideas, points of view, and feelings. In this way, collecting in-depth knowledge of a specific topic is possible.
Qualitative research is defined as an exploratory method that aims to understand complex phenomena, often within their natural settings, by examining subjective experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical measurements and statistical analysis, qualitative research employs a range of ...
Quantitative Goals: Specific, measurable, and time-limited. For example, a quantitative goal might be to complete a professional certification, whereas a qualitative goal could be to gain a deeper understanding of your field. Both are important but conform to different purposes in our personal development journey.
Through a critical lens and the power of synthesis, 2 this guide navigates the complexities of qualitative research to provide a clear and structured pathway from conceptualization to implementation. This guide underscores the importance, necessity, and relevance of qualitative methods in addressing real-world issues, and emphasizes the urgency of equipping the next generation of researchers ...
Formulating research aim and objectives in an appropriate manner is one of the most important aspects of your thesis. This is because research aim and objectives determine the scope, depth and the overall direction of the research. Research question is the central question of the study that has to be answered on the basis of research findings.
Qualitative Research. Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people's beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.
Revised on 30 January 2023. Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which ...
A research objective is defined as a clear and concise statement of the specific goals and aims of a research study. It outlines what the researcher intends to accomplish and what they hope to learn or discover through their research. Research objectives are crucial for guiding the research process and ensuring that the study stays focused and ...
Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems.[1] Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervening or introducing treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypothenar to further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences ...
Summary. One of the most important aspects of a thesis, dissertation or research paper is the correct formulation of the aims and objectives. This is because your aims and objectives will establish the scope, depth and direction that your research will ultimately take. An effective set of aims and objectives will give your research focus and ...
By Jim Frost 5 Comments. Qualitative research aims to understand ideas, experiences, and opinions using non-numeric data, such as text, audio, and visual recordings. The focus is on language, behaviors, and social structures. Qualitative researchers want to present personal experiences and produce narrative stories that use natural language to ...
While many books and articles guide various qualitative research methods and analyses, there is currently no concise resource that explains and differentiates among the most common qualitative approaches. We believe novice qualitative researchers, students planning the design of a qualitative study or taking an introductory qualitative research course, and faculty teaching such courses can ...
Some of the most recognizable checklists (OREC, CASP) used as standards for qualitative research are regarded as overly prescriptive, reducing space for creativity and increasing the homogenization of qualitative reporting (Shaw, 2019, p. 741) and that such criteria are inappropriate for judging studies across the diverse approaches and the multiple interpretative practices represented in ...
Aims of the course. Objectives of the course, which was designed as both an internship accompanying seminar and IBL course, were: (a) providing an opportunity to learn research skills in using (participant) observation as a qualitative research method and (b) establishing an in-depth understanding of occupational fields in health care.
The aims of qualitative research are to understand the motivations and perceptions of patients and providers and how they impact on health behaviour. Many qualitative studies focus on behaviour in its 'natural' or everyday context, and consider how family, community and cultural factors impact on individual beliefs and behaviour.