philosophy book reviews

• The 35 Best Philosophy Books to Live Better and Become a Great Thinker

I used to think philosophy meant sitting in a college auditorium, reading boring old texts in languages no one speaks anymore. When I was 23, however, I discovered Ryan Holiday and his work on Stoicism . I read his book The Obstacle Is the Way , and I realized I couldn’t have been more wrong. Philosophy is not about analyzing the thoughts of people who died long ago. It’s about how to live a good life, right here, right now — and that’s exactly what philosophy books are for.

We’ve summarized over 1,000 books here at Four Minute Books. Today, we’ll compile the best philosophy titles for you. Whether you’re a beginner or a philosophy expert, we’re sure you’ll find a book on here that’ll teach you something new. Find a strong set of guiding principles, discover where it came from, and adjust it to your own and modern life.

As usual, we’ve sorted our list into multiple sub-categories. First, we’ll cover the best philosophy books all around. Then, we’ll get into Western philosophy, Eastern philosophy, important philosophers, as well as books talking specifically about ethics and morality. Finally, we’ll show you some “philosophies of productivity” and other books that present a coherent worldview for our modern world.

Besides a picture of the cover of each title, you’ll find our favorite quote from the author, a one-sentence-summary of the book, and some suggestions on when and why to read the book. We’ve also included three key takeaways, as well as some buttons you can click to read the book’s free summary on Four Minute Books or buy a copy for yourself on Amazon (affiliate links).

Use the clickable table of contents below to quickly jump to any book or category, and start discovering the many wonderful, enlightening philosophies we can use to live a better life!

Here are the 35 best philosophy books of all time!

Table of Contents

1. Meditations by Marcus Aurelius

2. man’s search for meaning by viktor frankl, 3. the daily stoic by ryan holiday.

• 4. The Story of Philosophy by Will Durant 

5. The Republic by Plato

6. discourses by epictetus.

• 7. The Last Lecture by Randy Pausch 

8. Letters from a Stoic by Seneca

9. meditations on first philosophy by rené descartes, 10. on the shortness of life by seneca, 11. a guide to the good life by william b. irvine, 12. how to be a stoic by massimo pigliucci, 13. how to think like a roman emperor by donald robertson.

• 14. The Obstacle Is the Way by Ryan Holiday 

15. The Bhagavad Gita by Vyasa

16. the art of war by sun tzu, 17. the tao te ching by lao tzu, 18. the book of joy by dalai lama & desmond tutu, 19. lives of the stoics by ryan holiday, 20. plato at the googleplex by rebecca goldstein, 21. breakfast with socrates by robert rowland smith, 22. the nicomachean ethics by aristotle, 23. the prince by niccolò machiavelli, 24. the ethics of ambiguity by simone de beauvoir, 25. the better angels of our nature by steven pinker, 26. essentialism by greg mckeown, 27. deep work by cal newport, 28. the power of full engagement by jim loehr & tony schwartz, 29. principles by ray dalio, 30. 12 rules for life by jordan peterson, 31. minimalism by joshua fields millburn & ryan nicodemus, 32. digital minimalism by cal newport, 33. kaizen by sarah harvey, 34. the subtle art of not giving a f*ck by mark manson.

• 35. The Power of Now by Eckhart Tolle 

Other Book Lists by Topic

Other book lists by author, best philosophy books overall.

Favorite Quote

“You have power over your mind — not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength.” — Marcus Aurelius

The Book in One Sentence

Meditations is a collection of 12 books written by Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, who consistently journaled to remember his education in Stoic philosophy, and whose writings will teach you logic, faith, and self-discipline.

Why should you read it?

If you’re looking for daily comfort, motivation, and wisdom, this is one of the best books you’ll ever pick up. I don’t see why anyone shouldn’t read this. The advice is as sound as when Marcus gave it to himself 2,000 years ago, and the book will benefit you in tough as well as glorious times. Plus, it might even inspire you to start journaling yourself!

Key Takeaways

• True “logic” doesn’t always make sense, but everything happens for a reason.
• Life is too short to complain.
• The only pain you suffer is the pain you create yourself.

If you want to learn more, you can read our free four-minute summary or get a copy for yourself.

“Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms — to choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one’s own way.” — Viktor Frankl

Man’s Search for Meaning details holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl’s horrifying experiences in Nazi concentration camps, along with his psychological approach of logotherapy, which is also what helped him survive and shows how you can – and must – find meaning in your life.

There are few holes this book couldn’t make you crawl back out from. Beyond inspiring you to rethink meaning and find it wherever you go, however, it will also instill tremendous respect in you for those who’ve come before us. This book is enlightening on both a personal and a historical level, and I think almost anyone would benefit from reading it.

• Sometimes, the only way to survive is to surrender to death.
• Your life has its own meaning, and it’s up to you to find it.
• Use paradoxical intention to make your fears go away.

“Control your perceptions. Direct your actions properly. Willingly accept what’s outside your control.” — Ryan Holiday

The Daily Stoic is a year-long compilation of short, daily meditations from ancient Stoic philosophers, like Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius, teaching you equanimity, resilience, and perseverance via the three Stoic disciplines of perception, action, and will.

If you struggle with reading non-fiction at a pace that makes you feel good about your progress, this is the book for you. It’s also one of my all-time favorites. I read it every year for five years in a row. A page a day is so easy to read, you can’t not do it. As a result, you’ll gain a great overview of Stoicism and implement plenty of its tenets in your life.

• Perception gives purpose to your thoughts, actions, and ultimately everything you do.
• We can change the course of our life by actively choosing our actions instead of just reacting to our impulses.
• Will is our internal force of perseverance, ready to give us hope when everything else fails.

4. The Story of Philosophy by Will Durant  

“Civilization begins with order, grows with liberty, and dies with chaos.” — Will Durant 

The Story of Philosophy profiles the lives of great Western philosophers, such as Plato, Socrates, and Nietzsche, exploring their views on politics, religion, morality, the meaning of life, and plenty of other important concepts.

If you’re curious about the origins of philosophy, this is the definitive title to read. Durant and his wife are some of the greatest historians who ever lived, and they fantastically condensed the world’s story, in this case down to 700 pages. If you want to start with something shorter, grab The Lessons of History first, then go deeper on each of history’s most important philosophers in this masterpiece.

• Ancient Greek philosophers paved the way for philosophy, science, and new forms of societal governance.
• Philosopher Spinoza helped decipher the hidden meanings of religion.
• Voltaire was partially responsible for the French revolution and the improvement of political systems around the world.

“The heaviest penalty for declining to rule is to be ruled by someone inferior to yourself.” — Plato

The Republic is one of the most important political and philosophical works in history , written by Plato, the archetypal philosopher and one of Socrates’ students , in the form of a dialogue about justice and political systems.

If you’re in politics, this is a must-read. If not, it’s still a valuable read on what it means to be governed, how to be a good citizen, and why philosophers can be good rulers but don’t necessarily will be . All-around a classic worth picking up.

• Justice must be looked at on an individual as well as a city level.
• Both cities and souls can be divided into three distinct parts.
• Philosophers trying to rule others will face lots of difficulty, and rightfully so.

“What else is freedom but the power to live our life the way we want?” — Epictetus

Discourses is a collection of ancient philosopher Epictetus’ lectures, transcribed by one of his students, helping us make sense of the world and teaching us to accept hardship, change, and life events that feel like setbacks at first but will ultimately make us stronger.

Unlike most of the other ancient philosophers, Epictetus didn’t start from wealth. He was a slave, but thanks to his ideas and behavior, he was set free. He lived frugally till the end of his days, and that’s why his lectures are full of common sense. If you want an original take on Stoicism that didn’t come from a point of privilege, this is your best bet.

• Without life’s challenges, we wouldn’t feel the need to grow and evolve. 
• Everything great in life takes time and effort to build.
• If you can’t control it, don’t stress over it.

7. The Last Lecture by Randy Pausch  

“If I only had three words of advice, they would be, ‘tell the truth.’ If I got three more words, I’d add, ‘all the time.’” — Randy Pausch

The Last Lecture is a college professor’s final message to the world before his impending death of cancer at a relatively young age, offering meaningful life advice, significant words of wisdom, and a great deal of optimism and hope for humanity.

Imagine your favorite school teacher or mentor were to give one last lecture before they died. Wouldn’t you attend? Well, Randy Pausch may not be your favorite college professor, but he probably will be if you give his last lecture a chance. The book is full of inspiration, hard-gained wisdom, and memories that will make you smile. Randy also gave the actual lecture , of course, but I recommend reading the book first. It holds more detail and makes the talk feel a lot stronger.

• If you never give up on your dreams, eventually, some of them will come true.
• True satisfaction comes from helping others succeed.
• The simplest advice is often the most valuable.

Best Philosophy Books About Stoicism and Western Philosophy

“If you really want to escape the things that harass you, what you need is not to be in a different place but to be a different person.” — Seneca

Letters from a Stoic is a collection of encouraging moral messages sent by Roman Stoic and philosopher Seneca to his friend Lucilius in order to help him become less emotional, more disciplined, and find the good life.

There used to be a thing called “pen pals.” People would commit to writing each other letters on a regular basis. Nowadays, the practice is dwindling. Thanks to this book, however, you can have a pen pal, and not just any pen pal but one of the most famous philosophers in history. If you’d like a friend to send you letters of encouragement, this book is perfect for you.

• The goal of attaining wisdom is to live in harmony with nature.
• Your most valuable possession is your mind.
• A wise man doesn’t need friends, but he chooses to make them anyway.

“Dubium sapientiae initium — Doubt is the origin of wisdom.” — René Descartes

Meditations on First Philosophy is one of the premier works of Western philosophy, written by  René Descartes in 1641, prompting us to abandon everything that can possibly be doubted and then starting to reason our way forward based only on what we can know with absolute certainty.

Are you a person driven by logic and reason? Then this is the philosophy book for you. Descartes’ approach of starting from what’s 100% true and then going from there is fascinating. If you’d like to test your reasoning skills and aren’t afraid of someone challenging your assumptions, read this book.

• Your senses don’t always tell the truth.
• The fact that you think proves that you exist.
• There are three levels of truth in the world.

“People are frugal in guarding their personal property; but as soon as it comes to squandering time they are most wasteful of the one thing in which it is right to be stingy.” — Seneca

On the Shortness of Life is a 2,000 year old, 20-page masterpiece by Seneca, Roman Stoic philosopher and teacher to the emperors, about time and how to best use it to ensure you lead a long and fulfilling life.

There are a million talks, books, and celebrities out there telling us that “life is short.” But, honestly, no one ever said it better than Seneca in this short read. You’ll find yourself making highlight after highlight. It’s amazing and, productivity-wise, probably the only book you’ll ever have to read.

• Chasing leisure, luxury, and legacy is what makes a long life appear short.
• You can be busy all your life without ever doing something meaningful, so beware.
• Your ability to contemplate and appreciate life will never disappear.

“The easiest way for us to gain happiness is to learn how to want the things we already have.” — William B. Irvine

A Guide to the Good Life is a roadmap for aspiring Stoics, revealing why this ancient philosophy is useful today, what Stoicism is truly about, and showing you how to cultivate its powerful principles in your own life.

If you’re looking for a general introduction to Stoicism, get this book. It covers its historical rise and fall, most important concepts, as well as the best pieces of Stoic advice. A great overview of this resurgent philosophy.

• The two primary values of Stoicism are virtue and tranquility.
• Learn to want what you already have.
• Immediately accept things that are outside of your control, and focus on what you can do with what you’ve got.

“Better to endure pain in an honorable manner than to seek joy in a shameful one.” — Massimo Pigliucci

How to Be a Stoic is a practical guide for applying ancient philosophy in modern life, covering the principles philosophers like Socrates, Epictetus, and Cato followed to cultivate strength in the three Stoic disciplines of desire, action, and assent.

For a deeper dive into Stoicism and its central areas of application, consider this book. Like many other books on the topic, it divides its ideas into three section mapping to the three Stoic disciplines, so even if you’re just looking for advice on one particular field, you can easily skip around and get right to what’s most relevant to you right now.

• The concept of “preferred indifferents” can help you act in line with your morals without becoming extremist.
• In Stoicism, virtue is the highest good, and it’s made up of four values.
• You can have useful, pleasurable, and good friendships. The good are the most important.

“What matters, in other words, isn’t what we feel but how we respond to those feelings.” — Donald Robertson

How to Think Like a Roman Emperor combines the story of famous Stoic and Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius with lessons from modern psychology to help you become more emotionally resilient and develop the strength to overcome even the most challenging circumstances.

If you prefer learning from stories, this is a great book for you. Robertson releases the ideas behind Stoicism slowly, rolling them out alongside Marcus’ life story, adding insight into modern psychology along the way. The result is an effortless read that makes for fantastic insights without feeling like a typical non-fiction book.

• We come from nature, and we’ll return to it eventually, so it’s only logical to live in agreement with it. 
• Life is about constant improvement, which is why we should all work on our virtues every day.
• Stoics know there’s no point in worrying over what you can’t control, so best just make your peace with it.

14. The Obstacle Is the Way by Ryan Holiday  

“There is no good or bad without us, there is only perception. There is the event itself and the story we tell ourselves about what it means.” — Ryan Holiday

The Obstacle Is the Way will help you endure the struggles of life with grace and resilience, thanks to lessons drawn from ancient heroes, former presidents, modern actors, and successful athletes and how they turned adversity into success thanks to the powers of perception, action, and will.

If you think, “Well, all this stuff about Stoicism is great, but what does it look like today ?” then this title, and of course Ryan Holiday’s other books , are a great place to start. Ryan can be largely credited with bringing Stoicism back to life, and he does it with countless examples from modern-world leaders, athletes, and celebrities embodying Stoic ideals. The first of three books in his original trilogy on Stoicism, you’ll want to read  Ego Is the Enemy and Stillness Is the Key next.

• Imagine you’re advising yourself as a friend to keep an objective perspective.
• Large obstacles have large weaknesses – identify them and use them against them.
• Use your will to accept what you cannot change and change the things you can.

Best Philosophy Books About Eastern Philosophy

“It is better to live your own destiny imperfectly than to live an imitation of somebody else’s life with perfection.” — Vyasa

The Bhagavad Gita is the number one spiritual text in Hinduism, packed with wisdom about life and purpose as well as powerful advice on living virtuously but authentically without succumbing to life’s temptations or other people’s dreams.

You don’t have to be Hindu to appreciate Hindu wisdom. Philosophy works best when you balance multiple perspectives, and though, as readers have told me, it’s very hard for outsiders to fully grasp “the Gita,” it still provides valuable counterpoints worth studying.

• Living life doing what you were destined to do brings peace, while the opposite breeds pain and insecurity.
• Find meaning in the journey and let go of constant anticipation.
• Meditation can help you master your thoughts and regain focus.

“Victorious warriors win first and then go to war, while defeated warriors go to war first and then seek to win.” — Sun Tzu

The Art of War is considered the definitive text on military strategy and warfare, written in ancient China around 500 BC, inspiring businesses, athletes, and of course generals to beat their opponents and competition the right way.

If you’re looking for a highly action-oriented approach to philosophy, this classic might be for you. It’s a book about war, yes, but it’s also a book about business, work, and life. If you metaphorically apply Sun Tzu’s strategies of warfare to your next big meeting, it might go better than you expect. You’ll also pick up plenty of honorable attitudes along the way, as the soldier’s path is, ideally, supposed to be a virtuous one — and it’s walking that path that this book hopes to teach you.

• Only enter battles you know you can win.
• Deceive your competition to make them do what you want.
• Lead your team as if you were leading a single man by the hand.

“If you realize that all things change, there is nothing you will try to hold on to.” ― Lao Tzu

The Tao Te Ching is a collection of 81 short, poignant chapters full of advice on living in harmony with “the Tao,” translated as “the Way,” an ancient Chinese interpretation of the spiritual force underpinning all life, first written around 400 BC but relevant to this day.

Whereas Western philosophy is focused more on the self and dealing with the outside world, Eastern philosophy promotes harmony and being part of the world. Few books encapsulate this Eastern approach more appropriately than this book. Plus, at 81 short chapters, it’s an easy and quick read full of great life advice. Definitely another one for your must-read shelf!

• Fully accept whatever the current moment brings. Give yourself fully to reality.
• Admit your own faults and mistakes, because ultimately, they might be your greatest source of strength.
• Always compete in a spirit of play to stay in harmony with the Tao.

“The more time you spend thinking about yourself, the more suffering you will experience.” — Dalai Lama & Desmond Tutu

The Book of Joy  is the result of a 7-day meeting between the Dalai Lama and Desmond Tutu, two of the world’s most influential spiritual leaders, during which they discussed one of life’s most important questions: how do we find joy despite suffering?

When two globally revered spiritual leaders talk, it’s worth paying attention. When they discuss handling suffering as an essential life skill (because suffering is inevitable), you might want to drop everything else and listen for a while. This one probably works really well as an audiobook too. If you’re looking for more joy in your life, get this one.

• A life without suffering does not exist.
• Since we can’t control suffering, we must practice our response to it.
• Compassion and sadness help us alleviate our troublesome responses to suffering.

Best Books About Important Philosophers

“There is no better definition of a Stoic: to have but not want, to enjoy without needing.” — Ryan Holiday

Lives of the Stoics takes a deep dive into the experiences and beliefs of some of the earliest philosophers practicing the four Stoic virtues of courage, temperance, justice, and wisdom.

If you’re already on the Stoicism-train but want to know more about the most important Stoic philosophers’ lives, this book is for you. Beyond just the most important Stoic ideas, you’ll also find plenty of anecdotes and details about the lives of Epicurus, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, and others. If you like biographies, you’ll enjoy this book.

• Stoicism came about as a result of extreme hardship. 
• Not everyone who initially followed Stoicism fully lived up to its standards. 
• Marcus Aurelius was a Roman emperor whose practice of Stoicism helped him lead with compassion and humility.

“If we don’t understand our tools, then there is a danger we will become the tool of our tools.” — Rebecca Goldstein

Plato at the Googleplex asks what would happen if ancient philosopher Plato were alive today and came in contact with the modern world, for example by touring Google’s headquarters, and what the implications of his encounters are for the relevance of philosophy in our civilized, hyper-technological world.

Are you skeptical that philosophy still has a place in the modern world? Then this book provides the perfect thought experiment. If Plato were on a speaking tour today, what would he tell us? This book combines the fun of a novel with the insight of a history book, and the result is a trip you’ll never forget! Perhaps, it might even change your mind.

• Google can answer most questions but not all of them.
• No two people are the same, and neither should education treat them that way.
• Plato came up with a definition of love that encompasses all human relationships.

“You can’t be free to be right unless you can free to be wrong.” — Robert Rowland Smith

Breakfast With Socrates takes you through an ordinary day in the company of extraordinary minds, linking each hour of the day and its activity to the core ideas of one of history’s great philosophers, such as  Descartes, Nietzsche, or Socrates.

If you’re looking for an easy, extremely practical introduction to philosophy, look no further. From breakfast to going to work to falling asleep at night, this book will paint a philosophical backdrop for plenty of familiar everyday situations. Then, it will fill said backdrop with the wisdom of one of history’s great philosophers. What a wonderful concept for a book!

• Philosophy isn’t about spinning your head all day; it’s about making wise decisions.
• Your morning routine is a battle of the egos.
• A good way of assessing your happiness is to ask yourself if you’d like to live the same life again.

Best Philosophy Books About Ethics & Morality

“Whosoever is delighted in solitude is either a wild beast or a god.” — Aristotle

The Nicomachean Ethics is a historically important text compiling Aristotle’s extensive discussion of existential questions concerning happiness, ethics, friendship, knowledge, pleasure, virtue, and even society at large.

This one’s for nerds and philosophy geeks like me. Even modern translations still aren’t always super easy to understand, and you’ll have to reread sentences all the time. That said, there is something about reading an original text that makes it feel more special than even the best second-hand reporting. If you want to be able to claim you’ve actually read Aristotle, get yourself a copy of this book.

• Aim to achieve a state of eudaimonia instead of conventional happiness.
• Arete, or virtue, is accomplished through a lifetime of work.
• Strive to be magnanimous — someone who does great and honorable things.

“Everyone sees what you appear to be, few experience what you really are.” — Niccolò Machiavelli

The Prince is a 16th century political treatise famous for condoning, even encouraging, evil behavior amongst political rulers in order for them to stay in power.

In my mind, this book is something akin to a big “BEWARE” sign. You read it. You understand how people in power can easily abuse it. And you’ll be much less likely to become the victim of power schemes in the future. Don’t think of this as an instruction manual, for it’ll only lead you down a dark path. Treat it with care, however, and it will be enlightening.

• Countries can be easy to conquer but hard to rule or vice versa – and markets are the same.
• If a country truly wants to protect itself, it needs its own army, not mercenaries. The same holds true for businesses.
• If you want to run a business, you have to assemble your advisors and know when to listen to them.

“We are having a hard time living because we are so bent on outwitting death.” — Simone de Beauvoir

The Ethics of Ambiguity explains existentialist philosophy in a post–World War II setting, showing us how we can accept the absurdity of life and use its randomness to create rather than despair.

Philosophy, like many other fields and book-writing in general, has historically been dominated by men. How refreshing to get a woman’s perspective. On existentialism, one of the most relevant and, arguably, useful philosophies, no less. If you’re looking for an introduction into existentialism and/or some background on one of history’s best female philosophers, pick this one.

• You’re freer than you think, and you should take advantage of it.
• There is no such thing as a completely neutral perspective.
• Abstract ideals aren’t as important as real people, but our governments mess this up all the time.

“As one becomes aware of the decline of violence, the world begins to look different. The past seems less innocent; the present less sinister.” — Steven Pinker

The Better Angels of Our Nature proves that we live in the most peaceful time in history, taking us through several major shifts that led to a global reduction in crime, explaining what motivates us to behave violently, and showing that these motivators are far outweighed by our naturally peaceful tendencies.

It’s easy to feel depressed. All you have to do is turn on the news. But despite all the bad reporting, when you zoom out on the timeline, the world is doing better than it ever has. If you’re looking for hope, optimism, and more faith in humanity, this is the one to read.

• Ideologies always start out with good intentions, but they can quickly deteriorate into promoting violence.
• The Flynn effect increases humanity’s ability to reason over time, thus making us less violent.
• Thanks to the invention of the printing press, humanitarian philosophy could spread, which decreased violence across the board.

Best Philosophy Books for Productivity

“Remember that if you don’t prioritize your life someone else will.” — Greg McKeown

Essentialism will show you a new, better way of looking at productivity  by giving you permission to be extremely selective about what’s truly essential in your life and then ruthlessly cutting out everything else.

Most productivity books are just collections of common-sense tips. This one offers a fully fledged out philosophy for how to get things done, both in work and in life. That’s what makes this book so refreshing. It also shows you what philosophy looks like when we extend it beyond its usual, often academically influenced confines. All around a fantastic book!

• Doing nothing and doing everything are both signs of learned helplessness.
• Become the editor of your own life with the 90% rule.
• Always give yourself a time buffer of 50%.

“If you don’t produce, you won’t thrive — no matter how skilled or talented you are.” — Cal Newport

Deep Work   proposes that we have lost our ability to focus deeply and immerse ourselves in a complex task, showing us how to cultivate this skill again and manage our attention better than ever before thanks to  four simple rules.

If you struggle to focus and feel like you can barely hold your attention together, read this book. It’s one of few productivity books presenting a coherent worldview, and that’s what makes it one of the best.

• There are four strategies for deep work, all of which require intention.
• Productive meditation can help you work more deeply, even while you’re taking a break.
• Stop working at the same time each day. 

“We grow the aspects of our lives that we feed — with energy and engagement — and choke off those we deprive of fuel. Your life is what you agree to attend to.” — Jim Loehr & Tony Schwartz

The Power of Full Engagement will show you how to manage the only thing worth managing – your energy – by teaching you how to properly maintain the four kinds of energy, accept your limitations, and live a life of purpose.

Are you struggling to balance the various areas of life demanding your time and energy? Then this book is for you. It’s also not a philosophy book per se, but it presents a model you can use to navigate all of life. Plus, the energy management concept is just fascinating. Worth checking out!

• Manage your energy, not your time.
• Keep track of all four sources of energy in your life.
• Accept your limitations. 

Best Philosophy Books for Modern Life

“The happiest people discover their own nature and match their life to it.” — Ray Dalio

Principles outlines and breaks down the set of rules for work and life that billionaire investor Ray Dalio, CEO of the world’s largest hedge fund, has acquired throughout his 40-year career in finance.

This book is part biography, part career advice, and part philosophical manual. Dalio put everything he had into it, and it shows. It has a lot to offer, and even if you’re not the biggest philosophy nut yet, you’ll gain a lot from Dalio’s vast life experience. The book is also quite moving, so there’s a strong emotional component as well. Check out Ray Dalio’s other books when you’re done!

• Principles are powerful weapons in the fight against flawed thinking.
• Radical truthfulness and transparency are two of Ray’s most important ideas.
• Great businesses use principles to create environments where the best ideas win.

“It’s all very well to think the meaning of life is happiness, but what happens when you’re unhappy? Happiness is a great side effect. When it comes, accept it gratefully. But it’s fleeting and unpredictable.” — Jordan Peterson

12 Rules for Life is a story-based, stern yet entertaining self-help manual for young people laying out a set of simple rules to help us become more disciplined , behave better, act with integrity, and balance our lives while enjoying them as much as we can.

Love or hate Jordan Peterson , the man has a way with words. In this case, he uses his calm yet convincing voice to provide essential life advice to young people. The advice makes sense, and the stories are inspiring. All around, this is a book worth peeking into.

• Sweep in front of your own door before pointing out that the street is dirty.
• Treat yourself like a child you’re responsible for.
• Aim to do what is meaningful, not convenient.

“You needn’t settle for a mediocre life just because the people around you did.” — Joshua Fields Millburn & Ryan Nicodemus

Minimalism   is an instructive introduction to the philosophy of less, and how it helped two guys who had achieved the American dream let go of their possessions and the depressions that came with them.

Minimalism is one of few modern-day, standalone philosophies. That alone makes this book worth reading. More so, however, it has a chance at making you happier. Caring less about possessions is a wonderful way of making room for what’s truly important in your life, and this book explains this life approach extremely well.

• Debt goes first. Get rid of your financial crutches to finally feel free.
• Use the TARA method to become more accepting of other people in your life.
• You are not your job. Don’t let your work define you.

“Focus your online time on a small number of carefully selected and optimized activities that strongly support things you value, and then happily miss out on everything else.” — Cal Newport

Digital Minimalism shows us where to draw the line with technology, how to properly take time off our digital devices, and why doing so is the key to living a happy, focused life in a noisy world.

We have so much more technology than we did even 20 years ago, and yet, no one has updated philosophy to help us acknowledge this fact. Well, no one except Cal Newport. If you struggle to find the line between your screen and reality, this book will provide plenty of tips and tactics but also some powerful arguments as to why spending less time online matters.

• Digital minimalism centers on 3 principles: clutter is costly, optimization is vital, and intentionality is satisfying.
• Plan downtime events as a source of inward joy and deep contemplation.
• Quick fixes and “life hacks” might prompt a healthy new habit, but they don’t promote sustainable change.

“Change is infectious and when success is achieved in one area, you are encouraged to apply the same techniques to another area of your life.” — Sarah Harvey

Kaizen is the Japanese philosophy of “continuous improvement,” which is often used in business but can also be applied to personal growth, offering us a path to self-improvement that’s less plagued by pressure and anxiety and more marked by small, daily steps adding up to incremental but meaningful progress.

If you feel overwhelmed by all the positive changes you’re hoping to make in your life, stop and read this book. This refreshing philosophy gives us permission to take it slowly, to live our lives one day at a time and yet still feel good about them. Everything is going well when you improve a little every day — what a comforting philosophy to live by!

• Kaizen is a Japanese philosophy centered around incremental growth, and it begins with evaluating your habits.
• The best way to reach a big goal is to start with a step so small, you’ll barely notice the difference.
• Review your habits regularly to track your progress.

“Who you are is defined by what you’re willing to struggle for.” — Mark Manson

The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck does away with the positive psychology craze to instead give you a Stoic, no-BS approach to living a life that might not always be happy, but that will be meaningful and centered only around what’s important to you.

Are you tired of the constant prompts to be positive and put on a smile? Then this is the book for you. Manson has managed to evolve nihilism — a philosophy in which nothing matters and that commonly makes people depressed — into something meaningful: a world in which very few things matter, but the ones that do are really, really important. An absolute mega-bestseller of a book, full of humor and sound advice. Definitely a recommended read.

• Values you can’t control are bad values to follow.
• Don’t believe you know anything with certainty; it keeps you from improving.
• Trying to leave a legacy might ruin your life.

35. The Power of Now by Eckhart Tolle  

“Time isn’t precious at all, because it is an illusion. What you perceive as precious is not time but the one point that is out of time: the Now. That is precious indeed. The more you are focused on time — past and future — the more you miss the Now, the most precious thing there is.” — Eckhart Tolle

The Power of Now shows you that every minute you spend worrying about the future or regretting the past is a minute lost, because the only place you can truly live in is the present, the now, which is why the book offers actionable strategies to start living every minute as it occurs and becoming 100% present in and for your life.

If you feel like reality keeps letting you down, perhaps you’re not spending enough time in it. Of course we get sad when we constantly think about the past or the future! This book will remedy that problem. If you’re a mindfulness skeptic or feel burned out, this book might provide just the new perspective you need.

• Life is just a series of present moments.
• All pain is a result of resistance to the things you cannot change.
• You can free yourself from pain by constantly observing your mind yet not judging your thoughts.

Tim Ferriss once came close to committing suicide. The thing he credits for successfully climbing out of the hole, not returning, and managing his depression a lot better since then? Philosophy! Stoicism, in his case. Tim calls it “an operating system for thriving in high-stress environments; for making better decisions.” 

Thanks to people like him, Ryan Holiday , and others, this set of ancient ideas from a few good thinkers is seeing a resurgence. Whichever particular philosophy you find most helpful in living your life, however, only you can find out. At the end of the day, it doesn’t matter whether we connect more with Stoicism, existentialism, or even the ideals promoted in Star Wars . What matters is that we find a set of life rules that works for us .

I hope our list of the best philosophy books will help you do just that. Pick a title, start learning, and remember what William James said: “Philosophy is at once the most sublime and the most trivial of human pursuits.”

Looking for more of the best books on various topics? Here are all the book lists we’ve made for you so far:

• The 60 Best Business Books of All Time (Will Forever Change How You Think About Organizations)
• The 20 Best Entrepreneurship Books to Start, Grow & Run a Successful Business
• The 14 Best Finance Books of All Time
• The 21 Best Habit Books of All Time to Change Any Behavior
• The 33 Best Happiness Books of All Time That Everyone Should Read
• The 60 Best History Books of All Time (to Read at Any Age)
• The 7 Best Inspirational Books That Will Light Your Inner Fire
• The 40 Best Leadership Books of All Time to Help You Become a Truly Inspiring Person
• The 31 Best Motivational Books Ever Written
• The 12 Best Nonfiction Books Most People Have Never Heard Of
• The 34 Best Psychology Books That Will Make You Smarter and Happier
• The 25 Best Sales Books of All Time to Help You Close Any Deal
• The 33 Best Self-Help Books of All Time to Read at Any Age
• The 22 Best Books About Sex & Sexuality to Improve Your Love Life & Relationships
• The 30 Most Life-Changing Books That Will Shift Your Perspective & Stay With You Forever

Looking for more books by the world’s most celebrated authors? Here are all of the book lists by the author we’ve curated for you:

• All Brené Brown Books, Sorted Chronologically (and by Popularity)
• Jordan Peterson Books: All Titles in Order of Publication + The 5 Top Books He Recommends
• All Malcolm Gladwell Books, Sorted Chronologically (and by Popularity)
• All Michael Pollan Books, Sorted Chronologically (and by Popularity)
• Peter Thiel Books: A Comprehensive List of Books By, About & Recommended by Peter Thiel
• All Rachel Hollis Books: The Full List of Non-Fiction, Fiction & Cookbooks, Sorted by Popularity & the Best Reading Order
• All Ray Dalio Books, Sorted Chronologically (and by Popularity)
• All Robert Greene Books, Sorted Chronologically (and by Popularity)
• All Ryan Holiday Books, Sorted Chronologically (and by Popularity)
• All Simon Sinek Books, Sorted Chronologically (and by Popularity)
• All Tim Ferriss Books, Sorted Chronologically (and by Popularity)
• All Walter Isaacson Books, Sorted Chronologically (and by Popularity)

Last Updated on February 20, 2023

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Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will

Robert M. Sapolsky, Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will ,  Penguin Press, 2023, 528pp., $35.00 (hbk), ISBN 9780525560975.

Reviewed by John Martin Fischer, University of California, Riverside

This is a big, splashy book, both in number of pages and ambitions. It is much ballyhooed, receiving reviews and attention throughout the Anglophone world. Sapolsky wishes to disabuse us of what he takes to be our false beliefs that we are free and morally responsible, and even active agents, three central and foundational aspects of human life and our navigation of it. Much of the book contains summaries (necessarily somewhat brief) of various scientific and mathematical fields (and sub-areas) relevant to his topics: neuroscience (the appendix is a “primer on neuroscience”), chaos theory, quantum mechanics, emergence, and some results from psychology and sociology.

It is a compendious book. The summaries will be helpful in bringing readers up to speed, or at least beginning that process, in a wide variety of disciplines and areas of inquiry. Whereas many in the history of philosophy have contended that all our mental states and behavior are causally determined, a significant feature of this book is to fill in this claim with its specific empirical basis. The view that causal determinism is true is not new, nor is the view that this entails no free will or moral responsibility, but Sapolsky collates and marshals the evidence (some of it recent and cutting-edge) as it bears on these issues. The cumulative effect of the discussions and Sapolsky’s analyses can be an overwhelming sense that we might be wrong about our very foundational beliefs in free will and moral responsibility, and even our selfhood. He writes, “… put all the scientific results together, from all the relevant scientific disciplines, and there’s no room for free will” (8; emphasis in text). [1]

Considered as philosophy, however, the picture is very different. Right off the bat, one is struck by the title. Sapolsky writes, “This book … is both about the science of why there is no free will and the science of how we might best live once we accept that.” (10) But these do not appear to be scientific questions. Science, of course, is relevant ; but that does not make free will a scientific question. Note that slavery is beyond a doubt morally wrong. The empirical facts about slavery are relevant, but this does not make the issue of the moral justifiability of slavery a scientific question. How we should adjust our attitudes and behavior in light of a belief in determinism, if we were to acquire such a belief, is definitely not a scientific question.

Surprisingly, in a book about free will, Sapolsky offers no definition of it (or, for that matter, determinism—or even moral responsibility!). He writes, “What is free will? Groan… I’ll do my best to mitigate the drag of this” (14). Although he does not present a  full definition proper, it is clear that he holds that free will requires the falsity of determinism— by definition (not as a result of argumentation):

[To establish free will] [s]how me a neuron being a causeless cause in this total sense. …Show me a neuron (or brain) whose generation of a behavior is independent of the sum of its biological past, and for the purposes of this book, you’ve demonstrated free will. (15)

This is problematic in various ways. First, it claims that “being a causeless cause” or “independent of the sum of its biological past” would be sufficient for a choice/action’s being an instance of free will. This is however surely false; pure randomness is incompatible with the control involved in free will. (In his discussion of quantum indeterminacy, Sapolsky is aware of this.) More plausibly, we should interpret him (here and throughout the book) as contending that, as a matter of definition or “meaning,” indeterminism is a necessary condition of free will. Note that the indeterminism of “causeless cause” or “independent of the sum of its biological past” is a very strong kind of indeterminism, leaving out the more appealing idea of not being fully determined by antecedent causes. (Sapolsky elides the distinction between causation and deterministic causation and thus does not consider indeterministic causal accounts of free will).

As Alfred Mele noted, this sets the bar “absurdly high” for a definition of free will, but Sapolsky simply dismisses this worry (15). Mele is clearly correct. It might turn out that one wishes in the end to insist on this indeterministic constraint, but it is problematic to build it into the  definition of free will.

Sapolsky also fails to offer a definition of determinism, but one gets the flavor of it, and it is not too different from a standard formulation in philosophical discussions, according to which everything is caused in such a way that the past and the laws entail a unique present and future. This is a metaphysical, not an epistemic point about predictability (as in LaPlace). Much of the book is devoted to establishing that our behavior (choices/formations of intentions and actions) is determined in this sense, and thus not free. Sapolsky holds that this implies we cannot legitimately be held morally responsible for it. He thinks of moral responsibility in terms of the Strawsonian reactive attitudes (Strawson 1962), including indignation and resentment, as well as their “positive” counterparts. He focusses especially on blame and punishment.

Sapolsky sums up his position:

You cannot decide all the sensory stimuli in your environment, your hormone levels this morning, whether something traumatic happened to you in the past, the socioeconomic status of your parents, your fetal environment, your genes, whether your ancestors were farmers or herders. … we are nothing more or less than the cumulative biological and environmental luck, over which we had no control, that has brought us to any moment. (4)

The “nothing more than” claim is not just that we lack free will (and thus moral responsibility), but we are not even agents (in the sense of being active) at all. We do not make genuine decisions and engage in robust practical reasoning. Rather, things just happen to us. Indeed, we are nothing more than a bunch of cells (neurons), determined to bounce around as they do. Importantly, we do not actively change our moral behavior. It does indeed change, but not as a result of active choices on our part (265-299). As Sapolsky puts it, we are not the captains of our ships. (It seems that, on his view, we are not even cabin boys!)

So, we don’t have free will and moral responsibility, but can we live with this? Sapolsky admits it is difficult and he hasn’t entirely succeeded. He sets out, however, in the second half of the book, to argue that we can do it because “we’ve done it before.” What he means, at least in part, is that over the course of human history we have learned more and more about the causes of certain human behaviors. In some cases, such as epilepsy and schizophrenia, as we have discovered their causes, we have stopped holding individuals with these afflictions morally responsible. He believes this supports a general principle to the effect that as we understand the neurobiological (and other) bases of behavior (the ways in which it is determined), we will correspondingly diminish or eliminate moral responsibility for it. As we do so, we become more humane and eschew the dark urges for revenge and the pleasures of witnessing the suffering of others. So far as determinism is indeed true, we can in principle find the causes of all our behavior, in which case we would give up moral responsibility for it, as with epilepsy and schizophrenia. Given this, we should abandon our moral responsibility practices now, even if we do not yet have specific explanations for all kinds of behavior (on the assumption that determinism is true). Sapolsky writes, “…we can subtract responsibility out of our view of aspects of behavior. And this makes the world a better place” (340).

In his concluding chapter, he puts it this way:

…we need to accept the absurdity of hating any person for anything they’ve done; ultimately, that hatred is sadder than hating the sky for storming, hating the earth when it quakes, hating a virus because it’s good at getting into lung cells. This is where science has brought us… (403)

O boy. I cannot possibly engage with all the provocative claims in this book, but I’ll pick a few for special consideration (in addition to the ones I’ve touched on above).

Above I pointed out that Sapolsky defines free will as requiring causal indeterminism. He is not alone among neuroscientists in defining free will in this way, but this leads to serious confusions. Much unproductive debate has taken place between neuroscientists and philosophers due to this (often implicit) definition or assumption. The neuroscientists in question believe that establishing that the brain works deterministically implies (without further argumentation) that there is no free will. The philosophers deem this unacceptable, because it rules out compatibilism by definition.

As with Sapolsky, many neuroscientists use the spatial metaphor about “room in the brain.” They seem to think that determinism would entail no gaps, no space in the brain, as though free will has to occupy some gap or space. This is clearly misleading, and, at the least, tilts the discussion away from compatibilism right from the start. [2]

Defining free will in this way evidently begs the question against compatibilism about free will and causal determinism. If this is the correct definition of free will, why bother arguing for incompatibilism at all? It is already there on a beautiful metaphysical silver platter! There are reasonable and plausible arguments for the incompatibility of free will (interpreted in certain specific ways) with determinism, but these arguments are not decided by definitions of the two key notions alone. The history of discussions of free will, including the contemporary debates, is filled with various critiques and defenses of compatibilism. To evaluate these arguments, we need to be clear about what notion of free will is under consideration, and we should consider the arguments carefully. It would be egregiously unhelpful and unfair simply to define compatibilism out of existence from the beginning of the inquiry. Yet this is precisely what Sapolsky does.

Perhaps this is why he offers no arguments in the entire book against compatibilism! He focusses his attention on establishing determinism, but does not seek to refute or in any way argue against compatibilism, where free will is understood in any of a range of ways offered historically and currently. Free will, roughly speaking, is a kind of active power that is typically thought to be necessary for moral responsibility, and that we can grasp inchoately. This power can be analyzed in different ways, some of which are compatibilistic. I can identify no arguments in the book to the effect that any of the prima facie plausible compatibilist accounts of the free will required for responsibility is inadequate; nor do I find an argument that all such accounts must be rejected.

No need to get one’s hands dirty with the tedious business of argumentation! But this does not stop Sapolsky from casting aspersions on compatibilism throughout the book, substituting name-calling for serious philosophical engagement. Here’s just one example:

One compatibilist philosopher after another reassuringly proclaims their belief in material, deterministic modernity… yet somehow, there is still room for free will. As might be kinda clear by now, I think that this doesn’t work [Sapolsky refers to his entire book, chapter by chapter here]. I suspect that most of them know this as well. When you read between the lines, or sometimes even the lines themselves in their writing, a lot of these compatibilists are actually saying that there has to be free will because it would be a total downer otherwise, doing contortions to make an emotional stance seem like an intellectual one (387).

So we compatibilists are lying or perhaps simply deceiving ourselves in a desperate attempt to avoid a “downer”? I (a compatibilist) certainly do not think compatibilism must be true because its falsity would create serious problems in our self-conceptions. I believe it is true because it has various truth-making characteristics that are independent of the desirability of maintaining moral responsibility, even in a deterministic world (Fischer 2023). There are other dismissive animadversions throughout the book. One wonders whether this is the compassion Sapolsky aspires to (and thinks is required by his arguments).

By using the term “free will” in a vague way, and avoiding any consideration of the power it typically is taken to refer to, Sapolsky’s analysis is significantly vitiated. For example, is the freedom in question an alternative-possibilities kind (requiring freedom to choose and do otherwise), or an actual-sequence kind (requiring acting freely, but not necessarily access to alternative possibilities)? In neglecting the inchoate power that is, arguably, the nature of free will, Sapolsky elides (or, at the least, ignores) this distinction in kinds of freedom (a staple of contemporary philosophical discussions of free will and its relationship to moral responsibility.

In taking this path, he cannot specify exactly why determinism threatens (or rules out) free will. It is crucial to acknowledge the distinction between alternative-possibilities and actual-sequence freedom, as the challenges from determinism to the two kinds of freedom are not the same. For instance, causal determinism threatens alternative-possibilities freedom via concerns about the fixity of the past and natural laws (what van Inwagen dubbed the “Consequence Argument” in his [1983]), but it does not thereby threaten actual-sequence freedom. This is not to say that causal determinism does not threaten actual-sequence freedom, but it is not in the same way. Here the worry is that the “source” of the relevant behavior is out of the agent’s control (Fischer 1982; Pereboom 2001 and 2016). The distinction between alternative-possibilities and actual-sequence freedom is important insofar as one’s critique of compatibilism (if one is inclined to offer a critique) would need to depend on the particular version of compatibilism is at issue.

Suppose that a compatibilist denies that moral responsibility requires alternative-possibilities freedom, but only actual-sequence freedom. Now if an incompatibilist worries about causal determinism because she holds that it eliminates alternative-possibilities freedom, this will be irrelevant to the indicated version of compatibilism. On the version of compatibilism I prefer, we do not require freedom to intend or do otherwise for moral responsibility, and thus it wouldn’t matter if causal determinism threatens such freedom. In order to target my preferred sort of compatibilism, the incompatibilist would have to make a different sort of argument, perhaps contending that causal determinism is inconsistent with the required kind of “internality” or “sourcehood.” Thus, it is important to make the distinction between the two kinds of freedom in evaluating arguments for incompatibilism.

There are many sophisticated and prima facie plausible accounts of both kinds of freedom (alternative-possibilities and actual-sequence) on offer in the contemporary philosophical debates about free will. These have prototypes throughout the history of philosophy, some inspired by Hume, some by Kant, some by Reid, and so forth. Some of these accounts are compatibilist, others incompatibilist. One will find no discussions and thus no illumination of these accounts or their historical ancestors in Sapolsky’s book. The entire focus is on whether determinism is true, not its relationship to free will (and its specific variants), where free will is understood (as it must be) as more than simply indeterminsim.

Sapolsky refers to himself as a “hard incompatibilist” (10), a term introduced by Derk Pereboom (2001). This term refers to the view that we almost certainly lack free will (and moral responsibility), whether or not causal determinism is true. As with the compatibilism side of the equation, I find no reflections on indeterministic notions of free will, or a general argument against any of them, in Sapolsky’s book.

Again, the focus is on whether determinism is true, not on whether, in this case, its falsity is compatible with free will. Sapolsky does contend that our free will cannot simply arise from quantum mechanical indeterminacies, but he does not consider approaches, such as Robert Kane’s, that build out from such (purported) indeterminacies in the brain, amplified by chaotic processes, to get a libertarian conception of free will (Kane 1996). There are many other indeterministic strategies for analyzing free will that don’t rest on quantum mechanics or total randomness at any level—event-causal, agent-causal, and non-causal. The proponents of these accounts contend that indeterminism need not imply randomness or lack of control. Sapolsky does not engage with any of them. There are, then, no serious reflections on free will, compatibilist or libertarian, in this book.

Have we really “done this before?” Scientific progress in understanding the neurophysiological bases of various impairments, disorders, and diseases has led to important and salutary changes in our attitudes and responsibility practices. No disagreement here! The problem comes when Sapolsky extrapolates to the general principle that causal understanding implies no responsibility. This is a spurious transition—a hasty generalization of monumental proportions.

We increasingly understand the neurobiology and other causes of various specific conditions, such as epilepsy, schizophrenia, other mental disorders, addictions, and so forth. The conclusion to be drawn is that there are certain kinds of causal histories and conditions that typically or sometimes etiolate or eliminate free will and moral responsibility. It does not follow that all causal factors play the same role, or that we should take this general principle (that understanding eo ipso exculpates) as a working hypothesis. It is important that the underlying physical/causal bases of these specific conditions are different from the bases of ordinary human action in ways that can be identified. These atypical causes are contrasted with what underwrites the distinctive human capacity for practical reasoning, and the contrasts are illuminating and important. We can understand scientifically why these differences from normal functioning lead to the specific syndromes of behaviors associated with each condition, and we thus either withdraw or diminish (say) blameworthiness. We’ve done this before, but it would be inappropriate to leap to the conclusion that any causal explanation of human behavior will be exculpating, simply in virtue of being such an explanation.

We should reject “ tout comprendre, c’est tout pardoner. ” This is not to say that understanding the background of the individual and the causal history of the behavior should not cause us to mitigate or adjust the level of blame or severity of punishment we attach to it, or that we should not be empathetic. After all, there but for the grace of God (or the luck of the draw), go I. This fact should make us all deeply humble in assigning blame and careful in carrying out punishment. Indeed, there are some kinds of causal sequences leading to behavior that totally exculpate the agent. Here it is not understanding qua understanding that eliminates blameworthiness, but understanding that the causal background is of a certain sort.

Determinism and Trading Places

Sapolsky writes:

Imagine a university graduation ceremony. Almost always moving… The happiness, the pride. The families whose sacrifices now all seem worth it. …

And then you notice someone. Amid the family clusters postceremony… you see the person way in the back, the person who is part of the grounds crew, collecting the garbage from the cans on the perimeter of the event.

Randomly pick any of the graduates. Do some magic so that this garbage collector started life with the graduate’s genes. Likewise for getting the womb in which nine months were spent and the lifelong epigenetic consequences of that. Get the graduate’s childhood as well—one filled with, say, piano lessons and family game nights, instead of, say, threats of going to bed hungry, becoming homeless, or being deported for lack of papers. Let’s [suppose] that, in addition to the garbage collector having gotten all that of the graduate’s past, the graduate would have gotten the garbage collector’s past. Trade every factor over which they had no control, and you will switch who would in the graduation robe and who would be hauling garbage cans. This is what I mean by determinism. (16-17)

This notion of determinism is essentially the metaphysical version of the LaPlacean conception of determinism referred to above. Formative circumstances—the total package—together with the natural laws, entail the choices and behavior of all of us (including the graduate and garbage collector), thus rendering true the claim about what would result from “switching” the formative circumstances. Does such determinism obtain in our world? Sapolsky argues that it does, but it is unclear that he succeeds.

First, a quibble about the thought experiment. If we think of particular individuals as defined in part by their “narratives,” including key features of their formative circumstances, then the garbage collector and the graduate could not trade places in the way envisaged by Sapolsky. The thought-experiment only makes sense if we take a different sort of view of personal identity, according to which the self is some sort of bare subject of consciousness, which is not defined in terms of a particular narrative.

Let this go. A second question is whether the world really works in this way, i.e., whether Sapolsky’s arguments succeed. An evaluation is very difficult, as the elements and their combination require specialized expertise. Some neuroscientists disagree with his conclusions, contending that the brain works in a metaphysically indeterministic way. Some also hold that our brains are indeed the locus, or physical basis, of our free will (and, for that matter, agency). For example, Kevin Mitchell, an associate professor of genetics and neuroscience at Trinity College Dublin, writes:

Our free will is thus not some nebulous, spooky, mystical property granted to us by the gods. It is an evolved biological function that depends on the proper functioning of a distributed set of neural resources.

What are the implications of this position for our views on moral and legal responsibility? … I believe that our views on these issues do not need to change. Despite the headlines proclaiming the death of free will, it remains stubbornly alive and well. Nothing in philosophy or physics or neuroscience or genetics or psychology or neurology or any other science undermines the idea that we do have the capacity for conscious, rational control of our actions.

So there’s no reason, in my view, not to continue to hold people responsible for their behavior…. The broad idea of moral responsibility is … unaffected by discoveries from science that are revealing the neural and cognitive underpinnings of rational control. (Mitchell 2023: 282, 283)

I once attended a graduation ceremony at Stanford University (although not as a professor). Many of my friends in my graduating class were scions of rich and famous people (the owners of the trash-collecting companies, not the trash collectors). Not me. But I did as well as any of them, and there were many more like me. I’m sure many had challenges much larger than mine.

We know that many emerge from challenging circumstances to achieve extraordinary things in all aspects of human life. This suggests that the brain does not work deterministically, as understood by Sapolsky. This suggestion, however, might not survive critical scrutiny, because Sapolsky would insist that we take into account all the formative factors—the total package. The anecdotal evidence does not decide the issue, because it doesn’t (and cannot) do this. It may be that all the formative factors, together with the laws, entail all our choices/formations of intentions and behavior, as Sapolsky contends.

What are we to make of all this? First, to reiterate: it is a scientifically open question whether determinism of the sort Sapolsky defends (or any other kind) actually obtains. There is anecdotal evidence that at least suggests otherwise, and perhaps more importantly, well-regarded neuroscientists disagree. If indeterminism is true, there are various plausible options for analyzing the freedom that would arguably be present, and Sapolsky offers no reasons to reject them.

Second, causal determinism of the sort Sapolsky defends (or some other kind) might obtain in our world. It would be dialectically infelicitous and unproductive at this point simply to dig in one’s heels and claim that it follows straightaway that there is no free will (of any relevant kind). The thought experiment simply brings out a consequence of the truth of a certain kind of causal determinism: switching formative factors (trading places, so to speak) would entail switching outcomes.

Why exactly would this fact about the counterfactuals in question imply no free will (or moral responsibility)? It seems that Sapolsky believes that it, in itself, entails the absence of free will, but, again, this seems to me to be dialectically unhelpful, if not downright question-begging. The question we need to ask is whether the agent (either the garbage collector or graduate) has or exhibits free will of the kind required for moral responsibility along the actual paths they take, and I see no argument in Sapolsky that they don’t. Why exactly does the graduate not have freedom to choose and do otherwise? Why doesn’t he act freely? And why exactly does the garbage collector not possess alternative-possibilities freedom? Why does he lack actual-sequence freedom?

We need to scrutinize the “actual-sequences” that unfold and figure out whether the agent has free will. I do not see why the trading places counterfactuals are relevant to this question (as opposed to that of causal determinism), nor do I find any argument in Sapolsky’s book defending their relevance. It is surely more difficult in various ways for the garbage collector to achieve the feats of the graduate and to behave ethically, but this in itself does not imply lack of responsibility. Formative circumstances of this sort may mitigate (say) blameworthiness and severity of punishment, but not necessarily moral responsibility per se . There are various compatibilist accounts of free will of either the alternative-possibilities or actual-sequence kind, and none is addressed in a serious way by Sapolsky. The presence of the sorts of free will captured by these accounts seem to be consistent with the stories that unfold involving the garbage collector and graduate. One might be dubious about this, or about the plausibility of these accounts, but further illumination is not offered in the book.

Moral Responsibility

Sapolsky doesn’t define moral responsibility, but he gives pride of place to the blaming emotions, such as indignation, resentment, and hatred, and the associated practice of punishment. Like moral responsibility skeptics in general, Sapolsky argues that we do not deserve in a “basic” way (not derived from particular laws or institutions that specify the rules of the social game, so to speak) these attitudes (and, by extension, the positive ones). Punishment, thought of in part as the state’s expression of resentment, is out, in favor of something like the public health “quarantine” model favored by Pereboom (2016).

There are many worries about such an approach, which entirely eshews considerations of moral guilt and desert of proportionate punishment. When a COVID sufferer no longer has the disease, there is no reason to continue to detain him, on the quarantine model. Similarly, when a criminal has been fully rehabilitated (including a recognition of the wrongness of his behavior and a reliable commitment not to do it ever again), there is no reason to continue to detain him, no matter how serious the crime. This is jarring, to my sensibilities, at least. If Putin were apprehended and recanted sincerely (and we believed him), would it be appropriate to let him leave the detention facility? Would it have been so with Hitler?

Sapolsky discusses the trial and detention of Anders Breivik, who gunned down—murdered-sixty-nine teenagers attending a summer camp in Norway. He was found guilty and given the longest sentence possible in Norway (twenty-one years). (379)

Breivik was deposited in one of Norway’s dens of [enlightened detention (JMF’s term)]. He has a three-room living space, computer, TV, PlayStation, treadmill, and kitchen (he was able to submit an entry to a prison gingerbread house competition. (379)

And one survivor opined, “If he [Breivik] is deemed not to be dangerous any more after twenty-one years, then he should be released…” 380.

Sapolsky does not contend that all survivors or their families feel the same way, but he finds this Norwegian approach appealing. He points out that the jurors disagreed about the issue of Breivik’s free will, and the basis of the decision had more to do with longstanding Norwegian attitudes toward crime and respect for the humanity of the criminal. Sapolsky himself argues that we are all determined in such a way as to rule out free will and moral responsibility. If that were true, why would one even favor detaining someone for twenty-one years, if he were deemed no longer dangerous? Why detain him at all, after that point is reached? This, despite the individual having (say) gunned down 69 innocent teenagers at a summer camp (or, for that matter, overseen the Holocaust or Russia’s war in the Ukraine).

Sapolsky seems to think the alternative to this sort of health-quarantine model inevitably is in some sense based on, or leads to, ghoulish joy in watching others’ suffering or even being put to death, or at least in knowing that they will suffer. Similarly, Pereboom (whom Sapolsky cites approvingly) contends that punishment based on retribution “comes from” vengeance (in some way that would, in my opinion, need further specification). Sapolsky gives a detailed history of disturbing human practices around cruel punishments and executions. He contends that it is difficult to convince people to abandon the punishment model in favor of the quarantine approach due to “…our enjoyment of seeing righteous punishment served” (370). He adds, “Good luck convincing people that blame and punishment are scientifically and morally bankrupt” (371).

Indisputably, there are excesses and corruptions of the punishment model, but they are not intrinsic to it. One can believe in justified blame and punishment that is proportional to the offense, implemented in ways that are deemed morally acceptable and even humane. Even a retributivist about the justification of punishment (there are various views) need not be a moral monster or indifferent to the awful conditions of penal (or “carceral,” in Foucault’s term) institutions, despite the suggestions of Sapolsky and various of the moral responsibility skeptics. It is a mistake to suppose that there is no middle ground between the quarantine model and one in which people delight in witnessing macabre executions and take ghoulish pleasure in others’ suffering (or accept harsh and inhumane prisons). In applying the reactive attitudes and implementing punishment, we “acquiesce in suffering,” in Peter Strawson’s formulation, but need not delight in it. (Strawson 1962) Insofar as there is free will, deserved blame and punishment are not morally corrupt, and Sapolsky has offered no arguments against free will. It is much likelier that it would be morally corrupt to banish moral responsibility, creating a flatland of the soul, so to speak.

Why exactly are blame and punishment “scientifically corrupt?” Again: free will and moral responsibility are not scientific questions. How best to respond to ill will or norm violations, including the proper response of the state, is a complex moral question with many moving parts. It involves empirical facts but also metaphysical and normative analyses. Science is relevant, but by no means dispositive.

From my perspective as a philosopher, it is jarring that a book on free will would not discuss free will. Sapolsky spends his energy seeking to establish the truth of causal determinism but does not investigate in any serious way how this would relate to free will and moral responsibility. Like many other neuroscientists who adopt a spatial metaphor and proclaim there is no room for free will in the brain (Sapolsky is late to the party), he assumes that causal determinism is incompatible with free will and moral responsibility, rather than arguing for this contention. Further, he believes that indeterministic sequences don’t underwrite free will either, but he never addresses a range of proposals on offer for indeterministic accounts of free will. His discussions of the putative problems with moral responsibility are shopworn, and he has certainly not established that our world would be better off if we “subtracted” moral responsibility. It is more plausible that it would be a desiccated world—a moral desert. This book, despite all the commotion over it, does not offer anything new or illuminating about free will or moral responsibility. [3]

I pause to observe that Sapolsky writes, “I haven’t believed in free will since adolescence [but presumably not for the empirical reasons he invokes in the book!], and it’s been a moral imperative for me to view human beings without judgment…” (9). He agrees that he has not entirely succeeded, but how exactly could this be a moral imperative, given his theory? He certainly could not legitimately feel any regret, or be blameworthy, for not living up to it. Can we still have morality, and moral imperatives, without free will? Perhaps we could still be criticized from a moral point of view without the reactive attitudes, such as indignation and resentment, and without punishment. It is however difficult to fit morality and its distinctive framework of evaluation within a no-responsibility theory, and Saposlky does not explore this in any depth. If we are morally criticizable for failing to live up to moral principles and imperatives, wouldn’t many of the same putative drawbacks of moral responsibility re-emerge? “Subtracting” moral responsibility is not so easy.

This is what I think is going on, and why the book will reach and move many. Sapolsky is filling in the details of how our behavior is caused (and, in his view, determined). He is, you might say, B.F. Skinner on steroids, or better, on neurobiology. We blithely assume, for the sake of our lofty philosophical ruminations, that causal determinism obtains, but when you actually immerse yourself in the details, you can feel the tug of the view that we do not have free will (and cannot fairly be held morally responsible). Sapolsky is seeking to bring philosophical theorizing down to earth in this way, or at least to ensure we recognize we are standing on a particular kind of ground floor. Neuroscientists and social scientists have been making progress in challenging philosophers to make our theorizing more empirically informed, and Sapolsky takes this many steps further. As he describes the causal mechanisms, the details become vivid. It is not just that we are determined by our past and the laws of nature, but in these specific kinds of ways , laid out in their florid detail.

Sapolsky’s challenge to compatibilists is to explain how we could be free and responsible, given that this is the specific way nature unfolds, the particular way in which we are determined. The recognition of the previously hidden causes of our behavior and functioning of our brains can issue in a sense of helplessness. We’re not the captains of our ships or the cabin-boys; having fallen off the ship, it is as if we are in a small raft in the ocean, being carried along willy nilly by the currents.

The challenge for Sapolsky, however, is to explain why this sense of helplessness is not just an unreflective reaction elicited by his impressive weaving together of the strands that enmesh and propel us forward. How is it not a “framing effect” of dubious rational status, employing Kahneman and Twersky’s term? Can he provide an argument for , or at least an explanation of, the claim that this sort of determination entails no free will or moral responsibility? If not, we simply have an unarticulated and vague unease, the basis of which remains obscure. This is where the book leaves us.

Are the human mechanisms of deliberation and our capacity for reasons-responsiveness incompatible with the way our behavior is caused? Why can’t these freedom-conferring properties be in place and play a role in our unfolding stories, even if we are determined in the way outlined by Sapolsky? I believe that physical determination, even of this sort, does not crowd out reasons-responsiveness, a key element of the freedom implicated in moral responsibility, an actual-sequence kind of freedom. But this is a long story (Fischer 1994 and Fischer and Ravizza 1998).

Recall Sapolsky’s claim that hating someone for his behavior is even sadder than hating the sky for storming. What is genuinely sad, however, is that a serious scholar would blur the distinction between the emanations of Hitler and those of the sky. Sapolsky’s elaborate theorizing has made him blind to the difference between thunder and lightning and Sturm und Drang.

Bibliography

Dennett, Daniel C. Freedom Evolves . New York: Viking.

Fischer, John Martin. (1982). “Responsibility and Control,” The Journal of Philosophy 89: 24-40.

Fischer, John Martin. (1994). The Metaphysics of Free Will: An Essay on Control . Oxford: Blackwell.

Fischer, John Martin and Mark Ravizza. (1998). Responsibility and Control: A Theory of Moral Responsibility . (New York: Cambridge University Press).

Fischer, John Martin. (2023). “The Resilience of Moral Responsibility.” In Taylor Cyr, Andrew Law, and Neal Tognazzini, Freedom, Responsibility, and Value: Essays in Honor of John Martin Fischer . (New York: Routledge).

Kane, Robert. (1996). The Significance of Free Will . (New York: Oxford University Press).

Mitchell, Kevin J. (2023). Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will . (Princeton: Princeton University Press).

Pereboom, Derk. (2001). Living Without Free Will . (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Pereboom, Derk. (2014). Free Will, Agency, and Meaning in Life . (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

Strawson, P.F. (1962). “Freedom and Resentment,” Proceedings of the British Academy 48: 1-25.

[1] Throughout the book, Sapolsky reiterates, like a mantra, his conclusion that there is no free will. All his arguments would imply, if they work, that everything we do is entirely determined, and thus, on his view, there is no free will. Yet, mysteriously, he writes, “This book has two goals. The first is to convince you that there is no free will, or at least that there is much less [italics in text] than generally assumed when it really matters.” I don’t understand. Why “less”, rather than “none,” and what does it mean to suggest that one has at least some “when it really matters”? Perplexing.

[2] The same spatial metaphor is employed in regard to the self: “if determinism is true, there is no room for the self.” It is as if we need to find space for a ghost in the machine (to use Ryle’s metaphor), at least a physical one. The underlying picture is of the self as homunculus, not fully supervenient on physical events and processes in the brain. But a physicalist/determinist will simply point out that the self is constituted by, or supervenes on, the neural processes in the brain; we don’t need to find a special, separate (first class?) compartment for it.

Must the self disappear in the buzz and confusion of the complex functioning of the events and processes in the brain? Some argue for the disappearing self thesis, but Sapolsky simply asserts it.

[3] Somewhat presumptuously, I believe most philosophers (perhaps the vast majority) would agree with me that Sapolsky leaves all the major free will issues untouched. I have the feeling, however, that most neuroscientists would think that his book addresses them in a serious and sustained way. How to reconcile the two perspectives is a delicate question. It strongly suggests that philosophers are on Venus, and neuroscientists Mars.

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The Best Books About Philosophers and Philosophy

Get philosophical with these books about great thinkers from around the world.

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Philosophy quite literally means “love of wisdom.” What book-lover wouldn’t want to dive deeper into that? But finding the best books about philosophy to start your philosophical journey can feel like a daunting task. In a perfect world, we’d all have Chidi Anagonye tutoring us on the teachings of Plato , Aristotle , and Voltaire . In real life, philosophers and their philosophies can seem too heady and inaccessible to explore casually.

But studying philosophy is a worthwhile endeavor for anyone to pursue. Reading about different philosophers and their ways of thinking can help you reframe your own biases about the world, improve your critical thinking skills, and gain more confidence in debating tricky subjects. Philosophers can also offer models for improving your public speaking, solving ethical problems, and interacting with new kinds of people. Reading books about philosophers can even help you find—or simply solidify — your personal moral code.

Whether you’re looking to hone your logical thinking skills, explore the world of aesthetics, or ponder mind-blowing existential questions, these 10 books about philosophers and philosophy will serve as a great starting point.

Penguin Classics 'The Last Days of Socrates' by Plato

If you’re looking to read some books about philosophers, it’s hard to find a title more classic than this one. In a series of four dialogues, Plato recounts the trial, final days, and death of his philosophical mentor, Socrates . While historians continue to debate just how reliable a source Plato is on the life and beliefs of his famous teacher, these dialogues are nevertheless a classic introduction to classical philosophy.

Oxford University Press, USA 'Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction' by Jonathan Barnes

Oxford’s Very Short Introduction series offers exactly what it says on the tin for a huge variety of topics. Its volumes dedicated to various philosophers are a great way to cover the basics of philosophy in a short period of time. This short and sweet commentary on Aristotle and his ideas is the perfect place to start.

DK 'The Philosophy Book: Big Ideas Simply Explained'

This book uses vibrant graphics and clear, accessible text to introduce history’s most impactful philosophers to even the most intimidated readers. In addition to key quotes from more than 100 of the great thinkers of philosophy — including Siddhartha Gautama, Niccolo Machiavelli , and Thomas Hobbes — the book features graphs and cartoons to help explain complex concepts.

Unbound 'The Philosopher Queens' by Rebecca Buxton

As far as historical biographies go, books about philosophers are already in something of a niche category. But books about female philosophers throughout history are even more scant. This book, written by a duo of modern-day philosophers, aims to finally bring the women of philosophy to center stage. It shares the stories of 20 influential female thinkers, from Hypatia to Angela Davis .

Grove Press 'How to Think Like a Woman' by Regan Penaluna

Regan Penaluna blends memoir, biography, and criticism to tell the stories of four women philosophers, including groundbreaking feminist Mary Wollstonecraft . Penaluna uses her own struggles against sexism in academia in concert with the lives of the women who’ve inspired her to muse on how philosophy might have evolved if women had been given more airtime.

DK 'Philosophers: Their Lives and Works'

If you’re looking for less of an academic deep-dive and more of a lovely overview of the world’s most impactful philosophers, this entry in the DK History Changers series should suit you perfectly. Introduced with a stunning portrait of each featured philosopher, the 100 biographies in the book trace the lives and ideas of Noam Chomsky , Confucius, Karl Marx , and more.

Back Bay Books 'Love and Capital: Karl and Jenny Marx and the Birth of a Revolution' by Mary Gabriel

Pulitzer Prize finalist Mary Gabriel uses extensive research and masterful storytelling to present a rarely-seen facet of philosopher and revolutionary socialist Karl Marx . The epic narrative spans decades to show how Marx’s marriage and family life suffered and persevered through the years he spent crafting his defining masterpiece. The remarkably in-depth account of the Marx family is both informative and poignant.

University of Chicago Press 'Henry David Thoreau: A Life' by Henry David

Many books have taken up various aspects of Henry David Thoreau ’s character and achievements, but, as Laura Dassow Walls writes, “Thoreau has never been captured between covers; he was too quixotic, mischievous, many-sided.” Walls presents a complete portrait of the famous transcendentalist, drawing on previously unpublished writings to better explore his philosophy, values, and life.

St. Martin's Essentials 'How to Be Authentic: Simone de Beauvoir and the Quest for Fulfillment' by Skye C. Cleary

This lively, engaging book sits at the intersection of biography, self-help, and philosophy. Philosopher and writer Skye C. Cleary uses the life and teachings of Simone de Beauvoir to instruct readers on how to live more purposeful, authentic lives in the age of social media and self-exposure. Clear, accessible, and engaging but still deeply thought-provoking, Cleary’s writing proves that de Beauvoir’s philosophy is more relevant today than ever.

Oxford University Press 'Lives of the Eminent Philosophers: Diogenes Laertius' By Pamela Mensch

Looking for philosophy 101? First compiled in the third century AD, this anthology from Diogenes Laertius covers Ancient Greek philosophers from Pythagoras and Socrates to Aristotle and Epicurus. This English translation by Pamela Mensch offers a lively, accessible text with ample footnotes and annotations to contextualize content for the reader.

Rachel is a freelance writer, editor and content strategist and host of the hit podcast The Weirdest Thing I Learned This Week. Her first book, "Been There, Done That: A Rousing History of Sex" came out in May 2022. She loves reading about weird history, sharing weird science facts and writing weird ghost stories.

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The Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the World's Greatest Philosophers Mass Market Paperback – January 1, 1991

• Print length 528 pages
• Language English
• Publisher Pocket Books
• Publication date January 1, 1991
• Dimensions 1.22 x 4.09 x 6.77 inches
• ISBN-10 0671739166
• ISBN-13 978-0671739164
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• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Pocket Books (January 1, 1991)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Mass Market Paperback ‏ : ‎ 528 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0671739166
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0671739164
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 11.2 ounces
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 1.22 x 4.09 x 6.77 inches
• #327 in Philosopher Biographies
• #844 in History of Civilization & Culture
• #34,925 in Reference (Books)

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About the author

Will durant.

William James Durant was born in North Adams, Massachusetts, in 1885. He was educated in the Roman Catholic parochial schools there and in Kearny, New Jersey, and thereafter in St. Peter’s (Jesuit) College, Jersey City, New Jersey where he graduated in 1907, and Columbia University, New York. For a summer in 1907 he served as a cub reporter on the New York Journal, but finding the work too strenuous for his temperament, he settled down at Seton Hall College, South Orange, New Jersey, to teach Latin, French, English, and geometry (1907-11). He entered the seminary at Seton Hall in 1909, but withdrew in 1911 for reasons which he has described in his book Transition. He passed from this quiet seminary to the most radical circles in New York and became (1911-13) the teacher of the Ferrer Modern School, an experiment in libertarian education. In 1912 he toured Europe at the invitation and expense of Alden Freeman, who had befriended him and now undertook to broaden his borders. Returning to the Ferrer School, he fell in love with one of his pupils, resigned his position, and married her (1913). For four years he took graduate work at Columbia University, specializing in biology under Morgan and Calkins and in philosophy under Woodbridge and Dewey. He received the doctorate in philosophy in 1917, and taught philosophy at Columbia University for one year. Beginning in 1913 at a Presbyterian church in New York, he began those lectures on history, literature, and philosophy which, continuing twice weekly for over thirteen years, provided the initial material for his later works. The unexpected success of The Story of Philosophy (1926) enabled him to retire from teaching in 1927, and is credited as the work that launched Simon & Schuster as a major publishing force and that introduced more people to the subject of philosophy than any other book. Thenceforth, except for some incidental essays and Will’s lecture tours, Mr. and Mrs. Durant gave nearly all their working hours (eight to fourteen daily) to The Story of Civilization. To better prepare themselves they toured Europe in 1927, went around the world in 1930 to study Egypt, the Near East, India, China, and Japan, and toured the globe again in 1932 to visit Japan, Manchuria, Siberia, Russia, and Poland. These travels provided the background for Our Oriental Heritage (1935) as the first volume in The Story of Civilization. Several further visits to Europe prepared for Volume II, The Life of Greece (1939) and Volume III, Caesar and Ch

Volume III, Caesar and Christ (1944). In 1948, six months in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, and Europe provided perspective for Volume IV, The Age of Faith (1950). In 1951 Mr. and Mrs. Durant returned to Italy to add to a lifetime of gleanings for Volume V, The Renaissance (1953); and in 1954 further studies in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, France, and England opened new vistas for Volume VI, The Reformation (1957). Mrs. Durant’s share in the preparation of these volumes became more substantial with each year, until in the case of Volume VII, The Age of Reason Begins (1961), it was so great that justice required the union of both names on the title page. And so it has been on The Age of Louis XIV (1963), The Age of Voltaire (1965), Rousseau and Revolution (1967), for which the Durants were awarded the Pulitzer Prize (1968), and The Age of Napoleon (1975). The publication of The Age of Napoleon concluded five decades of achievement and for it they were awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom (1977). Throughout his life, Will Durant was passionate in his quest to bring philosophy out of the ivory towers of academia and into the lives of laypeople. A champion of human rights issues, such as the brotherhood of man and social reform, long before such issues were popular, Durant’s writing still educates and entertains readers around the world, inspiring millions of people to lead lives of greater perspective, understanding, and forgiveness.

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Customers find the book amazing, fantastic, and valuable for describing lucidly and concisely the essence of each philosophy. They also say it's readable, easy to follow, and enjoyable. Readers mention the book is well worth the money. However, some customers have reported that the print size is too small. Opinions are mixed on the history, with some finding it thorough and complete, while others say it's not the story of philosophy.

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"...Voltaire himself is absolutely delightful to read , but he hardly ranks among the top notch philosophers...." Read more

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"...chapters on Nietzsche and Spinoza (whom Durant adores) are alone worth the price , and then some." Read more

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11 Best Philosophy Books to Read in 2024

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“Philosophy is mathematics, but for humans.”

That’s what my algebra professor in university used to tell me. And he was right!

Obviously, we are more dynamic and complex than mere numbers. But at the same time, the abstract methods we use to analyze numbers can be used to explain human consciousness.

After-all, at one point in history, philosophy and mathematics were intertwined; they were practically the same thing.

Why am I telling you all of this?

Well, I (and I’m guessing you as well) grew up in a techno-centric environment. Starting from school, I was taught that I should focus on tangible things — software development, design, engineering, economy, etc. My discipline should be “practical” to contribute to society.

Philosophy, literature, arts, poetry ? Oh, these things don’t matter. You won’t need those to make a living — they don’t apply to real life. It’s mental gymnastics!

Republic by Plato

Our #1 Recommended Philosophy Book

Author C.D.C. Reeve has brought Plato’s Republic into the modern world with this vibrant reworking of Grube’s renowned translation. It’s the most accessible yet accurate presentation of The Republic to date.

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(Sidenote: I believe we should strive to make a LIFE, not merely “make a living”)

Other than a superficial reading of Plato and Aristotle, we never fully dived into the fundamental principles.

It’s a pity because I come from a country that gave birth to many great philosophers who quite literally changed the course of history.

Yet, no one could understand the impact philosophy has on our world. Or, on ourselves.

When I became an adult, and I was hit with the growing pains of maturing, I realized why we need philosophy:

• It teaches you how to think
• It’s a tool to make sense of the world
• It gives meaning to the inherent suffering of life
• It helps you accept different perspectives, thus becoming more empathetic
• It’s a study of human nature
• It can keep you sharp
• It helps you understand people and yourself

So, I started reading. At first, it was difficult. Yes, it can be quite hard to comprehend a philosophy book fully.

But what makes this journey even harder is that, like math, philosophy has 100s of different subjects and branches.

And this is why I’m writing this!

In this list, I’ll try to create a short “canon” that will give you an overview of the must-read philosophy books you need to read. These will help you have a holistic understanding of philosophy.

Consider it a guide that will hopefully steer you in the right direction.

Table of Contents

Top 11 Philosophy Books That Changed The World

Keep in mind that this list is entirely subjective. You won’t become a great philosopher or a world-class thinker.

But if you manage to read all of them, you’ll have a better understanding of what we call “philosophy” than 99% of people.

Most importantly, I’m confident that your life will transform. It won’t happen the moment you finish the 11th book, but the ideas and the process you’ll expose yourself to will carry over to your day-to-day life.

Let’s begin!

1. Republic by Plato

You can’t talk about philosophy without mentioning the idealistic vision of Plato.

A book that’s written in the form of a dialogue, between Socrates (Plato’s teacher) and Athenians, it explores a wide arrange of philosophy topics. From ethics to phenomenology to ontology.

But the main focus, instead, the philosophical question this collection of small books tries to tackle, is about justice in man and a city-state (a community, in modern terms).

Many people regard it as the cornerstone of western philosophy, even though many ideas are considered outdated. That’s up to you to decide.

“Republic” is #1 on this list because it’s a great introduction to philosophical “logos” and the notion of questioning and breaking down everything to its first principles.

2. Aristotle

“Wait, that’s a name, not a book.”

I know, bare with me here.

Aristotle’s work is anti-diametrical to Plato’s. They use different presuppositions, different methods, and arrive at different conclusions.

Nonetheless, his philosophy books are equally important.

And they’re especially relevant to you because they offer an extremely useful categorization of the different branches of philosophy.

That’s why I recommend you use Aristotle’s work as a reference text whenever you want to expand your philosophical endeavors.

You’ll find that this guy has grappled with pretty much everything there is to inquire and conclude.

3. Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu

This book has many things you need to unpack. It needs to be read multiple times to grasp what it has to offer.

The interesting part? Everyone will find different meaning in reading it.

If you want to understand the basis of Eastern philosophy and see how it has influenced Western civilization, “The Way Of Tao” is a must-read philosophy book.

Even though it’s a religious book (obviously, it’s about Taoism), the principles and paradigms can be applied by anyone. That is the nature of Eastern philosophy.

Yes, I know. A bunch of old, dead guys again.

Again, I’m not giving you a specific book to read. If you pick one, you pretty much read them all.

Stoicism, as an idea, isn’t hard to grasp. It’s VERY hard to apply, though. And perhaps that’s the reason it has such a profound effect on your life – once you’re able to use it effectively.

But, beware. Stoicism has merit but doesn’t get obsessed with it. I’ve seen many people conflate the idea of controlling your emotions by having no feelings at all.

As you dive deeper, you’ll realize that no system is 100% accurate. Be conscious of this limitation.

It’s all about perspective, right Epicurus?

5. Crime and Punishment by Dostoy… Dostoefhsl…Dostoevsky!

(I will never spell his name correctly)

Before everyone starts commenting that this is a novel… I’m aware.

It’s a superb, kick-ass novel, better than 99% of “philosophy” books that get published nowadays.

As you’re reading about the moral dilemmas and existential dread of Raskolnikov, you’ll realize that you’re reading about humanity as a whole.

I consider this a “dangerous” book. Dostoyevsky writes about reality. Whatever you feel and discover while reading his book, know that’s it’s real and terrifying. A part of you…

6. Thus Spoke Zarathustra by Friedrich Nietzsche

Certainly a controversial figure. His ideas will penetrate your consciousness like nothing else.

This book contains the pervasive paradigms that paved the way to the postmodern philosophy.

“God is dead” sent waves of panic and despair to many people. And sadly, predicted the monstrosities that happened at the beginning of the 20th century.

A serious philosophy book you ought to read slowly and carefully. Do you recognize the patterns he describes in 2019?

7. Memories, Dreams, Reflections by G.C. Jung

I hope you’ve realized by now that what I consider a “philosophy book” isn’t the norm.

Jung is a psychologist. His book transcends the trade of psychology and touches upon universal truths. His work reflects a deep understanding of human nature and reveals a profound truth about ourselves.

“Memories, Dreams, Reflections” is a semi-autobiographical book. I chose this one because it’s a light read compared to his more dense and complex work.

You’ll learn about his process and methods, something that is even more valuable than his ideas, in my opinion.

I believe Jung will be a catalyst for change in the future. You should be prepared.

8. Of Grammatology by Jacques Derrida

I was hesitant to include postmodernists in this list. Mainly because their work tends to be extraordinarily unorthodox and can lead most people to the wrong conclusions (it happened to me!)

But Derrida’s book is an exception. It deconstructs western philosophy and judges the very medium philosophy uses; writing.

It’s not an easy book to read, but it’s valuable. Get ready to question everything.

9. Skin in The Game by Nassim Nicholas Taleb

If you haven’t heard of Taleb, you’re in for a treat.

The deadlifting philosopher is a breath of fresh air compared to the New Age hyperboles of the late 20th century.

Rooted in empirical data and real-life experience, Taleb attacks the pseudo-intellectual establishment.

His vitriolic prose is exhilarating to read, albeit he can be quite stubborn in his ideas.

If you seek to equip yourself with a “modern” idea, applicable to every single area of your life, “Skin in The Game” oughts to be part of your library.

10. Maps Of Meaning by Jordan B. Peterson

Have you been online in the past 12-36 months?

If so, you’ve encountered at least a few of Peterson’s soundbites.

“Clean your room, bucko!”

I have a love-hate relationship with him. I read “Maps of Meaning” before he became the mega-start that he is today. I was pleasantly surprised by the depth and precision he was able to map the human consciousness.

So, instead of reading his mainstream “12 Rules For Life”, opt-in for the more in-depth, lengthy, and complicated book.

11. Designing the Mind: The Principles of Psychitecture by Ryan A Bush

This modern cult classic draws upon the wisdom of teachers such as Lao Tzu, Marcus Aurelius, and Friedrich Nietzsche to create a practical and fascinating self-development guide. This is going to be really helpful for readers who want to achieve true self-mastery and live happier and more fulfilling lives. 

Using the fundamental principles of philosophy and applying them to modern-day, real-life scenarios, Ryan A Bush presents a new way of reprogramming our psyche. 

His method involves stepping outside of the mind and recognizing patterns of thought and behavior that don’t serve us. He argues that by understanding our own nature, we can begin to craft a new software for the mind. It’s a kind of software we choose for ourselves, rather than living out through blind impulse. 

This book is a must-read for anyone interested in practical philosophy that goes deeper than an intellectual level. And through the power of ancient wisdom, it will enable us to optimize our lives.

(Don’t hate me 😛 )

Yup, this is a placeholder for your philosophy book.

It may sound ridiculous right now, but if you think about it, the most significant philosophers were people like you and me.

People who have questions and sought answers. People who are thirsty for knowledge and truth.

I invite you to pick up your pen or pencil, grab a piece of paper, and start writing.

You’ll quickly realize that you don’t know your mind as well as you think. The more you dig, the more gold you’ll find.

Honorable mentions

First of all, this isn’t your typical list. I’ve left out so many important people and philosophical systems it’s not even funny! You can “grill” me in the comments below…

But I think it’s an adequate list for anyone who’s looking to read useful material…

That said, there are some people I can’t leave out:

• Kierkegaard
• Wittgenstein

These are some of the names you’ll see popping up if you keep at it.

Are these philosophy books for beginners?

I don’t think there are specific philosophy books for beginners. The original texts are superior. (There are some options, but I think you’re better off reading the real deal)

Sure, it’ll be hard in the beginning. New, complex ideas unravel in front of your eyes, while you stare at the very nature of yourself.

Philosophy can be taxing. And this is precisely why it’s so important to read it.

In the age of fast information, prepacked thoughts, and social media platitudes real philosophy can offer a unique challenge to your mind.

Timeless concepts and methods change the way we think and use our minds.

In 2023, understanding philosophy is as important as it is necessary. I hope you begin your journey today!

– G.K

P.S – Hey, feel free to comment on your list of philosophy books. I’m curious about what you’ve been reading! Oh, and don’t forget to share this post with all the bibliophiles you know 🙂

About the Author

George Kourakos is an ad-man by day, a writer by night. He is a mathematician with a creative side. Working full time as a copywriter, George wants to explore his creative side by writing about his favorite topics.

3 thoughts on “11 Best Philosophy Books to Read in 2024”

“I think, therefore I am” said Descartes. Well suppose he only thought that he was thinking ?

Thanks for the recommendations I’ll definitely put a few in my amazon cart. Just finished Dotoyevsky’s Crime and Punishment.

I was required to take several philosophy courses in my theology program. A smarter man than I told me a good book to read before taking the philosophy courses was “Sophie’s World, A novel about the History Of Philosophy” by Jostein Gaarder. I read it and it helped me get my mind right for my courses. A great little book for philosophy beginners.

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An Introduction to Philosophy   The Best 6 Books to Read

P hilosophy literally means ‘love of wisdom’, but defining it beyond this becomes a little tricky. In a nutshell, philosophy concerns itself with deep, fundamental questions: from how best we should live our lives, to the basic nature of the worlds we live in.

But within this nutshell resides a whole universe of feeling, reason, and meaning (for a fuller exploration, see our quick explainers on what philosophy is and why philosophy is important today ). Considering such mammoth subject matter, it's difficult to know where to start.

But fear not! This reading list contains the best general introductions to philosophy. Each book discusses the enduring questions philosophers have tackled throughout history — questions you have probably wondered about yourself. You know the ones. Why does anything exist? What's the right thing to do? Is the world around us ‘real’?

In one concise email each Sunday, I break down a famous idea from philosophy. You get the distillation straight to your inbox:

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The aim of philosophy is not necessarily to give you the answers to these questions, but rather to equip you with the right tools to perform your own investigation — and discover the answers for yourself. By introducing the approaches of philosophy's best minds, the books on this list set you on that path.

1. What Does It All Mean? By Thomas Nagel

What Does It All Mean?

BY THOMAS NAGEL

Thomas Nagel is the brilliant contemporary philosopher behind Mortal Questions and The View From Nowhere . Written in 1987, Nagel’s What Does It All Mean? is a lucid and accessible introduction to philosophy, setting forth the central problems of philosophical inquiry for beginners.

A slim book at just over 100 pages, Nagel covers free will, right and wrong, death, language, the meaning of life and other core topics in clear, illuminating language that anyone interested in philosophy would strongly benefit from reading.

2. Life’s Big Questions, by Philosophy Break

Life’s Big Questions: Your Concise Guide to Philosophy’s Most Important Wisdom

BY PHILOSOPHY BREAK

★★★★★ (50+ reviews)

Life’s Big Questions distills philosophy’s best answers to some of life’s most troubling questions. Why does anything exist? Is the world around us ‘real’? What makes us conscious? Do we have free will? How should we approach life? Packed full of wisdom from the greatest philosophical minds of the last few millennia, this concise online guide is designed to quickly equip you with philosophy’s most important insights.

Of course, we’re a little biased, as we produced this one — but if you’re seeking to understand the fundamentals of philosophy, and obtain a solid grounding for exactly where you can go to learn more, Life’s Big Questions gets rave reviews, and might be just what you’re looking for!

3. The Problems of Philosophy, by Bertrand Russell

The Problems of Philosophy

BY BERTRAND RUSSELL

Bertrand Russell was a towering figure of the 20th century. Though The History of Western Philosophy is perhaps his better-known work for the general reader, Russell wrote The Problems of Philosophy in 1912 as a short, accessible introduction to the subject. He presents philosophy in engaging and relevant ways that ignite the curiosity of the reader.

The Problems of Philosophy can be enjoyed in an evening, and — spoiler alert — you’ll never look at tables the same way again.

4. How to Live a Good Life (According to 7 of the World’s Wisest Philosophies), by Philosophy Break

How to Live a Good Life (According to 7 of the World’s Wisest Philosophies)

If your interest in philosophy falls mostly into the more practical ‘how can I live a good life?’ category, then the 2023 How to Live a Good Life (According to 7 of the World’s Wisest Philosophies) is for you. This concise online guide is designed to help you understand some of life’s most influential ethical frameworks — including Buddhism, Stoicism, Existentialism, and more — examine the pros and cons of each, and discover how they might apply to your own life.

Of course, we’re a little biased, as we produced this one, too — but How to Live a Good Life (According to 7 of the World’s Wisest Philosophies) gets rave reviews, is better value than buying introductory books for all philosophies covered, and could be just what you’re after!

5. Think: A Compelling Introduction to Philosophy, by Simon Blackburn

Think: A Compelling Introduction to Philosophy

BY SIMON BLACKBURN

Published in 1999, this wonderfully-written book begins with contemporary philosopher Simon Blackburn's rallying cry for the study of philosophy, before diving into discussion of the key philosophical themes and thinkers throughout history.

Each chapter of Think acts as a self-contained guide on subjects ranging from skepticism and ethics, to self-identity and God. You can thus take it all in in bitesize chunks, issue by issue, chapter by chapter.

6. Philosophy: The Basics, by Nigel Warburton

Philosophy: The Basics

BY NIGEL WARBURTON

Nigel Warburton’s Philosophy: The Basics is ideal for a general overview of the main arguments in philosophy.

First published in 1992, and now in its fifth edition, Warburton’s book gently eases the reader into the world of philosophy, touching all the big issues like God, science, art, and morality through easy-to-understand and powerful analogies.

Further reading

Are there any other books you think should be on this list? Let us know via email or drop us a message on Twitter or Instagram .

In the meantime, why not explore more of our reading lists on the best philosophy books :

View All Reading Lists

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Having received great value from studying philosophy for 15+ years (picking up a master’s degree along the way), I founded Philosophy Break in 2018 as an online social enterprise dedicated to making the subject’s wisdom accessible to all. Learn more about me and the project here.

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10 Best Philosophy Books of All Time – Expert Guide

Are you looking to expand your horizons and dive into the world of philosophy this year? You’re in luck! We’ve compiled a list of the 10 best philosophy books to read. Philosophy is more than just an academic subject – it’s a way of life. Reading philosophy books can help us gain a deeper understanding of ourselves and the world around us. So why not start your philosophical journey today?

Why Read Philosophy Books?

Philosophy books provide us with a perspective on life that is often hard to come by. They inspire us to ask questions about the world and our place in it. Philosophy helps us to develop critical thinking skills, gain insights that can challenge our beliefs, and sharpen our powers of reasoning.

Furthermore, philosophy books can provide us with a sense of intellectual fulfillment and personal growth . By engaging with complex ideas and grappling with difficult questions, we can expand our minds and broaden our perspectives.

The Importance of Philosophy in Modern Society

Philosophy has a crucial role to play in contemporary society. It helps us to understand and analyze complex issues, such as ethics, justice, and morality. In a world where these issues are increasingly important, philosophy can provide us with the tools to engage in meaningful discussions and debates about them in a rational and thoughtful way.

Moreover, philosophy can help us to navigate the challenges of modern life. By examining the nature of existence, the meaning of life, and the purpose of human existence, philosophy can provide us with a framework for making sense of the world and our place in it.

How Philosophy Can Improve Critical Thinking Skills

Philosophy requires us to think deeply and critically about our beliefs, assumptions, and values. Reading philosophy books can help us to develop our analytical and critical thinking skills, which are essential for success in any field.

Furthermore, philosophy can teach us to approach problems from multiple perspectives and to consider alternative viewpoints. By learning to think critically and creatively, we can become more effective problem-solvers and decision-makers.

In conclusion, reading philosophy books can provide us with a wealth of benefits, from intellectual fulfillment and personal growth to improved critical thinking skills and a better understanding of complex issues. So why not pick up a philosophy book today and see where it takes you?

The Top Philosophy Books 

Philosophy is a subject that has fascinated thinkers for centuries. It is a discipline that seeks to answer some of the most fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, truth, and morality. If you’re looking to expand your knowledge and understanding of philosophy , then you’re in luck. In this article, we’ll be discussing the top philosophy books to read. These books have been carefully selected for their relevance, insight, and impact on the field of philosophy.

Without further ado, here are our top 10 picks for philosophy books to read:

“Meditations” by Marcus Aurelius

This book is a classic of Stoic philosophy and is considered one of the most influential works of ancient philosophy. It’s a series of personal reflections that provide insight into the mind of one of Rome’s greatest emperors. In this book, Aurelius reflects on the nature of existence, the importance of virtue, and the role of reason in our lives. It’s a must-read for anyone interested in Stoicism or ancient philosophy. One of the most striking things about “ Meditations ” is the way in which Aurelius emphasizes the importance of living in the present moment. He argues that we should not waste our time worrying about the past or the future, but should instead focus on the present and strive to live a virtuous life. This is a message that is still relevant today, and one that we can all benefit from.

“The Republic” by Plato

This book is one of the foundational works of Western philosophy and is a must-read for anyone interested in political theory. It explores the nature of justice, the role of the state, and the ideal society. In “ The Republic “, Plato presents a vision of an ideal society in which individuals are organized into classes based on their natural abilities and virtues. He argues that this is the only way to achieve a just and harmonious society. One of the most interesting things about “The Republic” is the way in which it challenges our assumptions about democracy. Plato argues that democracy is inherently flawed because it allows the uneducated and unvirtuous to have a say in the running of the state. Instead, he advocates for a system in which only the most virtuous and knowledgeable individuals are allowed to govern.

“Beyond Good and Evil” by Friedrich Nietzsche

This book is a provocative and challenging work that critiques traditional morality and offers a new framework for understanding ethics. It’s a must-read for anyone looking to broaden their understanding of ethical theory. In “ Beyond Good and Evil “, Nietzsche argues that traditional morality is a form of herd mentality that stifles individual creativity and freedom. He advocates for a new morality that is based on the will to power and the pursuit of excellence. One of the most controversial aspects of “Beyond Good and Evil” is Nietzsche’s critique of Christianity. He argues that Christianity is a slave morality that glorifies weakness and suffering, and that it has had a detrimental effect on Western civilization. This is a challenging book that will force you to question your assumptions about morality and ethics.

“The Second Sex” by Simone de Beauvoir

This book is a feminist classic and is an essential read for anyone interested in gender theory. It argues that women are not a “second sex” but are equal to men in every way. In “ The Second Sex “, de Beauvoir explores the social, cultural, and psychological factors that have led to the oppression of women throughout histor One of the most important contributions of “The Second Sex” is its critique of the idea of “femininity”. De Beauvoir argues that femininity is a social construct that has been used to justify the subordination of women. She advocates for a new understanding of gender that is based on individual choice and freedom.

“The Ethics of Authenticity” by Charles Taylor

This book explores the idea of authenticity and how it relates to our sense of self and our relationships with others. It’s a thought-provoking and engaging work that challenges us to think deeply about who we are and what we value. In “ The Ethics of Authenticity “, Taylor argues that authenticity is a fundamental human need, and that we should strive to live our lives in accordance with our own values and beliefs. One of the most interesting things about “The Ethics of Authenticity” is the way in which it critiques the idea of relativism. Taylor argues that while we should respect the beliefs and values of others, we should also be willing to make moral judgments and stand up for what we believe in. This is a book that will inspire you to think deeply about your own values and how you can live a more authentic life.

“The Human Condition” by Hannah Arendt

This book explores the nature of human existence and the meaning of life. It’s a challenging work that confronts us with some of the most fundamental questions we can ask about our lives. In “ The Human Condition “, Arendt argues that human beings are defined by their ability to act and to create meaning in the world. One of the most interesting things about “The Human Condition” is the way in which it critiques modernity. Arendt argues that modern society is characterized by a loss of meaning and a sense of alienation. She advocates for a return to the public realm, where individuals can come together to create meaning and to act in the world.

“The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” by Thomas Kuhn

This book provides a groundbreaking theory of scientific progress and revolution. It challenges our assumptions about how scientific knowledge is acquired and reshapes our understanding of how science works. In “ The Structure of Scientific Revolutions “, Kuhn argues that scientific progress is not a linear process, but is instead characterized by periods of normal science punctuated by revolutionary breakthroughs. One of the most interesting things about “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” is the way in which it critiques the idea of scientific objectivity. Kuhn argues that scientific knowledge is always shaped by the social and cultural context in which it is produced, and that it is therefore always subjective to some degree. This is a book that will challenge your assumptions about science and the nature of knowledge.

“The Denial of Death” by Ernest Becker

This book is a profound exploration of the human struggle with mortality. It argues that much of human behavior is driven by our fear of death and our attempts to come to terms with our own mortality. In “ The Denial of Death “, Becker explores the ways in which we create meaning in our lives in order to cope with the inevitability of death. One of the most interesting things about “The Denial of Death” is the way in which it critiques the idea of heroism. Becker argues that heroism is a way of denying our own mortality, and that it is ultimately futile. He advocates for a more realistic and honest approach to life, in which we accept our mortality and strive to create meaning in the face of it.

“The Genealogy of Morals” by Friedrich Nietzsche

This book is another essential work by Nietzsche that explores the origins and evolution of moral systems. It challenges us to rethink our assumptions about right and wrong and to consider what it means to live a good life. In “ The Genealogy of Morals “, Nietzsche argues that traditional morality is a form of slave morality that is designed to keep the weak in check. One of the most interesting things about “The Genealogy of Morals” is the way in which it critiques the idea of guilt. Nietzsche argues that guilt is a form of self-punishment that is designed to keep us in line with traditional morality. He advocates for a new morality that is based on the will to power and the pursuit of excellence.

“The Problems of Philosophy” by Bertrand Russell

This book is a classic introduction to philosophy that provides a clear and accessible overview of some of the most important philosophical problems. It’s an excellent starting point for anyone new to philosophy. In “ The Problems of Philosophy “, Russell explores questions such as the nature of reality, the limits of knowledge, and the existence of God. One of the most interesting things about “The Problems of Philosophy” is the way in which it challenges our assumptions about the world. Russell argues that many of the things we take for granted are actually quite mysterious when we stop to think about them. This is a book that will inspire you to ask questions and to think critically about the world around you.

How to Choose the Right Philosophy Book for You

So now that you have our top 10 picks for philosophy books, how do you choose the right one for you? Here are a few things to consider:

Determine Your Interests and Goals

What topics interest you the most? Do you want to focus on ethics, politics, or metaphysics? Determining what you want to learn more about can help you choose a book that is a good fit for you.

Consider Your Current Knowledge of Philosophy

If you’re new to philosophy, you may want to start with an introductory book that provides a broad overview of the field. If you have some background in philosophy, you may be ready for a more specialized book on a particular topic.

Seek Recommendations from Friends and Experts

Don’t be afraid to ask for recommendations from friends or experts in the field. You may also want to consult online reviews to see what others have to say about a particular book.

So there you have it – our top 10 picks for philosophy books to read. Whether you’re a seasoned philosopher or just starting out, reading these books is sure to broaden your horizons and deepen your understanding of the world around you.

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Make Your Own List

The Best Books of 2021

The best philosophy books of 2021, recommended by nigel warburton.

A Little History of Philosophy by Nigel Warburton

Nigel Warburton —the philosopher, broadcaster and creator of the popular  Philosophy Bites podcast—selects five of the best public philosophy books published in 2021, including a defence of righteous rage, an examination of the concept of 'time management,' and an intellectual biography of the political philosopher and Holocaust survivor Hannah Arendt.

Interview by Cal Flyn , Deputy Editor

Being You: A New Science of Consciousness by Anil Seth

Critical Lives: Hannah Arendt by Samantha Rose Hill

The Case for Rage: Why Anger Is Essential to Anti-Racist Struggle by Myisha Cherry

Four Thousand Weeks: Time Management for Mortals by Oliver Burkeman

Free: Coming of Age at the End of History by Lea Ypi

1 Being You: A New Science of Consciousness by Anil Seth

2 critical lives: hannah arendt by samantha rose hill, 3 the case for rage: why anger is essential to anti-racist struggle by myisha cherry, 4 four thousand weeks: time management for mortals by oliver burkeman, 5 free: coming of age at the end of history by lea ypi.

H as 2021 been a good year for philosophy books ?

Many of them have been written by women. I could easily have come up with an all-woman list for this. I’m not sure why that has happened this year.

I know you’ve spoken about this before, but I like this idea of philosophy as a broad church. Why do you think that’s so important now?

Within academic philosophy, there’s a lot of worry about demarcation, where you draw the line between philosophy and other subjects. But I’ve always felt that ‘philosophy’ is more of a family resemblance term. Lots of qualities are shared by works of philosophy, but there’s no essence that a book must contain to make it philosophy. There are some clear-cut cases, and some at the edges.

So, I’m very happy to include Kierkegaard as a philosopher, for example, as most philosophers are, although some of what he wrote is basically imaginative fiction—exploring viewpoints rather than presenting a logical case with clear premises that lead to a conclusion. Another obvious example from the history of philosophy is Candide , Voltaire ’s short novella, which is philosophy through a fictional form.

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There have been huge advances in both psychology and neuroscience in the last twenty or thirty years that are very significant for philosophy. In the 18th century, there wasn’t a big division between what we call psychology and philosophy, and someone like David Hume quite happily moved between the two. For much of the history of the subject philosophers speculated about the mind from their armchairs without getting involved in what was happening in neuroscience . But now that would be unacceptable.  Recent research in neuroscience is too dramatic to do that. It would be absurd to discuss the mind without some awareness of what has been discovered.

This is obviously relevant when thinking about consciousness .

Right. You can’t analyse consciousness from your armchair without awareness of recent findings about the brain and about human behaviour. But similarly, if you’re talking about politics and doing that in a vacuum, that seems to me a fairly meaningless pursuit about the definition of terms, rather than anything that might meaningfully connect with how we live.

I’ve deliberately chosen books that are accessible to a general reader because this is not a site for specialist academic philosophers. And obviously this is limited by the range of books that I’ve actually read. But the best writing that I’ve seen this year uses some kind of empirical evidence, whether that’s science, elements of personal biography, historical archives, or current events.

I think this might lead us to the first of the 2021 philosophy books that you want to recommend, which is written by a neuroscientist: Anil Seth’s Being You: A New Science of Consciousness.

Although Anil describes himself as a neuroscientist, he’s also very well read in philosophy. He uses a certain amount of autobiography in this book too — discussing the phenomenology of his own conscious life in order to illustrate points, drawing on his experience of witnessing a brain operation, and even his mother’s apparent loss of self at a certain point.

It’s a book about the nature of consciousness, one of the most intractable problems that human beings have come across. How do we understand how we, as apparently material beings made of flesh and bone—and, in particular, millions of neurones—get to the position of having qualitative experience, through the experience of the world through our senses, reflection and experience. It’s not an easy problem to unravel. The philosopher David Chalmers talks about the ‘hard problem’ of consciousness, the problem of how you get from physical matter to conscious state—how you explain what the relationship between those two is.

“The best writing that I’ve seen this year uses some kind of empirical evidence, whether that’s science, biography, history, or current events”

Seth’s approach is more pragmatic in some ways. As a neuroscientist, his view is that we should deal with what he dubs the ‘real’ problem of consciousness; there is some kind of phenomenological thing that we want to explain, but by chipping away at a range of issues that connect physical processes in the brain with certain mental states, we can try to understand the relation and gradually piece together an understanding of what we are.

His own take is that our conscious experience of the world around us is a kind of controlled hallucination created by predictions and revisions that we make. We are not passive recipients of sensory information, we project an expectation and gradually refine that through our interactions with the world. This produces some weird illusions and other phenomena when things go wrong. When things go very wrong, the loss of connection with the world means that the phenomenological experience is not something that other people necessarily share. But, in a sense, we are all hallucinating the world; none of us is getting a direct picture. We project a probable scene, but that’s tested against further sensory input, and a constructive reality emerges that is constantly refreshed.

In very general terms, that’s what the book is about.

A few years ago, I interviewed Professor Dick Passingham for this site. He was one of my tutors when I studied experimental psychology. His argument was that the philosophical study of consciousness had been static for decades; only through empirical study could we possibly wrestle with this question. Neuroscience, in other words, was making the philosophy of mind obsolete. But the way you talk about this, you almost view neuroscience as a branch of applied philosophy.

It depends on the neuroscientist, I think. Anil Seth is somebody who is very philosophical in his approach, very thoughtful, and well-read in philosophy. He talks to philosophers and a range of other people interested in the mind. It would be hard not to, in the field of consciousness studies. And there are many contemporary philosophers who aren’t trained as neuroscientists, but who take neuroscience very seriously. Daniel Dennett and Patricia Churchland , for example. Both have been hugely interested in neuroscience. And in a younger generation, Keith Frankish . So there is a sense that those barriers are being broken down. I’m skeptical that philosophy will become obsolete, but it will become much more interesting through the interplay with science, in my view.

And the book is well written.

Brilliant. Your second 2021 philosophy book recommendation is a biography of one of the great modern thinkers, Hannah Arendt . Tell us about this book.

This is a part of a series called ‘Critical Lives.’ It’s an excellent example of an intellectual biography. Hannah Arendt was a super-powered intellectual, and was always, always thinking and writing, and thinking through writing—that’s one of the things she said she did: write to think. And when she wasn’t writing, she was mostly reading or listening to music, or just sometimes hanging out with friends. Arendt didn’t even see herself as a philosopher, but we tend to categorise her as one. I mean, she trained as a philosopher, but also wrote on a wide range of issues, probably most famously On the Origins of Totalitarianism , but also on the Eichmann trial where she famously coined the phrase ‘the banality of evil,’ and got into deep water as a result.

This book is brilliant. It’s written by Samantha Rose Hill, who must know as much as anyone about Hannah Arendt. She’s dived into Arendt’s surviving papers, notebooks, and even poetry, spending many hours in the archive. She knows every little bit of paper that Hannah Arendt scribbled on. And what’s so great about this as a biography is that Hill has done something that biographers rarely do—she’s been highly selective in what she’s included.

“Arendt is frequently misunderstood. Some people thought that by ‘banality,’ she meant that evil was commonplace”

The main part of the book is only just over 200 pages of a small-format book. It could have been 700 pages. There’s no doubt that Hill knows enough and could have spun this out to make a much longer book. As a result, we have the benefit of a highly intelligent writer, selecting what she feels to be most important to bring out about Arendt. We don’t get the feeling of being overwhelmed by details of an individual life—how many cigarettes she smoked on this day, and who she bumped into on that—but rather get to understand what really mattered. We still get a flavour of her life and interactions with friends and critics and so on. All of this is seen in sharp focus through Hill’s critical eye.

Here we have a very elegant story about Arendt’s life that brings out key moments and the most important themes in her thought.

I like that sense of reconstructing her thought and how it has developed over time through digging through her own notes. It’s a beeline directly into her brain.

Another thing about biography is that most writers cop out and only quote, say, half a line. What Hill has chosen to do, now and then, is quote five or maybe ten lines from something written by or about Arendt. Quotations from private letters, that sort of thing. You get a better sense of her voice with this. But that’s very hard to pull off. If you do too much of that, it breaks up the flow. But I think it works perfectly here. And it’s nicely illustrated, with photos throughout.

Tell us about Arendt getting into deep water. You mentioned it earlier.

The most controversial aspect of Hannah Arendt’s life (apart from her affair with Martin Heidegger when she was his student), was her writing about evil. In 1961 she went to Jerusalem to witness the trial of Adolf Eichmann, the Nazi official. He was the person responsible for sorting out the deportation of people to death camps.

Arendt was particularly interested to see a senior Nazi up close. She’d never seen such a high-ranking Nazi, one who had been responsible for so much evil. She wanted to try to understand that. Famously her reaction was to describe him in terms of ‘the banality of evil.’ This was in a commissioned article for a magazine, originally, but came to be the book Eichmann in Jerusalem .

Hill zooms in on that issue in chapter 15. First of all, Arendt is frequently misunderstood. Some people thought that by ‘banality,’ she meant that evil was commonplace—that we’re all capable of doing the kinds of things that Eichmann did. But she didn’t mean that. What she was referring to was the banality of his thought, an attitude to the world which didn’t allow him to make any kind of imaginative identification with other people’s experience. What he lacked was what she calls “an expansive imagination.”

In Arendt’s words,

Eichmann was perfectly intelligent, but in this respect he was stupid. It was this stupidity that was so outrageous. And that was what I actually meant by banality. There’s nothing deep about it—nothing demonic! There’s simply the reluctance ever to imagine what the other person is experiencing

She is saying that she wants to destroy the legend that evil is some kind of demonic force. This, and some other things she said in that book, resulted in a lot of criticism, particularly from some Jewish critics who felt she was wrong to talk about the complicity of the Jewish councils in overseeing the selection process for deportation. Some also criticised her ironic tone.

I love a concise book that is nonetheless intellectually rigorous. What an efficient use of reading time! Let’s move onto our next 2021 philosophy book. This is Myisha Cherry’s The Case for Rage: Why Anger is Essential to Anti-racist Struggle. Cherry is an assistant professor of philosophy at the University of California, Riverside, and the book is described as “a philosophical defence of anger at racial injustice.” It feels like a book of the moment.

This is very consciously written as public philosophy. All the books I’ve chosen for this list are written for a general audience, but Cherry is explicit that that’s what she’s doing. She’s a very clear writer. She draws on her own experiences of being a victim of racism a various points in her life. But she also confronts the wider issues in protesting against racism and draws on recent history to make her case.

The general argument is opposing something that has its origins in a form of Stoicism . Seneca put forward the idea that anger is a form of temporary madness, and that, wherever possible, we should extirpate it. Get rid of it. It’s a bad thing because it makes people rash, makes them do stupid things. It clouds judgment and makes us do terrible things. We should instead be cool-headed and not bring that kind of passion into human relations, particularly political relations. Fairly obviously, anger has a close link with violence, so there’s the sense that once you get angry, you release the inhibitions that stop us harming other people. So, Stoics concluded it’s always a bad thing, and they even came up with exercises to help us eliminate it from life.

There’s some logic in that.

Well, perhaps in some situations. Myisha Cherry makes the case for a certain kind of rage, rage being a subset of anger. Rage for justice in the face of injustice is her main focus. She calls this ‘Lordean rage’, after the black feminist, activist and writer Audre Lorde .

Cherry’s argument is that the energy and the possibility of collective channelled action, inspired by rage, justifies this approach, and makes it superior to a more neutral response to something as outrageous as the cold-faced racism in Charlottesville, for instance. It’s been a theme in America, particularly, for hundreds of years: this refusal to treat people of different races equally, and enshrining that in law or institutionally, and also within the police where racism has repeatedly reared its ugly head, for example, as it has done to some extent in the UK.

This book is an expansion of that idea, that rage can be a good thing and not something to be avoided. It’s clearly written, and easy to read. And it looks at specific cases in which anger has been used in positive ways. This is a case for seeing some instances of anger as positive, and important, and not as a psychological problem or something to fear.

Rage as motivational force.

Exactly. That’s it in a nutshell. It’s not a complicated argument. But it’s certainly stands in opposition to some other philosophical writers in this area who have argued that we need is to reach the state of understanding and forgiveness, and that’s how we get political progress. Martha Nussbaum has, for example, taken this line . But Myisha Cherry thinks that righteous anger, which has a long and noble tradition, is something that should be celebrated and recognised within the struggle for greater racial equality and fairness of treatment. She’s not saying, ‘get angry when someone steps on your toe,’ it’s not a wholesale justification for rage. It’s this specific kind of Lordean rage that she’s celebrating. It’s very nicely done. Again, it’s very short—a small format book of under 200 pages. It’s excellent.

Is this a book for activists, specifically?

And for your fourth 2021 philosophy book you’ve chosen Oliver Burkeman’s Four Thousand Weeks.  In the UK, it has the subtitle ‘Time and How to Use It,’ but I like the American one better: ‘Time Management for Mortals.’

Some people won’t see this as a philosophy book , but it is. It’s a book about what we do with our limited time on Earth, how we decide to prioritise and proportion our time. To that extent it’s a book of ethics in the face of inevitable death. Even if you or I live to 90, as he points out at the beginning of the book, that will only be 4,700 weeks of existence. I have to admit that when I read the title I checked the calculation because 4,000 weeks sounded far too few for a life. That’s frighteningly short. And, obviously, most people who read the book will have far fewer than 4,000 weeks left.

It’s a combination of sometimes witty, sometimes terrifying exploration of the human condition, and at the same time an antidote to those time management books that tell you how you can maximise your productivity, taking on more and more tasks and completing them efficiently. As he says, you’ll inevitably end up underachieving on some things because your time and energy are finite (something that authors of those breathless self-help books don’t always acknowledge).

He has the style of writing which draws you in and feels very personal and likeable, and he includes elements of autobiography too. He’s got a degree of distance, a degree of irony, but he’s immersed himself in the world of self-help and philosophy. It holds up a mirror to what we sacrifice, because we feel that work is the most important thing.

He points out that there is no end to a to-do list. It only grows longer.

Yes, he’s somebody who’s been absolutely caught up in all those schemes for making your life more efficient, ticking off achievements. It’s like a former alcoholic writing about drinking. He’s been there. He definitely doesn’t see busyness as a virtue, and even thinks it a good idea that we practise doing nothing. That’s an ingredient of a good life for him.

There’s a great section of the book called ‘Cosmic Insignificance Therapy’ where he spells out why he believes ultimately most people won’t put a dent in the universe, and how we can turn that to our advantage. If my life is insignificant in the grand scheme of things—and ultimately all lives are—I don’t need to beat myself up for failing to achieve something that only a few dozen people in the history of humanity have ever achieved. Once I realise that I can enjoy a modestly meaningful life through a wide range of activities, I can also perhaps come to realise that the anxieties that take up so much of our energy are, if we zoom out a bit, irrelevant. That’s the idea anyway. Burkeman is very good at giving us permission to be satisfied with doing worthwhile things on a small scale, and failing to achieve things too, without being obsessed with productivity. That in a sense is the human condition.

And your fifth choice is Free by Lea Ypi. It’s newly out, but has been making quite a splash.

This is a book which I’ve only just finished reading. It’s written by an LSE professor of political theory, Lea Ypi, who is also an expert on Immanuel Kant. It’s mostly a memoir about growing up in Albania. But that doesn’t adequately describe the book, because, as its title suggests, it’s really about different conceptions of freedom, told through experience and reflection on that experience. It’s very different from my other choices here. It’s a really fascinating and wonderful book, and beautifully written too. You won’t regret buying this one, for sure.

Why have you chosen this for a list of the best philosophy books?

It’s not straightforwardly philosophical throughout, but the underlying political questions emerge through a child’s experience of growing up in Tirana as Albania’s form of socialism is collapsing, as it finally did in 1990. Ypi describes her childhood in a communist state, where she is so much in thrall to what she is taught about freedom under communism that she even goes to hug a statue of Stalin. Her curiosity about the world reveals that her world of certainties, particularly in relation to her family, is not quite what she thought it was.

It’s a book about freedom both under Stalinist communism and in a liberal capitalist system, written from experience, and told through her and her family’s encounters with different ways in which their freedom has been curbed. Ypi thinks that if you believe you are free is a living in London, that is just as much a delusion as it was for her growing up in Tirana believing that she was free. It’s a book about a family and the degree to which historical circumstances shaped freedom for its members.

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There’s a passage near the end of Free where Ypi describes how this book was originally going to be an overtly philosophical one about overlapping ideas of freedom in liberal and socialist traditions, but that as soon as she started writing it, the abstract ideas turned into people she knew, people who were the product of social relations for which they were not responsible. The result is unexpected and far more than just a collection of memories. We are very fortunate that she went in this direction. Not many writers could have pulled this off with such grace and elegance.

Leaving Albania for Italy and ultimately for London was not a journey for her to a place of freedom. That would be the Hollywood version of her life. In a way this is a spoiler, but liberalism for her carries with it associations of the destruction of solidarity, and of turning a blind eye to injustice, with victims of the system whose lives are very far from free. There is a kind of ideological delusion that we suffer from in liberal societies, she argues.

Where there any other philosophy books published in 2021 that didn’t quite make your list, but which you’d like to mention?

There are two books which caught my eye, both of which could have made the list, for different reasons. Both address contemporary issues using philosophical tools. Both are provocative, though in different ways. They force the reader to think. Amia Srinivassan’s The Right to Sex , a collection of essays on themes as varied as whether or not students should sleep with their professors (her answer is no, largely for psychological reasons about the relationship), whether we should think of people who sell sex as sex workers and decriminalise prostitution (yes), whether we should abolish prisons (ultimately, in an ideal world, yes), and much more. And, more controversially perhaps, Kathleen Stock’s Material Girls , which is a clearly-written argument about gender and the implications of allowing self-declaration to be a sufficient criterion for gender change. This is a book that has been much maligned, often by people who haven’t taken the trouble to read it. There are points I disagree with in both books, but I am grateful for both writers for helping me think more clearly about the issues they address. That, I think, is the role of good public philosophy.

Part of our  best books of 2021  series.

November 30, 2021

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Nigel Warburton

Nigel Warburton is a freelance philosopher, writer and host of the podcast Philosophy Bites . Featuring short interviews with the world's best philosophers on bite-size topics, the podcast has been downloaded more than 40 million times. He is also our philosophy editor here at Five Books , where he has been interviewing other philosophers about the best books on a range of philosophy topics since 2013 (you can read all the interviews he's done here: not all are about philosophy). In addition, he's recommended books for us on the best introductions to philosophy , the best critical thinking books, as well as some of the key texts to read in the Western canon . His annual recommendations of the best philosophy books of the year are among our most popular interviews on Five Books . As an author, he is best known for his introductory philosophy books, listed below:

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