Identify
Explore
Discover
Discuss
Summarise
Describe
Last, format your objectives into a numbered list. This is because when you write your thesis or dissertation, you will at times need to make reference to a specific research objective; structuring your research objectives in a numbered list will provide a clear way of doing this.
To bring all this together, let’s compare the first research objective in the previous example with the above guidance:
Research Objective:
1. Develop finite element models using explicit dynamics to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion, initially using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum.
Checking Against Recommended Approach:
Q: Is it specific? A: Yes, it is clear what the student intends to do (produce a finite element model), why they intend to do it (mimic cup/shell blows) and their parameters have been well-defined ( using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum ).
Q: Is it measurable? A: Yes, it is clear that the research objective will be achieved once the finite element model is complete.
Q: Is it achievable? A: Yes, provided the student has access to a computer lab, modelling software and laboratory data.
Q: Is it relevant? A: Yes, mimicking impacts to a cup/shell is fundamental to the overall aim of understanding how they deform when impacted upon.
Q: Is it timebound? A: Yes, it is possible to create a limited-scope finite element model in a relatively short time, especially if you already have experience in modelling.
Q: Does it start with a verb? A: Yes, it starts with ‘develop’, which makes the intent of the objective immediately clear.
Q: Is it a numbered list? A: Yes, it is the first research objective in a list of eight.
1. making your research aim too broad.
Having a research aim too broad becomes very difficult to achieve. Normally, this occurs when a student develops their research aim before they have a good understanding of what they want to research. Remember that at the end of your project and during your viva defence , you will have to prove that you have achieved your research aims; if they are too broad, this will be an almost impossible task. In the early stages of your research project, your priority should be to narrow your study to a specific area. A good way to do this is to take the time to study existing literature, question their current approaches, findings and limitations, and consider whether there are any recurring gaps that could be investigated .
Note: Achieving a set of aims does not necessarily mean proving or disproving a theory or hypothesis, even if your research aim was to, but having done enough work to provide a useful and original insight into the principles that underlie your research aim.
Be realistic about what you can achieve in the time you have available. It is natural to want to set ambitious research objectives that require sophisticated data collection and analysis, but only completing this with six months before the end of your PhD registration period is not a worthwhile trade-off.
Each research objective should have its own purpose and distinct measurable outcome. To this effect, a common mistake is to form research objectives which have large amounts of overlap. This makes it difficult to determine when an objective is truly complete, and also presents challenges in estimating the duration of objectives when creating your project timeline. It also makes it difficult to structure your thesis into unique chapters, making it more challenging for you to write and for your audience to read.
Fortunately, this oversight can be easily avoided by using SMART objectives.
Hopefully, you now have a good idea of how to create an effective set of aims and objectives for your research project, whether it be a thesis, dissertation or research paper. While it may be tempting to dive directly into your research, spending time on getting your aims and objectives right will give your research clear direction. This won’t only reduce the likelihood of problems arising later down the line, but will also lead to a more thorough and coherent research project.
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by Logan Bessant | Nov 16, 2021 | Science
Most of us appreciate that research is a crucial part of medical advancement. But what exactly is the importance of research? In short, it is critical in the development of new medicines as well as ensuring that existing treatments are used to their full potential.
Research can bridge knowledge gaps and change the way healthcare practitioners work by providing solutions to previously unknown questions.
In this post, we’ll discuss the importance of research and its impact on medical breakthroughs.
The purpose of studying is to gather information and evidence, inform actions, and contribute to the overall knowledge of a certain field. None of this is possible without research.
Understanding how to conduct research and the importance of it may seem like a very simple idea to some, but in reality, it’s more than conducting a quick browser search and reading a few chapters in a textbook.
No matter what career field you are in, there is always more to learn. Even for people who hold a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in their field of study, there is always some sort of unknown that can be researched. Delving into this unlocks the unknowns, letting you explore the world from different perspectives and fueling a deeper understanding of how the universe works.
To make things a little more specific, this concept can be clearly applied in any healthcare scenario. Health research has an incredibly high value to society as it provides important information about disease trends and risk factors, outcomes of treatments, patterns of care, and health care costs and use. All of these factors as well as many more are usually researched through a clinical trial.
Clinical trials are a type of research that provides information about a new test or treatment. They are usually carried out to find out what, or if, there are any effects of these procedures or drugs on the human body.
All legitimate clinical trials are carefully designed, reviewed and completed, and need to be approved by professionals before they can begin. They also play a vital part in the advancement of medical research including:
This all plays back to clinical research as it opens doors to advancing prevention, as well as providing treatments and cures for diseases and disabilities. Clinical trial volunteer participants are essential to this progress which further supports the need for the importance of research to be well-known amongst healthcare professionals, students and the general public.
Research is vital for almost everyone irrespective of their career field. From doctors to lawyers to students to scientists, research is the key to better work.
Research is the backbone of any major scientific or medical breakthrough. None of the advanced treatments or life-saving discoveries used to treat patients today would be available if it wasn’t for the detailed and intricate work carried out by scientists, doctors and healthcare professionals over the past decade.
This improves quality of life because it can help us find out important facts connected to the researched subject. For example, universities across the globe are now studying a wide variety of things from how technology can help breed healthier livestock, to how dance can provide long-term benefits to people living with Parkinson’s.
For both of these studies, quality of life is improved. Farmers can use technology to breed healthier livestock which in turn provides them with a better turnover, and people who suffer from Parkinson’s disease can find a way to reduce their symptoms and ease their stress.
Research is a catalyst for solving the world’s most pressing issues. Even though the complexity of these issues evolves over time, they always provide a glimmer of hope to improving lives and making processes simpler.
People are willing to listen and trust someone with new information on one condition – it’s backed up. And that’s exactly where research comes in. Conducting studies on new and unfamiliar subjects, and achieving the desired or expected outcome, can help people accept the unknown.
However, this goes without saying that your research should be focused on the best sources. It is easy for people to poke holes in your findings if your studies have not been carried out correctly, or there is no reliable data to back them up.
This way once you have done completed your research, you can speak with confidence about your findings within your field of study.
It is with thanks to scientific research that many diseases once thought incurable, now have treatments. For example, before the 1930s, anyone who contracted a bacterial infection had a high probability of death. There simply was no treatment for even the mildest of infections as, at the time, it was thought that nothing could kill bacteria in the gut.
When antibiotics were discovered and researched in 1928, it was considered one of the biggest breakthroughs in the medical field. This goes to show how much research drives progress forward, and how it is also responsible for the evolution of technology .
Today vaccines, diagnoses and treatments can all be simplified with the progression of medical research, making us question just what research can achieve in the future.
The acts of searching for information and thinking critically serve as food for the brain, allowing our inherent creativity and logic to remain active. Aside from the fact that this curiosity plays such a huge part within research, it is also proven that exercising our minds can reduce anxiety and our chances of developing mental illnesses in the future.
Without our natural thirst and our constant need to ask ‘why?’ and ‘how?’ many important theories would not have been put forward and life-changing discoveries would not have been made. The best part is that the research process itself rewards this curiosity.
Research opens you up to different opinions and new ideas which can take a proposed question and turn into a real-life concept. It also builds discerning and analytical skills which are always beneficial in many career fields – not just scientific ones.
The main goal of any research study is to increase awareness, whether it’s contemplating new concepts with peers from work or attracting the attention of the general public surrounding a certain issue.
Around the globe, research is used to help raise awareness of issues like climate change, racial discrimination, and gender inequality. Without consistent and reliable studies to back up these issues, it would be hard to convenience people that there is a problem that needs to be solved in the first place.
The problem is that social media has become a place where fake news spreads like a wildfire, and with so many incorrect facts out there it can be hard to know who to trust. Assessing the integrity of the news source and checking for similar news on legitimate media outlets can help prove right from wrong.
This can pinpoint fake research articles and raises awareness of just how important fact-checking can be.
It is not a hidden fact that research can be mentally draining, which is why most students avoid it like the plague. But the matter of fact is that no matter which career path you choose to go down, research will inevitably be a part of it.
But why is research so important to students ? The truth is without research, any intellectual growth is pretty much impossible. It acts as a knowledge-building tool that can guide you up to the different levels of learning. Even if you are an expert in your field, there is always more to uncover, or if you are studying an entirely new topic, research can help you build a unique perspective about it.
For example, if you are looking into a topic for the first time, it might be confusing knowing where to begin. Most of the time you have an overwhelming amount of information to sort through whether that be reading through scientific journals online or getting through a pile of textbooks. Research helps to narrow down to the most important points you need so you are able to find what you need to succeed quickly and easily.
It can also open up great doors in the working world. Employers, especially those in the scientific and medical fields, are always looking for skilled people to hire. Undertaking research and completing studies within your academic phase can show just how multi-skilled you are and give you the resources to tackle any tasks given to you in the workplace.
There are many different types of research that can be done, each one with its unique methodology and features that have been designed to use in specific settings.
When showing your research to others, they will want to be guaranteed that your proposed inquiry needs asking, and that your methodology is equipt to answer your inquiry and will convey the results you’re looking for.
That’s why it’s so important to choose the right methodology for your study. Knowing what the different types of research are and what each of them focuses on can allow you to plan your project to better utilise the most appropriate methodologies and techniques available. Here are some of the most common types:
This type of research is most commonly used in scientific and social applications. It collects, compares and interprets information to specifically address the “how” and “why” research questions.
Qualitative research allows you to ask questions that cannot be easily put into numbers to understand human experience because you’re not limited by survey instruments with a fixed set of possible responses.
Information can be gathered in numerous ways including interviews, focus groups and ethnographic research which is then all reported in the language of the informant instead of statistical analyses.
This type of research is important because they do not usually require a hypothesis to be carried out. Instead, it is an open-ended research approach that can be adapted and changed while the study is ongoing. This enhances the quality of the data and insights generated and creates a much more unique set of data to analyse.
No matter the type of research completed, it will be shared and read by others. Whether this is with colleagues at work, peers at university, or whilst it’s being reviewed and repeated during secondary analysis.
A reliable procedure is necessary in order to obtain the best information which is why it’s important to have a plan. Here are the six basic steps that apply in any research process.
Although most scientists and researchers use this method, it may be tweaked between one study and another. Skipping or repeating steps is common within, however the core principles of the research process still apply.
By clearly explaining the steps and procedures used throughout the study, other researchers can then replicate the results. This is especially beneficial for peer reviews that try to replicate the results to ensure that the study is sound.
Conducting a research study and comparing it to how important it is in everyday life are two very different things.
Carrying out research allows you to gain a deeper understanding of science and medicine by developing research questions and letting your curiosity blossom. You can experience what it is like to work in a lab and learn about the whole reasoning behind the scientific process. But how does that impact everyday life?
Simply put, it allows us to disprove lies and support truths. This can help society to develop a confident attitude and not believe everything as easily, especially with the rise of fake news.
Research is the best and reliable way to understand and act on the complexities of various issues that we as humans are facing. From technology to healthcare to defence to climate change, carrying out studies is the only safe and reliable way to face our future.
Not only does research sharpen our brains, but also helps us to understand various issues of life in a much larger manner, always leaving us questioning everything and fuelling our need for answers.
Logan Bessant is a dedicated science educator and the founder of Science Resource Online, launched in 2020. With a background in science education and a passion for accessible learning, Logan has built a platform that offers free, high-quality educational resources to learners of all ages and backgrounds.
The role of research at universities: why it matters.
(Photo by William B. Plowman/Getty Images)
Teaching and learning, research and discovery, synthesis and creativity, understanding and engagement, service and outreach. There are many “core elements” to the mission of a great university. Teaching would seem the most obvious, but for those outside of the university, “research” (taken to include scientific research, scholarship more broadly, as well as creative activity) may be the least well understood. This creates misunderstanding of how universities invest resources, especially those deriving from undergraduate tuition and state (or other public) support, and the misperception that those resources are being diverted away from what is believed should be the core (and sole) focus, teaching. This has led to a loss of trust, confidence, and willingness to continue to invest or otherwise support (especially our public) universities.
Why are universities engaged in the conduct of research? Who pays? Who benefits? And why does it all matter? Good questions. Let’s get to some straightforward answers. Because the academic research enterprise really is not that difficult to explain, and its impacts are profound.
So let’s demystify university-based research. And in doing so, hopefully we can begin building both better understanding and a better relationship between the public and higher education, both of which are essential to the future of US higher education.
Why are universities engaged in the conduct of research?
Universities engage in research as part of their missions around learning and discovery. This, in turn, contributes directly and indirectly to their primary mission of teaching. Universities and many colleges (the exception being those dedicated exclusively to undergraduate teaching) have as part of their mission the pursuit of scholarship. This can come in the form of fundamental or applied research (both are most common in the STEM fields, broadly defined), research-based scholarship or what often is called “scholarly activity” (most common in the social sciences and humanities), or creative activity (most common in the arts). Increasingly, these simple categorizations are being blurred, for all good reasons and to the good of the discovery of new knowledge and greater understanding of complex (transdisciplinary) challenges and the creation of increasingly interrelated fields needed to address them.
It goes without saying that the advancement of knowledge (discovery, innovation, creation) is essential to any civilization. Our nation’s research universities represent some of the most concentrated communities of scholars, facilities, and collective expertise engaged in these activities. But more importantly, this is where higher education is delivered, where students develop breadth and depth of knowledge in foundational and advanced subjects, where the skills for knowledge acquisition and understanding (including contextualization, interpretation, and inference) are honed, and where students are educated, trained, and otherwise prepared for successful careers. Part of that training and preparation derives from exposure to faculty who are engaged at the leading-edge of their fields, through their research and scholarly work. The best faculty, the teacher-scholars, seamlessly weave their teaching and research efforts together, to their mutual benefit, and in a way that excites and engages their students. In this way, the next generation of scholars (academic or otherwise) is trained, research and discovery continue to advance inter-generationally, and the cycle is perpetuated.
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University research can be expensive, particularly in laboratory-intensive fields. But the responsibility for much (indeed most) of the cost of conducting research falls to the faculty member. Faculty who are engaged in research write grants for funding (e.g., from federal and state agencies, foundations, and private companies) to support their work and the work of their students and staff. In some cases, the universities do need to invest heavily in equipment, facilities, and personnel to support select research activities. But they do so judiciously, with an eye toward both their mission, their strategic priorities, and their available resources.
Medical research, and medical education more broadly, is expensive and often requires substantial institutional investment beyond what can be covered by clinical operations or externally funded research. But universities with medical schools/medical centers have determined that the value to their educational and training missions as well as to their communities justifies the investment. And most would agree that university-based medical centers are of significant value to their communities, often providing best-in-class treatment and care in midsize and smaller communities at a level more often seen in larger metropolitan areas.
Research in the STEM fields (broadly defined) can also be expensive. Scientific (including medical) and engineering research often involves specialized facilities or pieces of equipment, advanced computing capabilities, materials requiring controlled handling and storage, and so forth. But much of this work is funded, in large part, by federal agencies such as the National Science Foundation, National Institutes of Health, US Department of Energy, US Department of Agriculture, and many others.
Research in the social sciences is often (not always) less expensive, requiring smaller amount of grant funding. As mentioned previously, however, it is now becoming common to have physical, natural, and social scientist teams pursuing large grant funding. This is an exciting and very promising trend for many reasons, not the least of which is the nature of the complex problems being studied.
Research in the arts and humanities typically requires the least amount of funding as it rarely requires the expensive items listed previously. Funding from such organizations as the National Endowment for the Arts, National Endowment for the Humanities, and private foundations may be able to support significant scholarship and creation of new knowledge or works through much more modest grants than would be required in the natural or physical sciences, for example.
Philanthropy may also be directed toward the support of research and scholarly activity at universities. Support from individual donors, family foundations, private or corporate foundations may be directed to support students, faculty, labs or other facilities, research programs, galleries, centers, and institutes.
Who benefits?
Students, both undergraduate and graduate, benefit from studying in an environment rich with research and discovery. Besides what the faculty can bring back to the classroom, there are opportunities to engage with faculty as part of their research teams and even conduct independent research under their supervision, often for credit. There are opportunities to learn about and learn on state-of-the-art equipment, in state-of-the-art laboratories, and from those working on the leading edge in a discipline. There are opportunities to co-author, present at conferences, make important connections, and explore post-graduate pathways.
The broader university benefits from active research programs. Research on timely and important topics attracts attention, which in turn leads to greater institutional visibility and reputation. As a university becomes known for its research in certain fields, they become magnets for students, faculty, grants, media coverage, and even philanthropy. Strength in research helps to define a university’s “brand” in the national and international marketplace, impacting everything from student recruitment, to faculty retention, to attracting new investments.
The community, region, and state benefits from the research activity of the university. This is especially true for public research universities. Research also contributes directly to economic development, clinical, commercial, and business opportunities. Resources brought into the university through grants and contracts support faculty, staff, and student salaries, often adding additional jobs, contributing directly to the tax base. Research universities, through their expertise, reputation, and facilities, can attract new businesses into their communities or states. They can also launch and incubate startup companies, or license and sell their technologies to other companies. Research universities often host meeting and conferences which creates revenue for local hotels, restaurants, event centers, and more. And as mentioned previously, university medical centers provide high-quality medical care, often in midsize communities that wouldn’t otherwise have such outstanding services and state-of-the-art facilities.
(Photo by Justin Sullivan/Getty Images)
And finally, why does this all matter?
Research is essential to advancing society, strengthening the economy, driving innovation, and addressing the vexing and challenging problems we face as a people, place, and planet. It’s through research, scholarship, and discovery that we learn about our history and ourselves, understand the present context in which we live, and plan for and secure our future.
Research universities are vibrant, exciting, and inspiring places to learn and to work. They offer opportunities for students that few other institutions can match – whether small liberal arts colleges, mid-size teaching universities, or community colleges – and while not right for every learner or every educator, they are right for many, if not most. The advantages simply cannot be ignored. Neither can the importance or the need for these institutions. They need not be for everyone, and everyone need not find their way to study or work at our research universities, and we stipulate that there are many outstanding options to meet and support different learning styles and provide different environments for teaching and learning. But it’s critically important that we continue to support, protect, and respect research universities for all they do for their students, their communities and states, our standing in the global scientific community, our economy, and our nation.
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A research plan is a guiding framework that can make or break the efficiency and success of your research project. Oftentimes teams avoid them because they’ve earned a reputation as a dry or actionless document — however, this doesn’t have to be the case.
In this article, we’ll go over the most important aspects of a good research plan and show you how they can be visual and actionable with monday.com Work OS.
Why is the research plan pivotal to a research project.
A research plan is pivotal to a research project because it identifies and helps define your focus, method, and goals while also outlining the research project from start to finish.
This type of plan is often necessary to:
It will also control the entire journey of the research project through every stage by defining crucial research questions and the hypothesis (theory) that you’ll strive to prove or disprove.
The contents of a thorough research plan should include a hypothesis, methodology, and more. There is some variation between academic and commercial research, but these are common elements:
For commercial plans, there will also likely be a budget and timeline estimate, as well as concrete hypothetical benefits for the company (such as how much money the project should save you).
OK, so you’ve got a handle on the building blocks of a research plan, but how should you actually write it?
The first, and perhaps most crucial part of having a good research plan is having the right medium for creating and sharing it. Using a pre-defined template can also make it much easier to get started.
On monday.com, you can choose from several templates like the Project Proposal Template or better yet the Research Power Tools Template to manage all aspects of your project including important communication with internal and external stakeholders and teammates.
Use your template to:
The next step in writing a research plan is choosing the topic. To pick the right topic, focus on these factors:
Do your research, no pun intended. Once you’ve got the topic, you need to work on fleshing out the core ideas with the building blocks we mentioned above.
The recommended length of the plan depends on who you’re sending it to and their expectations. If possible, look at successful examples or directly ask your potential employers about their preferences. Not only do you need the right idea, but you also need to present it in the right way for your research project to have a fighting chance.
A good research plan is one that gets accepted and funded to start doing the research.
If you want to plan a pivotal study, it’s not enough to consider the problem in a vacuum. You also need to evaluate how you can best communicate the value of your project to the gatekeepers.
Consider the entirety of your current situation and what that means for your project.
For example, inputs like funding, staff, IP, and how the scale of the project lines up with your company’s research budget. Or how it aligns with the goals of a University program. If the primary goal of the research is to impact a company or government agency directly, you should consider these stages of research engagement.
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In an internal research proposal, you can outline these aspects in separate sections. That allows different execs or managers to focus on the details that matter most to them. You must also work to engage stakeholders and make sure that they understand the importance of your project.
What are the 5 purposes of research.
The 2 primary purposes of research are to gather information or test an existing theory. When broken down further, you can see 5 more specific purposes:
A research work plan is another name for a research plan, which is a critical component of any research proposal. Universities, labs, and companies use them to evaluate research projects before they decide to accept them.
As a researcher, it’s essential when targeting a funding opportunity of any kind.
There are many research methods ranging from a simple online survey to a high-budget clinical study. Here are some examples of popular data collection methods:
Which one is right for your plan depends on your hypothesis, goals, industry regulations, and more.
If you want to turn your research project into a reality, you need to go beyond the academic and into management mode.
With a template from monday.com, you can plan out a research project from start to finish. Including goals and objectives, budget estimates, milestones, and more.
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Methodology
Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 5, 2024 by Pritha Bhandari.
A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:
A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.
You might have to write up a research design as a standalone assignment, or it might be part of a larger research proposal or other project. In either case, you should carefully consider which methods are most appropriate and feasible for answering your question.
Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.
Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.
There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.
The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.
Qualitative approach | Quantitative approach |
---|---|
and describe frequencies, averages, and correlations about relationships between variables |
Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.
Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.
It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.
As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .
At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.
Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.
Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.
Type of design | Purpose and characteristics |
---|---|
Experimental | relationships effect on a |
Quasi-experimental | ) |
Correlational | |
Descriptive |
With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).
Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.
Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.
The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.
Type of design | Purpose and characteristics |
---|---|
Grounded theory | |
Phenomenology |
Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.
In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.
A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.
For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?
The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.
Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.
To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.
Probability sampling | Non-probability sampling |
---|---|
Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.
For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.
In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.
For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.
In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .
For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.
Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.
You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.
Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .
Questionnaires | Interviews |
---|---|
) |
Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.
Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.
Quantitative observation | |
---|---|
There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.
Field | Examples of data collection methods |
---|---|
Media & communication | Collecting a sample of texts (e.g., speeches, articles, or social media posts) for data on cultural norms and narratives |
Psychology | Using technologies like neuroimaging, eye-tracking, or computer-based tasks to collect data on things like attention, emotional response, or reaction time |
Education | Using tests or assignments to collect data on knowledge and skills |
Physical sciences | Using scientific instruments to collect data on things like weight, blood pressure, or chemical composition |
If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.
If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.
With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.
Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.
However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.
As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.
Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.
Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.
If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?
If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?
You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.
Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.
Reliability | Validity |
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) ) |
For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.
If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.
As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.
That means making decisions about things like:
If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?
If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?
It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.
Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.
Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).
On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.
In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.
Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:
The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.
Using inferential statistics , you can:
Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.
Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.
In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.
Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .
Approach | Characteristics |
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Thematic analysis | |
Discourse analysis |
There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.
If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Statistics
Research bias
A research design is a strategy for answering your research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.
A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.
Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:
Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.
The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.
For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.
Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.
A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.
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The Aboriginal health workforce has unique insights given their healthcare experience and interactions with their communities. The aims of this project were to explore their perceptions of hepatitis B related shame and ways to improve hepatitis B care in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities of Northern Territory’s Top End, Australia.
We conducted a qualitative study with guidance from the Menzies School of Health Research Infectious Diseases Indigenous Reference Group. The Aboriginal health workforce was asked to participate in semi-structured interviews exploring hepatitis B related shame and ways to improve hepatitis B care. Qualitative data were evaluated using reflexive thematic analysis.
There were fifteen semi-structured interviews with participants representing eight different communities. The experience of shame was reported by the Aboriginal health workforce to be common for individuals diagnosed with hepatitis B and comprised feelings of fear related to transmitting the virus, to being isolated, and to being at fault. Shame was mediated by poor health literacy, communication, the lack of culturally safe spaces and was perpetuated by intersecting stereotypes. Improvements in care can be achieved by utilising the Aboriginal health workforce more effectively, improving communication and the availability of culturally safe spaces, emphasising community connection, and reframing hepatitis B as a chronic condition.
Hepatitis B related shame was an important issue and impactful in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in the Top End of the Northern Territory. There were many facets to shame in these communities and it was mediated by several factors. The Aboriginal health workforce has emphasised several pathways to improve care and diminish the impact of shame, such as improving communication and the availability of culturally safe spaces.
Peer Review reports
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• There is limited exploration of hepatitis B related stigma and shame in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. |
• Hepatitis B related shame was common and impactful in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in the Top End of the Northern Territory, according to the Aboriginal health workforce. |
• Pathways to reduce hepatitis B related shame in these communities, according to the Aboriginal health workforce, included improving communication, utilising the Aboriginal health workforce more effectively and creating more culturally safe spaces. |
Hepatitis B related stigma creates barriers to accessing healthcare and perpetuates poor health outcomes [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are disproportionally affected by hepatitis B in the Northern Territory, with prevalence estimated up to 6.1% [ 4 , 5 ]. Hepatitis B can lead to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, with poor outcomes noted in this population [ 6 ]. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are a priority group according to Australia’s national hepatitis B strategy, and reducing hepatitis B stigma is a goal of this same strategy [ 7 ]. Hepatitis B related stigma is common in many populations, but there has been limited exploration of hepatitis B shame or stigma in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, with only one study in this region describing a fatalistic view of the condition [ 1 , 3 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ].
Stigma is characterised by the co-occurrence of labelling, stereotyping, alienation, discrimination and a loss of status in a situation where power is exercised [ 14 ]. Shame is not considered synonymous with stigma, but reflects a cultural identity disruption with a loss of connection with community and family [ 15 ]. Morgan and colleagues illustrated the importance of shame in Aboriginal communities [ 16 ]:
It is a powerful emotion resulting from the loss of the extended self , and it profoundly affects Aboriginal health and health care outcomes (p. 598) .
It has therefore been suggested that stigma related research involving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people requires a broader scope, which incorporates the notion of shame [ 15 ].
The impact of hepatitis B stigma has been shown to contribute to delays in diagnosis and accessing healthcare in different communities, including in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people [ 1 , 10 , 17 ]. Exploring this in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in the Top End of the Northern Territory would assist in defining hepatitis B stigma and shame and may also suggest pathways to reduce its impact on healthcare access.
The Aboriginal health workforce has unique insights given their interaction with individuals throughout their communities. These roles have been defined as involving health promotion, clinical service and cultural brokerage [ 18 ]. We defined the Aboriginal health workforce to include both individuals from local communities who are employed in healthcare but also community workers within third sector agencies, such as research institutes, who work in health care promotion and community-based health research. This workforce has insights into both the care that is provided, and the experience that individuals go through when diagnosed with hepatitis B. They are well placed to inform how communities and individuals are affected by barriers to care, including shame, and how hepatitis B related care may be improved in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in the Top End of the Northern Territory.
The aims of this project were to explore the perceptions of hepatitis B related shame among the Aboriginal health workforce in communities of the Northern Territory’s Top End and to determine possible opportunities to improve hepatitis B care in this context.
Our team includes Aboriginal members (SMB, PN, GG), who have diverse and extensive experiences in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health, research, and community leadership. They represent different language and cultural groups and have roles as a senior Aboriginal Health Practitioner, Aboriginal Community Workers, and Community Researchers. The non-Indigenous members of the team (RPS, PB, KH, EVC, MM, AG, JSD, JD) include nurses, doctors, PhD candidates, senior researchers, and hepatitis B program managers. Our team ascribes to the principles of pragmatism and participatory health research, and this project was nested within the long-term collaborations and relationships built over many years during clinical viral hepatitis and Hep B PAST program delivery [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Emphasis has been on building relationships and practices, which invite reflexivity, adhere to cultural safety principles, establish shared knowledge, and analyse collaboratively [ 22 , 23 , 24 ].
This project was inclusive by calling for volunteers from a variety of communities to provide holistic representation. This was performed by inviting participants from the Aboriginal health workforce attending a hepatitis B course, which was open to all communities, and at outreach hepatitis B clinics, which operates in 18 different communities [ 25 ]. While every community is unique, establishing common themes was intended to produce reciprocal benefits to all communities in an equitable fashion by sharing findings that are not currently available, but necessary to improve hepatitis B services in this region. Part of this process is feeding back findings of the study to the Menzies School of Health Research Infectious Diseases Indigenous Reference Group and to Northern Territory health policy makers.
Aboriginal researchers and the Menzies School of Health Research Infectious Diseases Indigenous Reference Group were involved in developing and feeding back on this project methodology, co-designing the process to interview the Aboriginal health workforce rather than people living with hepatitis B, and developing the questions for the semi-structured interviews. The Aboriginal health workforce have an in depth understanding of these issues, and have developed expertise in this area through their experience, a key principle of participatory research [ 22 ]. As an exploratory study, both Aboriginal and non-Indigenous members of the research team envisaged that interviewing these experts would be the best first step to gain an understanding of a sensitive issue and how it may impact healthcare delivery.
Members of the Aboriginal health workforce attending the hepatitis B training courses were asked to participate in semi-structured interviews [ 25 , 26 ]. There were two hepatitis B courses based in Darwin, Northern Territory, including one in May 2022 and one in October 2023. Interviews with those consenting were done in person, or via teleconference. We also approached the Aboriginal health workforce working in hepatitis B to participate during clinical outreach visits. Those individuals were initially approached in person and if interested were then emailed to confirm consent to participate. These interviews were completed via teleconference. These individuals were already known to the clinical services delivering hepatitis B care. Participation was completely voluntary.
After a detailed informed consent discussion, each consenting participant was interviewed in a semi structured way by two investigators (RPS, KH). The questions were designed to examine the attitudes to hepatitis B in general, so not to assume that stigma and shame were or were not present (see Table 1 ). The gender of the interviewer and interviewee was offered to match. Interviews were recorded and an accredited interpreter was offered, when required, in a language preferred by the participant.
We included participants from a variety of communities in Northern Territory’s Top End but no reference to the community’s name were made by the interviewers during the interview and if they were inadvertently mentioned, any identifiable information was removed from the transcript. All interviews were transcribed in a de-identified fashion using a professional transcribing service and the original recording stored on the password protected Menzies School of Health Research server. Written consents were stored in a locked cupboard at the Menzies School of Health Research and were only accessible by the Menzies hepatitis B team.
The Human Research Ethics Committee of Northern Territory Health and Menzies School of Health Research approved this study (HREC 2021–4037). The ownership of Aboriginal knowledge and cultural heritage is retained by the interviewees.
Qualitative data were processed using a reflexive thematic analysis approach to generate themes [ 27 ]. As an exploratory study, this was intended to be a first research cycle on hepatitis B shame with a view to implement pathways to improve hepatitis B care, as guided by the interviewed experts. One investigator (RPS) familiarised themselves with the data in the interview transcripts, coded each interview through an inductive approach fitting with the exploratory nature of the study, and then grouped the codes into broader initial themes. Aboriginal (GG, SMB, PN) and non-Indigenous team members (RPS, PB), then worked in partnership to collectively revise and define the themes and ensured the themes were consistent with the stated aims of the research and represented a culturally safe exploration of the data.
A total of twenty-four participants were invited to participate during the two hepatitis B courses, and eleven participated in interviews. An additional four participants were interviewed following clinical outreach visits. Therefore, fifteen semi-structured interviews were conducted, and comprised twelve female and three male participants, and eight different communities. There were eleven Aboriginal Health Practitioners, and four individuals involved in health promotion, administration and community-based health research. Interviews took place from May 2022 to October 2023, a prolonged period due to the availability of the investigators and the timing of the hepatitis B training courses. One interview recording failed and so contemporaneous notes were used in this case in lieu of the recording. Interviews ranged from 16 to 48 min.
The three themes identified were as follows:
The Aboriginal health workforce understood hepatitis B shame was common and mediated by poor health literacy, communication, and a lack of culturally safe spaces.
The Aboriginal health workforce understood that the experience of hepatitis B shame was multifaceted, impactful, and perpetuated by intersecting stereotypes.
The Aboriginal health workforce suggested pathways to improve hepatitis B care and reduce the impact of shame: utilise the Aboriginal health workforce more effectively, improve communication and culturally safe spaces, emphasise community connection and reframe hepatitis B as a chronic condition.
Hepatitis B related shame was reported to be pervasive and common in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in the Top End of the Northern Territory by participants. This was often portrayed in the context of health literacy of the condition compared to other chronic conditions such as diabetes.
“[Shame] is more than a common thing because they did knew (sic) and heard a story about diabetes in the past and also heart disease and then only never knew or never heard about hepatitis B” (Participant 5) . “Oh , like out here , community , many people with hepatitis B that like – many people patient may feel shame” (Participant 8) .
The Aboriginal health workforce reported that such lack of hepatitis B health literacy mediated the experience of shame as it led to misconceptions of transmission routes, with many in community misattributing its acquisition as being predominantly sexual in nature.
“ I think it’s got to do with having sex…that’s more a shame job” (Participant 11) “And people are being , like , hepatitis , automatically think it’s from sex…So , most people will just think of it as a sexually transmitted infection” (Participant 12) .
One participant commented on ways in which hepatitis B was transmitted and alluded that the various forms of transmission were not understood more broadly in their community and ensuring people understood that there were more routes of transmission than just sexual modes could reduce shame.
“So , as long as they understand that the – other ways – maybe there wouldn’t be so much shame.” (Participant 6) .
The Aboriginal health workforce reported different levels of health literacy surrounding hepatitis B among health care workers further contributed to confusion about hepatitis B in communities.
“What I find really challenging is different doctors have different ideas about hepatitis B , and about pathology , and that’s what causes so much confusion” (Participant 6) .
Poor health communication was also reported as contributing to shame by the Aboriginal health workforce as it caused people to feel frightened. This was founded in the inability to communicate in Aboriginal languages and in a culturally appropriate fashion. Aside from language, the way information was communicated, including through stories and visual arts, was also emphasised as lacking.
“You have to give them like a clear picture…Not a medical term…Cause then they feel if you give them information in a medical term , then they feel frightened or ashamed , then they don’t come to the clinic to have their checks.” (Participant 13) .
The Aboriginal health workforce reported that the lack of gender appropriate health care directly led to experiences of shame and highlighted its importance in delivering culturally safe health care interactions. A barrier to providing such gender appropriate health care was the lack of male staff in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in this region.
“If it’s a woman , they’re not going to talk to a man…it’s another cultural thing. They’re not going to go to the clinic if there’s all females…And I think it’s a lot of shame around seeing a female , or a male and , yeah…Maybe have a like- where you have a Men’s Day or a Women’s Day” (Participant 12) . “Need more male , male , male. We need male. A lot of us are women.” (Participant 14) .
It was also noted by the Aboriginal health workforce that clinic visibility and the need to visit a clinic for care perpetuated feelings of shame. Indeed, poor health care utilisation was directly linked to concern about confidentiality from attending a clinic. This was a particular focus in smaller communities.
“Yeah , there’s a lot of shame to go to the clinic and things like that ‘cause being in a small community , a lot of people talk…they don’t want to be seen going to the clinic.” (Participant 12) . “Cause if you are in the clinic with the doctor and the nurse , they might feel frightened or shame…It’s best to go out and give the story outside. Then they feel comfortable.” (Participant 13) .
The Aboriginal health workforce understood that the experience of hepatitis B related shame was multifaceted, impactful, and perpetuated by intersecting stereotypes.
The experience of hepatitis B related shame was understood by the Aboriginal health workforce to be multifaceted for individuals experiencing it. Their perception was that those living with hepatitis B had feelings of being at fault, of fear relating to transmission and of isolation from the community. The feelings of being at fault was illustrated in the following quotes:
“They feel shame , worry and they feel confused. You know? And they – to them , they would feel – they would think that “What did I do wrong?” (Participant 14) . “And how it’s passed on and it’s no one’s fault or anything like that. Just reassure them…” (Participant 12) .
The Aboriginal health workforce relayed that the fear of transmitting to others was also a common experience for those living with hepatitis B. This was again related to misconceived transmission routes including misattribution that hepatitis B could be passed on by sharing food and drink. The Aboriginal health workforce reported that community responsibility was of paramount importance in Aboriginal communities, and therefore a fear of transmitting to others was incredibly burdensome for the individual.
“I guess people can feel a bit isolated if they do have it , in a way…so they feel , “well , I can’t eat dinner at the table…I have to have one cup to myself….I know with my mob in our community , we don’t want to pass it on , safe to say , our elders…they would probably feel there’s a lot of weight on the shoulders , and they might just try to run away from it…” (Participant 15) .
In addition, there was an association with the clinic and diagnosis of a disease, and this created a barrier to accessing care.
“They’ve got that disease and they think they – they don’t want to go there , and they think they might get infect…like pass the infection to…some people think that if they come to the clinic , they might get diagnosed with other disease…” (Participant 13) .
The Aboriginal health workforce reported that isolation and the loss of community connection was a central component of hepatitis B related shame, as detailed in this quote:
“Encourage them to come and they see that they are not alone…And we can go through the same direction….to help and support” (Participant 13) .
The Aboriginal health workforce noted that hepatitis B related shame had a significant impact on the health and wellbeing of individuals, was important to address, and emphasised it as a barrier to accessing healthcare. In the following two quotes, the participants emphasised the need to reduce shame and illustrated how shame stops people coming forward for care.
“It’s very shame…Reduce the worry. Reduce those feelings.” (Participant 2) . “…shame and stigma…Just really getting rid of that in a way , because I think that’s what stops people” (Participant 15) .
Intersecting stereotypes and discrimination experienced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, as well as healthcare related stigma, was also noted by the Aboriginal health workforce as an issue facing those living with hepatitis B.
“There’s no point in having a lot of knowledge then the health care basically , excuse me , treat you like shit.” (Participant 4) . “Like it’s not that they don’t care about their health , there’s just like other things. Family obligations and things like that.” (Participant 12) . “And a lot of stigmas I’ve had to break with my own work colleagues is that they can do it…just a bit more compassion – that’s all. Can go a long way with our mob.” (Participant 15) . “The staff can make you feel like an alien in your own place…” (Participant 10) .
As these quotes illustrated, the intersecting stereotypes were grounded in a lack of cultural safety and awareness of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community and cultural obligations by healthcare providers. There was also a notable lack of flexibility in the delivery of health care in these contexts, and this perpetuated a disconnect between the priorities of the healthcare services and the needs of the community.
“Non-Aboriginal people don’t understand that Aboriginal people are busy – even though they don’t have a job between 8:00 am and 4:30 pm – they just can’t come to the clinic. You know , they have other things on like their cultural commitments…” (Participant 10) .
The Aboriginal health workforce suggested pathways to improve hepatitis B care and reduce the impact of shame: utilise the Aboriginal health workforce more effectively, improve communication and culturally safe spaces, emphasise community connection, and reframe hepatitis B as a chronic condition.
The Aboriginal health workforce noted a variety of ways to improve hepatitis B care and reduce the impact of shame. Central to this was the importance in improving health literacy. For instance, participants noted that the loss of connection, which results from a hepatitis B diagnosis, may be improved through education.
“But I feel like if they had the right education , and the right information , then they could confide in someone…then they’d want to protect their family; and they’d want to protect their community because they are very community oriented.” (Participant 15) .
The difficulties with medical communication and the way health communication needed to be tailored for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people was highlighted and could improve understanding. The Aboriginal health workforce highlighted the need to use people’s first language, as well as storytelling and use of visual arts.
“Language is the most important thing , so do it in our languages as well , you know…” (Participant 11) . “Bring flip charts; visual , it’s got to be visual for people to fully understand or talk metaphorically.” (Participant 6) .
One participant, when explaining the importance of storytelling, explained that the story that hepatitis B was an ancient disease and came to Australia over fifty one thousand years ago, as demonstrated by genotypic analysis, was an important one to tell [ 28 ].
“That story will help people understand and then we’ll tell them that story about this. It’s not new. It’s been here before. It’s been here long time ago.” (Participant 14) .
Central to ensuring more effective communication was to use the Aboriginal health workforce more effectively as this will ensure those living with hepatitis B understand the healthcare information provided. This was reported to go beyond language, emphasising the need to involve the workforce to ensure the information is presented in the correct way. Part of this was ensuring the collaboration between the non-Aboriginal and Aboriginal workforce, as illustrated in the following quotes.
“…we have to be there as well so patient , and the doctor , and the Aboriginal health worker has to be there as well for the translation because that is the main thing…” (Participant 13) . “Keeping us in the loop and then we can share that information with our patients. And we can break down the information and share it in a way that we know they will understand.” (Participant 6) . “They wanted to learn more and find out and questioned me more. I have to go through the pictures , and the language , same time because some people – some clients , they are really confused what is the hepatitis B means. Yeah. I have to go through the steps you know…” (Participant 5) . “Particularly your health practitions (sic) – Aboriginal – will be there as well , and Balanda (non-Aboriginal person). Working together.” (Participant 2) .
As discussed, the loss of connection to family and community was a key aspect in the experience of shame, that care provided needed to address this, and this was reported as a central role for the Aboriginal health workforce. The importance to emphasise to individuals that they were not isolated and to support them in their own environment was noted.
“So , if they’ve got shame , we need to go to their house and sit with them; talk to them as a group. As a family… ” (Participant 13) .
Despite this, there was noted to be poor utilisation and engagement of the skills and expertise of the Aboriginal health workforce in some clinics at the present time. A contributing factor to this was related to workforce shortage in these communities, requiring existing Aboriginal health workforce to take on multiple roles.
“Utilise us AHPs (Aboriginal Health Practitioners) and us AHWs (Aboriginal Health Workers) more…Too many times we get used as drivers. But we feel the obligation to do that because there is nobody else there to do it , so some days you should. And I’m a receptionist. Like , I’m wearing all these hats in one day… Um – we don’t get utilised. Our skills aren’t being used. We – our voices aren’t being heard when we try and speak up for people.” (Participant 6) .
The Aboriginal health workforce also reported that increasing public health information visibility would improve education on transmission routes in general, and would reduce the misattribution of transmission routes, an important mediator of hepatitis B related shame.
“I think we definitely need more information up in public areas about hepatitis and you know – you can be vaccinated against hepatitis. Hepatitis can’t be transmitted through kissing , smoking and sharing cups.” (Participant 10) .
The engagement of community and consultation with community leaders was central in ensuring such health messaging was delivered appropriately. One participant noted:
“…definitely asking your community leaders – or who’s running the community , of course , about how is best we can get this message across , and just having them involved in like , say trainings and things as well…Listening to the community…that’s how you go somewhere…” (Participant 15) .
The Aboriginal health workforce reported that moving health care and health promotion into the community space and out of the clinic was a way in which care could be provided in a more comfortable and culturally safe area and reduce the occurrence and impact of shame. Gender specific health promotion was also noted to be needed in areas outside the clinic, and the need for more men to help in this area was emphasised.
“But to encourage people to come in for a check-up – that’s my biggest battle out there all the time. And in their language. And in a different environment outside of the clinic would be good. Like um – in an environment which they feel more comfortable in. And – so it’s not so sterile. So , you can just sit and yarn and bring food.” (Participant 6) . “Specially like if , through the fields where the people are. Go there. Go to the field where the people is , you know… I need a volunteer up there. We need more men up there to educate. Specially in the fields” (Participant 2) .
Lastly, notwithstanding the need to address stigma related to sexually transmitted infections, the Aboriginal health workforce reported hepatitis B related shame could be reduced by contextualising hepatitis B with other chronic conditions, such as diabetes. This would mean it was part of any general health check and not specifically related to a sexual health check.
“Whoever comes in , it’s not just for the hepatitis stuff , it’s for any health check-up , and then give them clear understanding.” (Participant 13) .
There is limited information surrounding hepatitis B stigma, including in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities [ 2 , 29 ]. To our knowledge, this is the first study which has examined the experience of hepatitis B related shame in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in northern Australia, and has expanded on the knowledge gained from the only other Australian study of healthcare related hepatitis B stigma in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities [ 1 ]. Thematic analysis of the interviews has demonstrated that the experience of hepatitis B shame was impactful and related to feelings of fear of transmitting the virus to others, of being isolated, and of being at fault. The Aboriginal health workforce saw this issue as important to address and could improve hepatitis B care in this region.
Participants emphasised poor health literacy as a mediator of hepatitis B shame, and the lack of hepatitis B health literacy has been shown in other studies in northern Australia [ 13 , 30 ]. For instance, there are many ways in which hepatitis B may be transmitted and is most often in early childhood in these communities [ 31 ]. Regardless, emphasis on its sexual transmission has led to feelings of shame regarding its acquisition, which has also been demonstrated with sexually transmitted infections in general [ 32 ]. This appeared to be mediated by health literacy regarding acquisition and should be seen as an important focus for future public health education. Reframing of hepatitis B as a chronic infection, rather than a sexually transmitted infection, and embedding it within general health promotion campaigns, could be another suggestion for future policy development.
A study of young Aboriginal people found that being seen at a clinic for sexual health was perceived to lead to stigma and reputational damage, and the visibility of the clinic, appointment procedures and waiting times contributed significantly to this [ 33 ]. This issue was highlighted by the Aboriginal health workforce as being an issue for individuals seeking hepatitis B care in the Top End of the Northern Territory, with barriers including concerns about confidentiality and lack of gender specific spaces. These themes also emerged in qualitative studies exploring barriers to sexually transmitted infection testing [ 34 , 35 ]. The creation of the “one stop liver shop” emphasised liver health rather than hepatitis B to diminish the impact of this issue [ 36 ]. The interviews demonstrated that care on country was important, and could facilitate culturally safe healthcare, leading to improved healthcare engagement. Avenues to operationalise such care could include investment in point of care testing, which would enable community delivered healthcare and has been shown to be effective for a variety of infections [ 37 , 38 ].
The Aboriginal health workforce participants highlighted the central importance of communication in improving hepatitis B care and reducing the impact of shame. Inadequate communication has been shown to be pervasive in this region in relation to chronic disease care [ 39 ]. Central to this was language gaps in healthcare interactions, with the consistent use of interpreters previously shown to improve patient trajectories and self-discharge rates in hospitals [ 40 ]. It was similarly highlighted by the interviewees that communication in peoples’ first language would improve hepatitis B care. This may be difficult in some remote communities due to workforce shortages, with it previously shown that hospital interpreters were less likely to be used for Aboriginal minority languages [ 41 ]. A hepatitis B culturally appropriate app has been developed to try and overcome some of these challenges. This has only recently been translated into several languages, however the impact of this on health literacy and shame is not yet known and will be an important area for further investigation [ 19 , 42 , 43 ].
The different health literacy among healthcare providers had created confusion among people living with hepatitis B and the Aboriginal health workforce. Such differing hepatitis B knowledge is known to be a general issue among healthcare providers [ 1 , 44 ]. Improving healthcare provider literacy may improve stigma, as seen in a study in New South Wales [ 1 ]. The benefit of specialised hepatitis B care delivered in partnership with community has been realised in this region with the “one stop liver shop” improving the cascade of care to high levels [ 36 ]. The consultation paper for the fourth national hepatitis B strategy has concluded that building a comprehensive hepatitis B specific community and health workforce capacity has meant the Top End of Northern Territory is now leading in attaining national hepatitis B targets despite isolation challenges [ 45 ]. Current specific hepatitis B courses for the Aboriginal health workforce aim to continue to build and maintain this capacity and success and ensures consistency in hepatitis B related education [ 25 , 26 , 46 ].
Overcoming the disruption of connection to community was noted by participants to be extremely important while providing care for someone living with hepatitis B. The social and emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people has been observed to be related to the connection of community, mind, body, country, and culture [ 47 , 48 , 49 ]. Placing emphasis on wellness and connection, rather than illness and reducing symptoms has been emphasised as central to effective clinical practice, and is mediated through the development of meaningful relationships [ 48 ]. Such patient centred approach was noted to be an effective avenue for reduction in stigma and empowered other stigma reduction programmes [ 50 ]. This requires the retention and involvement of Aboriginal health workforce in healthcare delivery as involvement of this workforce delivers culturally safe care, improves outcomes and counters stigma [ 1 , 51 ]. It was noted by participants that Aboriginal health workforce skills were not being effectively utilised, often being used in other roles such as transport and administration due to workforce gaps. This is a common issue with recent declines in Aboriginal Health Practitioner staff, with the discriminatory rules and managerial practices for the Aboriginal workforce highlighted as key concerns in other studies [ 52 , 53 ]. These concerns should guide wider health policy as there is an immediate need to increase and support this critically important workforce. Indeed, an increased Aboriginal health workforce is a specific goal of the Australia Health Practitioner Regulation Agency’s national strategy for cultural safety, and the interviews in this study have echoed the need to achieve this goal [ 23 ].
The strength of this study included a semi structured style of interviewing which allowed exploration of individual and community experiences from each participant’s perspective. We consulted Aboriginal investigators and the Menzies Infectious Diseases Indigenous Reference Group to ensure the research had the right methodology, and the collective knowledge we draw from this research will help inform how hepatitis B care is delivered in future.
Limitations include lack of involvement of people living with hepatitis B. While the perceptions we have presented may not be reflective of the actual experience of people living with hepatitis B themselves, we think the interviews of the Aboriginal health workforce has provided unique knowledge of the community, the feelings individuals experienced in being diagnosed with hepatitis B, and what care was available. Further study could examine these areas by interviewing those living with hepatitis B, after close coordination and consultation with the communities involved.
The inclusion of eight communities in the region, while numerous, is also not representative of all communities. While every community is unique, establishing common themes was intended to produce reciprocal benefits for all communities. This was summarised by one interviewee:
“We don’t share – we don’t talk about what’s going really well; and one community , “You might want to try that here , it might work well for you”. You know? It would be good to have that” (Participant 6) .
General learnings drawn from these interviews would always only be intended to be applied in specific consultation with individual communities, respecting their individual identities.
The experience of hepatitis B related shame is impactful in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in the Top End of the Northern Territory. There are many components to hepatitis B related shame in these communities, and numerous factors contribute and perpetuate the experience. The Aboriginal health workforce has emphasised several pathways which would improve hepatitis B care and reduce the impact of shame, including improving communication and working more effectively with the Aboriginal health workforce and local communities.
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
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We would like to thank Ms. Karen Black for transcribing the interviews for this study.
This work was supported by the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (fellowships to JSD (No. 1160331) and JD (No. 1123427). Funders played no role in the study design, the analysis, or the decision to publish.
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Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Northern Territory (NT), Darwin, Australia
Richard P. Sullivan, Paula Binks, Kelly Hosking, Emily Vintour-Cesar, Melita McKinnon, George Gurruwiwi, Joshua S. Davis & Jane Davies
Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, St George and Sutherland Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, UNSW Medicine and Health, Sydney, New South Wales (NSW), Australia
Richard P. Sullivan
Miwatj Health Aboriginal Corporation, Darwin, NT, Australia
Sarah Mariyalawuy Bukulatjpi
Population and Primary Health Care, Top End Health Service, Northern Territory Government, Darwin, NT, Australia
Kelly Hosking
Northern Territory Health, Darwin, NT, Australia
Patricia Nundhirribala
University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia
University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Infection Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
Joshua S. Davis
Department of Infectious Diseases, Royal Darwin Hospital, Casuarina, NT, Australia
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RPS performed study concept and design, literature search, acquisition of data, performed analysis and interpretation of data and first draft writing, and revision of manuscript. SMB performed community education and liaison, analysis and interpretation of data and writing and revision of manuscript. PB performed study concept and design, literature search, project management, acquisition of data, and writing and revision of manuscript. KH performed study concept and design, literature search, acquisition of data and writing and revision of manuscript. PN performed community education and liaison, analysis and interpretation of data and writing and revision of manuscript. EVC performed project management, acquisition of data, and writing and revision of manuscript. MM performed project management and writing and revision of manuscript. GG performed community education and liaison, analysis and interpretation of data and writing and revision of manuscript. AG performed analysis, and interpretation of data, and writing and revision of manuscript. JSD performed study concept and design, analysis, and interpretation of data, and writing and revision of manuscript. JD performed study concept and design, analysis, and interpretation of data, and writing and revision of manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript.
Correspondence to Richard P. Sullivan .
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The Human Research Ethics Committee of Northern Territory Health and Menzies School of Health Research approved this study (HREC 2021–4037). This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the regulations and guidelines of the National Health and Medical Research Council [ 54 , 55 ]. Informed consent to participate was obtained from participants.
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Sullivan, R., Bukulatjpi, S.M., Binks, P. et al. “They feel shame sometime, but that is why we need to talk to them…we need to tell them how important it is not to feel shame”: Hepatitis B related shame and improving hepatitis B care in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in the Top End of the Northern Territory, according to the Aboriginal health workforce. Arch Public Health 82 , 151 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-024-01389-z
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a Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
b Global Health Focus, Abuja, Nigeria
Developing, maintaining, and sustaining undergraduate research initiatives can benefit academic institutions, faculty mentors, and students. As the world evolves, more research is required to advance knowledge and innovation in all fields. This implies that students must be prepared for today's knowledge-driven world. Research in the medical and health sciences has stalled in many developing countries, where a dual burden of communicable and noncommunicable diseases is prevalent. In this article, I discuss the values and benefits of undergraduate healthcare students participating in research and scientific publishing, as well as the challenges they face. I also make recommendations to encourage undergraduates to get involved in research. The potential of undergraduate research has not yet been fully realized. Undergraduate research's main objectives are to teach students how to do research and to help them acquire skills that they can use beyond the academic environment. Undergraduate research will complement rather than conflict with university education and should go beyond the mandatory terminal year thesis and must cover the entire course of their studies. The key to successful undergraduate research participation is for students to see and understand the importance of rigor, academic integrity, and responsible research conduct. This means academic institutions should carefully plan research programs, activities, and courses for students. Building capacity in research has a long-term impact on valuable learning outcomes as undergraduate students prepare for professional service. Stakeholders and educational authorities must invest in strengthening undergraduate involvement in research.
As the world evolves, the need for research grows, and it remains a factor of key importance in creating a knowledge-driven economy and supporting development initiatives as well as driving innovations across all fields [ 1 ]. It is becoming more and more important to increase undergraduate student involvement in research [ 2 ]. Academic institutions, faculty mentors, and students can all benefit from developing, maintaining, and sustaining undergraduate research initiatives. By integrating research into their academic courses and giving them a strong academic foundation, students can strengthen their autonomous critical thinking abilities as well as their oral and written communication skills, among others. As students are ready for professional service, the research process affects important learning goals that have a lasting impact. All students should be prepared for the contemporary knowledge-driven world because, today, doing research is not just for academics but also for individuals and institutions interested in knowledge creation and advancement.
The advancement and innovation of all fields, including the health sciences and related areas, depends on research [ 3 ]. Society can benefit greatly from health-related research [ 4 ], which can provide vital insights into disease trends and risk factors, treatment outcomes or public health interventions, care patterns, costs and usage of healthcare services, and more. By doing research to find solutions to problems that are currently unknown, we can close knowledge gaps and change the way healthcare professionals work as well as how we respond to public health issues. With the increase in health concerns ravaging the world [ [5] , [6] , [7] ], it is clear that research is indispensable – whether it be tackling diseases of poverty, performing clinical trials, responding to the rise of chronic diseases, improving access to medicines, increasing vaccines uptake, containing local epidemics, developing innovation in treatment plans, or ensuring that marginalized populations have access to HIV care treatments, among others. This suggests that there is a pressing need to advance knowledge creation and utilization, and that gathering local, grassroots data at all levels of healthcare is important.
Research in the medical and health sciences has seen a downturn in many developing countries [ 8 ], where a double burden of communicable and non-communicable diseases is highly prevalent. The development of undergraduate health sciences students' research capacity is a key intervention to address this issue. With the support of faculties, it is possible for undergraduate students to learn about and participate actively in research. In this article, I discuss the values and benefits of undergraduate healthcare students' involvement in research and scientific publishing, as well as the challenges they face. I also provide recommendations to advance undergraduates’ involvement in research.
Involving undergraduate students in research should go beyond the mandatory terminal year thesis and must cover the entire course of their studies. There are myriads of benefits to involving (healthcare) students in research and scientific publishing at the undergraduate level. Research is a methodical process of investigation that includes data collection and analysis, the recording of significant information, and subsequent analysis and interpretation of that information in accordance with the protocols defined by specific academic and professional disciplines [ 9 ]. This implies that conducting research is an important way to improve students’ ability to think critically and solve problems, both of which are essential throughout their career as healthcare professionals. Critical thinking abilities have been linked to better patient outcomes, higher patient care quality, and improved safety outcomes [ 10 ]. While problem-solving focuses on identifying and resolving issues, critical thinking entails asking insightful questions and critiquing solutions. Early exposure of healthcare students to the value of research is a critical strategy for increasing their interest in and attitude toward it. Table 1 highlights the achievements of some students that engaged in research as undergraduates.
Examples of students that got involved in research as undergraduate and their achievements.
Name | Achievement |
---|---|
Adeola Bamisaiye | She contributed to a research effort to advance knowledge on AMR surveillance in Nigeria, as a pharmacy student. |
Niel Stensen | He was a medical student when he discovered the parotid duct in sheep. |
Joseph Black | He discovered fixed air, now called CO , as a medical student. |
Alaka Hassan Olayemi | A microbiology student contributing to research effort in the field of antimicrobial resistance and one health. |
Jay Mclean | He discovered Heparin, as a medical student. |
Adriana Viola Miranda | She is a medical student contributing to research efforts in using digital technology to advance public health, earning her several awards. |
Lorenzo Bellini | He was only 19 years when he published his discovery of the kidney tubules. |
Melody Okereke | He developed the first framework for Nigerian industrial pharmacists to combat substandard and counterfeit medicine in his third year in pharmacy school. |
Aminat Olaitan Adebayo | While still an undergraduate, she is actively contributing to research efforts to advance the field of planetary health. |
Yusuff Adebayo Adebisi | He was the first undergraduate healthcare student to publish more than 50 research articles on global public health issues in peer-reviewed journals, while attending pharmacy school, earning him the prestigious Diana Award and many other global accolades. |
Isaac Olushola Ogunkola | One of the leading young researchers advancing research and innovation in the field of harm reduction, health justice and drug policy. |
Charles Herbert Best | His contribution to medicine nearly won him a Nobel Prize. |
Goodness Ogeyi Odey | She was a recipient of the prestigious Diana Award because of her involvement in research geared towards advancing health equity. |
Esther Ejiroghene Ajari | She is one of the leading undergraduate students championing research and innovation in the advancement of menstrual health equity. |
The elements required for professional competency in the health fields are covered in healthcare student curricula. This includes understanding of the fundamental theories and literature in the field of study, as well as knowledge of the terminology or technical language specific to health sciences. Incorporating research methodology and the hypothesis-driven scientific process can help to build on this foundation while also stimulating independent critical thinking. By involving undergraduate students in research, they can build trust in the scientific process. Besides that, independent thinking can give an undergraduate student the confidence to draw their own conclusions based on available evidence. No doubt that undergraduate students who took part in research projects will have greater thought independence, a stronger intrinsic motivation to learn, and a more active role in their learning. As a result, as undergraduates prepare for their respective professions, the research process has a very positive impact on their practice.
Students who participate in research may have the chance to develop the advanced writing abilities needed for science publishing and communication [ 11 ]. Even though healthcare students write a lot throughout their time in college, many still struggle to write in a way that is considered acceptable. This is due to the fact that students frequently plagiarize in writing assignments since there is usually little to no formal training on academic writing, and some institutions pay less attention to this. It has also become more challenging for students to express themselves in their own words during academic assessments as a result of the encouragement to memorize academic information verbatim by some teachers. Writing is difficult, but it is a skill that can be honed. Improving students' writing skills is much easier if proper attention is paid to strengthening their capacity for and involvement in the academic research process. This will be useful to them throughout their career, whether they choose to be academic or not.
Investing in academic writing skills among students, particularly in developing countries, is critical for improving scientific outputs on health issues confronting the region. It is not enough to know how to conduct research; academic writing is also important. Additionally, it is crucial for academic institutions to encourage students to present their research work at scientific conferences, which are frequently restricted to postgraduate students. This gives them the chance to collaborate more frequently with faculty members while also giving them another learning opportunity and boosting their confidence and presentation skills. Students who make significant contributions to the intellectual aspect of a research should not be relegated to acknowledgement section of the paper but should be included as co-authors. Furthermore, students should not be denied first authorship because of power dynamics. This will definitely improve students’ attitude towards research.
Through research, students can observe how the theories and concepts they have learned are applied. The active learning aspect of research allows students to connect with their own interests, which is not possible in a passive learning setting. If a research culture and thought process are instilled in healthcare students as they progress through the academic institution in a more systematic, logical, and integrated manner, it will be easier for them to understand what they are learning and will promote active participation in class. This is due to the fact that students who conduct research will be able to understand the research process and how scientists think and work on problems; learn about different lab techniques (as needed); develop skills in data analysis and interpretation; and be able to integrate theory and practice. Further, undergraduates should be involved in research as early as possible because it allows them to identify, develop, and nurture their interests while being open-minded to other areas. This will make choosing and transitioning into research area of choice much easier for them as they pursue postgraduate studies. Because of the high-level of interest and fundamental knowledge gained through undergraduate research participation, it will be possible to increase the enthusiasm, completion rates, and quality of academic research at the postgraduate level. Besides that, undergraduate research allows students to decide whether or not they want to pursue a career in research.
Due to the opportunity for students to pursue their individual interests, research experiences have been linked to a boost in students' motivation to learn [ 12 ]. This means undergraduates will have the chance to take more control over their own learning experiences and have their intellectual curiosity piqued by research. Student-faculty research mentoring relationships frequently develop over time. In contrast to what is possible in the classroom, students form a distinct type of interaction with their research mentor. Most of the time, the interaction is more intense and lasts longer. It frequently serves as the foundation for lifelong friendships and career guidance. When students are looking for jobs or graduate schools, faculty research mentors are an excellent source of recommendations and advice. Additionally, students gain experience working in a research team, which typically involves group work, stronger relationships with colleagues and faculty members, and the development of communication skills. All of which are qualities that employers are increasingly looking for. The key to successful undergraduate research participation is for students to see and understand the importance of rigor, academic integrity, and responsible research conduct. This means academic institutions should carefully plan research programs, activities, and courses for students.
One of the most significant benefits of student research participation is the possibility of publishing articles in peer-reviewed journals. This will also give students early exposure to the process and concept of scientific publishing. Students who submit their manuscript to a reputable journal for publication can also benefit from peer review, which allows them to improve their paper and learn more from the reviewers’ comments. Also, undergraduate students who are exposed to the scientific publishing process early on will be less likely to become victims of predatory journals. Students with publishing experience may be inspired and motivated to pursue a career in research. Having publication allows students to improve their resumes and graduate school applications. Publishing counts as research experience and demonstrates that undergraduate students who have published are enthusiastic about research. As an active learning process, research requires students to frame questions, devise a strategy for testing their hypotheses, analyze data, and write clearly to report their findings, among other things. The research experiences, skills, and knowledge students acquire at the undergraduate level will better prepare them for many of their future endeavors, including careers and postgraduate study. In addition to exposing students to conducting original/primary research, it is important to engage them in secondary research activities including writing reviews, correspondence, commentary, viewpoints, book chapters, and more. Secondary research improves students' writing abilities and thought processes, enables the construction of intelligent arguments, enhances their capacity to use scientific databases to find evidence, and teaches them how to engage in constructive criticism, among others.
While the benefits of undergraduate research to students have been highlighted in the preceding paragraphs, academic institutions can also benefit from engaging undergraduates in research [ 13 ]. Teams conducting research benefit from the enthusiasm and energy of curious undergraduate students. They frequently keep asking for more tasks to complete since they are eager to learn. Undergraduate students often pose inquiries that can be quite perceptive and, perhaps rather unintentionally, alter the way advisors approach research problems and better improve the quality of scientific output from such institutions. In contrast to how faculty research mentors interact with graduate students and other senior team members, undergraduate researchers need responses to inquiries in unique ways, which usually facilitate an opportunity for multidirectional intense learning.
Furthermore, undergraduate students' contributions to peer-reviewed publications and local, regional, national, or international research presentations at conferences and other scientific gatherings will benefit the university or institution's visibility in the scientific community and attract more funding. Students can actively contribute to scientific knowledge provided they are motivated and have the necessary research knowledge and abilities. I serve as a practical example. At the undergraduate level, I published more than 50 articles (including both primary and secondary research) in peer-reviewed journals on a diverse range of public health issues, including the COVID-19 pandemic. While still an undergraduate, I received research and travel grants and presented scientific papers both locally and internationally. This captured the attention of the media, and many undergraduates are now inspired to participate in research more than ever. With the right support systems in place, undergraduates' contributions to scientific literature can be valuable, benefiting not only the student but also the academic institution and society. Imagine a university where students receive the assistance they require to develop their capacity for scientific publishing and research. Such an institution would contribute more to science and knowledge creation, raising their profile in the process. Undergraduate research initiatives are an untapped gold mine if they are nurtured, funded, and supported adequately.
Healthcare undergraduates interested in research face a number of challenges that have been documented in academic literature. In this section, I conducted a rapid unsystematic review of primary studies and used Table 2 to summarize the challenges and barriers facing undergraduate research identified in randomly selected academic papers.
Barriers and challenges facing healthcare students’ involvement in research.
Study | Country of study | Identified barriers and challenges |
---|---|---|
Kiyimba B et al. (2022) [ ] | Uganda | Participants cited a lack of funds, mentorship and guidance, and collaboration opportunities as major barriers to their participation in research. The majority of the study respondents identified design research studies and manuscript writing as the most difficult steps in the research process. |
Assar A et al. (2022) [ ] | Six Arab Countries (Egypt, Algeria, Sudan, Jordan, Syria and Palestine) | The top ten perceived barriers towards research practice in the entire sample were lack of access to lab equipment for research, priority of education over research, lack of time because of educational tasks, generally poor attention given to researchers, lack of fund, poor collaboration between different academic departments and research centers, Insufficient research skills, lack of suitable research space, lack of faculty input and lack of familiarity with research studies. |
Ferdoush J et al. (2022) [ ] | Bangladesh | Majority of the respondents reported that inadequate time and priorities, insufficient guidance, inadequate familiarities with research methodology and statistical analysis were the barriers of research. |
Mugabo E et al. (2021) [ ] | Rwanda | The most significant barrier to research participation was students' belief that they lacked knowledge of research processes. Other significant barriers included a lack of mentors, a lack of funds, and undergraduate students believing they are unqualified to conduct research. |
Alsaleem SA et al. (2021) [ ] | Kingdom of Saudi Arabia | Lack of time, skills, funding, facilities, and limited access to medical journals and related databases were the significant barriers found. |
Kanmounye US et al. (2020) [ ] | Cameroon | Barriers to research included lack of funding, obsolete patient information management systems, and limited understanding of biostatistics. |
Awofeso OM et al. (2020) [ ] | Nigeria | Reported barriers included lack of funding for research, lack of research and biostatistics curriculum, inadequate training in research methodology, insufficient time allocation to undergraduate research, lack of professional supervisors and proper mentoring, and lack of equipped laboratory facilities to conduct research. |
El Achi D et al. (2020) [ ] | Lebanon | Students found the lack of mentoring and guidance to be the main barrier in conducting medical research. |
Kumar J et al. (2019) [ ] | Pakistan | Lack of knowledge as a barrier was identified by students. The second most common barrier identified by the students was lack of time, followed by lack of mentoring as the third most common barrier. |
Chellaiyan VG et al. (2019) [ ] | India | Difficulty in choosing topic, difficulty in collecting data, and allocation of time amidst academic activities were considered as a barrier |
Pallamparthy S et al. (2019) [ ] | India | Barriers identified were lack of awareness, interest, funds, time, and difficulty in follow-up of patients. |
Dadipoor S et al. (2019) [ ] | Iran | The two most common personal barriers were a lack of research technique expertise and poor research skills. Access to information sources was the most pervasive organizational barrier, but it was also the least common. The findings revealed that during their studies, research students encountered more personal challenges than organizational constraints. |
Kyaw Soe HH et al. (2018) [ ] | Malaysia | The majorly cited barriers were the lack of time, lack of knowledge and skills, lack of funding and facilities, and lack of rewards. |
Noorelahi MM et al. (2015) [ ] | Saudi Arabia | The most important obstacle predictors implicated in not conducting research among all the studied subjects were inadequate facility for research, lack of interest by faculty or guide, and unavailability of the samples or patients. |
Memarpour M et al. (2015) [ ] | Iran | Inadequate financial support was cited as the main barrier, followed by a preference for academic instruction over research, limited time and lack of research skills and knowledge. |
The rapid review of the fifteen (15) original studies in Table 2 revealed the major barriers and challenges limiting undergraduate student involvement in research across different countries. The findings of the reviewed studies were clearly similar. The key barriers and challenges to undergraduate involvement in research can be divided into three categories: a significant lack of knowledge and skills to participate in research; little to no faculty support, mentorship, funding and motivation for undergraduates to participate in research; and structural barriers limiting student involvement in research such as lack of time due to the loaded curriculum, dearth of research facilities as well as lack of major plans and strategies for undergraduate research.
There is an urgent need for stakeholders all over the world to look into the issues and devise tailored strategies to increase the involvement of (healthcare) students in research. Here are my eight (8) recommendations to advance the involvement of undergraduate students in research:
Undergraduate research is a treasure trove that has yet to be fully tapped. The primary goal of undergraduate research is to teach students how to conduct research and to develop necessary skills that can be applied outside of the academic setting. Bolstering undergraduate research will complement, rather than conflict with, university education. There is an urgent need to develop global and local initiatives as well as strengthen current initiatives to further encourage undergraduate students to participate in research and scientific publishing.
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This study addresses the critical need for documented adaptation progress in mountain regions by reviewing recently implemented or ongoing adaptation solutions collected from the Adaptation at Altitude Solutions Portal (A@A Solution Portal). Using a data driven approach, the research explores the characteristics, feasibility, and transformative potential of these solutions. Findings reveal a predominant focus on addressing droughts and floods, aligning with the IPCC’s emphasis on water-related impacts in mountains. Notably, watershed management practices emerge as popular solutions, showcasing their capacity to address multiple concerns beyond climate impacts. Education and awareness, along with land use practices, dominate the types of solutions, reflecting their positive impact on project acceptability and low associated risk of maladaptation. Agricultural land and forests are the main ecosystems where solutions are reported, with an evident association with education and awareness and land use change solutions. Most SDGs and Sendai targets are found to be addressed by the solutions emphasising the importance of documenting project experiences as way to bridge previously reported gaps between policy frameworks and on-the-ground implementation. Despite community involvement being high in many of the solutions, challenges such as gender inequality persists. While solutions often demonstrate local relevance and depth of change, upscaling remains challenging, with limited evidence of mainstreaming and replication. Sustainability criteria are moderately met, incorporating inclusive decision-making but with uncertainty regarding long-term plans. Furthermore, findings underscore the significance of co-developing and maintaining adaptation solution portals, illustrating how this approach enriches our understanding of adaptation progress in mountains. Moreover, this research contributes to broadening the scope of systematic adaptation assessments by providing a nuanced perspective that integrates local needs and diverse knowledge systems. In essence, this study makes a valuable contribution to the evolving landscape of adaptation research, emphasizing the importance of practical insights and collaborative efforts to address the complex challenges posed by climate-related impacts and corresponding adaptation efforts.
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Climate change is having a significant impact on mountain ecosystems, which are home to a quarter of the world’s population and a source of freshwater for billions of people (Adler et al. 2022 ). Mountain communities are highly dependent on natural resources for their livelihoods, and changes in the mountain environment can have significant social, economic, and cultural impacts (Huss et al. 2017 ; Mengistu et al. 2020 ; Schmeller et al. 2022 ; Reader et al. 2023a ). Alongside climate and environmental change, demographic change, land use change and urbanisation also create numerous disruptions, in particular when settlements and infrastructures appear in hazard-prone areas (Viviroli et al. 2020 ; Thornton et al. 2022 ). Therefore, adapting to climate change in mountains is essential to ensure the well-being of mountain and lowland communities, as well as the long-term sustainability of mountain ecosystems (McDowell et al. 2019b ; Adler et al. 2022 ).
Evidence from mountain specific research confirms that climate adaptation is taking place in many mountain countries, often as a reaction to realised impacts, and sporadically as part of coordinated strategies and plans (McDowell et al. 2019b ; Adler et al. 2022 ). The status quo of mountain adaptation is that of small adjustments to existing risk management strategies with limited scope and extent. Yet, as risks become ever more complex and pervasive, the need to move from small adjustments to substantial innovation and systemic changes, is becoming more pressing (Colloff et al. 2017 ; Klein et al. 2019 ; Palomo et al. 2021 ; McDowell et al. 2021 ). Indeed, in terms of the hallmark approaches taken to adaptation, those of incremental and transformational adaptation, are perhaps the two most prominent (Kates et al. 2012 ). Although, as many authors have noted, there is no fixed definition for transformative adaptation and its interpretation differs among different users and contexts (Fedele et al. 2019 ), its relevance and necessity are nevertheless widely recognized (Klein et al. 2019 ; Bentz et al. 2022 ). Such importance appears to lie in the need to move from business-as-usual or traditional incremental strategies to systemic commitments that better address the complex challenges linked to climate change risks through a shift in paradigms and values (Lonsdale et al. 2015 ). Lately, the success of adaptation, whether transformative or incremental, has become strongly interrelated to its effectiveness in reducing climate risks (Owen 2020 ; Chausson et al. 2020 ), with the feasibility of adaptation as an indication of potential barriers, limits or maladaptation (Singh et al. 2020 ; Thomas et al. 2021 ).
In the pursuit of achieving a synthetic picture of the overall landscape of adaptation, its characteristics, effectiveness and transformative potential, numerous systematic reviews and meta-analyses have emerged in the past decade (McDowell et al. 2014 , 2019b ; Berrang-Ford et al. 2015 , 2019 ; Berrang-Ford, Sietsma, et al., 2021 ). Berrang-Ford et al. 2021a combined traditional review methods with machine learning to take stock of empirical adaptation globally. Meanwhile, other reviews have focused on specific sub-topics within the adaptation literature, such as health (Berrang-Ford et al. 2021b ), equity (Araos et al. 2021 ), adaptation limits (Thomas et al. 2021 ), and government adaptation (Berrang-Ford et al. 2019 ). Systematic reviews of adaptation also exist for specific topological regions, including the Arctic (Canosa et al. 2020 ) and mountain areas (McDowell et al. 2014 , 2019b ; Terzi et al. 2019 ; Vij et al. 2021 ).
These reviews have proved extremely valuable to tracking adaptation progress, and some have played a key role in global assessments such as the IPCC (Berrang-Ford et al. 2021a ; Adler et al. 2022 ; O’Neill et al. 2022 ). Notwithstanding, they predominantly assess adaptation if evidence is reported in the academic literature. Technical and logistical challenges have been identified when attempting at systematically assessing adaptation practice from the grey literature in ways that are comparable and on pair with the academic evidence (Berrang-Ford et al. 2021a ). This is often because adaptation projects carried out in the public, NGO and private sectors are seldomly reported in peer-reviewed literature (McDowell et al. 2019b ; Berrang-Ford et al. 2021a ; Vij et al. 2021 ). In response, a number of portals have been developed over the years to track adaptation on the ground, such as Climate-Adapt of the European Environment Agency (Mattern and Jol 2018 ; Dubo et al. 2022 ), the Climate Change Knowledge Portal of the World Bank, and the Dutch adaptation web portal (Laudien et al. 2019 ). Facts and figures from these portals are starting to gain recognition by the scientific literature, and their usefulness is increasingly acknowledged (Laudien et al. 2019 ; Dubo et al. 2022 ; Jevne et al. 2023 ).
This study responds to the urgent need of shedding light on adaptation practice in mountains by compiling wide ranging facts and figures from a dedicated portal on adaptation solutions in mountain regions. It seeks to produce a comprehensive inventory of adaptation efforts taking place in mountains as part of realised and ongoing projects. The focus is placed on implemented adaptation solutions, where solutions are referred to as actual measures, approaches, or processes designed to adjust natural or human systems to current or anticipated climate-related impacts in ways that reduce climate risks and increase resilience (Haasnoot et al. 2020 ). Solutions were collected from the Adaptation at Altitude Solutions Portal (hereafter A@A Solution portal) (Adaptation at Altitude 2021 ), which was co-designed by scientists and practitioners in response to the increased needs of a more practice-oriented science of adaptation that takes into account local necessities and different knowledge systems (Muccione et al. 2019 ). We assessed 88 adaptation solutions initially featured in the A@A Solution portal, implemented across various mountain regions and countries by different organizations and project developers. We explored their characteristics, feasibility and transformative potential. By highlighting the importance of co-developing and maintaining an adaptation solution portal, we demonstrate how such an approach enriches our understanding of adaptation progress in mountains and contribute to broaden the landscape of systematic assessments ofadaptation.
The methodological approach used in this study was designed in the context of Adaptation at Altitude (hereafter A@A), launched in 2020. A@A aims to enhance the resilience and adaptive capacities of mountain communities (Adaptation at Altitude 2021 ). The programme addresses four main challenges of adaptation in mountains, namely: (1) data information and monitoring; (2) regional science-policy exchange and collaborative action; (3) knowledge generation and sharing; and (4) policy mainstreaming. To address challenge three, “knowledge generation and sharing”, an online survey was designed to systematically collect relevant information from mountain adaptation projects with the ultimate goal of building a live portal of adaptation solutions in mountains. To this end, the A@A Solution Portal collects, in one place, relevant information concerning numerous adaptation projects and their implementers around the world. The portal allows the sharing and exploring of past or ongoing tried-and-tested adaptation solutions in mountain regions. A schematic view on the methodological approach used in this study is given in Fig. 1 and explained in the next sub-sections.
Schematic overview of the methodological approach used in the paper from survey design to assessment of the solutions
The survey employed to populate the A@A solution portal was co-designed by the partner institutions of the programme and informed by a preparatory phase that included a user needs assessment, as well as a review of existing on-line climate adaptation platforms. The user needs assessment involved eleven semi-structured interviews and one on-line workshop with international actors engaged in the funding, evaluation, planning, management and/or implementation of climate adaptation activities in mountain regions. These stakeholders included representatives from A@A partners, the World Bank, Business for Nature, and lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Sixth Assessment Report (AR6). More detailed information on the project and its partners can be found on the A@A website (Adaptation at Altitude 2021 ). The user needs consultation was done bottom-up and allowed participants to define the type of information most valuable to practitioners and developers of adaptation projects, as well technical gaps or shortcomings of existing platforms. In parallel, the review of on-line platforms providing climate adaptation solutions was also conducted. This review consisted of three main phases: screening, in-depth analysis of selected platforms, and gaps identification. From the 55 platforms screened, 20 were selected for in-depth analysis. This analysis revealed that more than half of the platforms (54%) showcase climate change adaptation (CCA) solutions primarily at the local scale, followed by mixed (23%, this category includes local, regional, national, international and global), national (15%) and regional (8%) level solutions. None of the analysed platforms specifically focussed on mountain regions, nor considered a comprehensive range of factors that enable or limit transformative potential. The results of the preparatory phase are described in (Scolobig A. et al. 2020 ). The final product of the preparatory phase was a survey with multiple choices and open-ended questions that served to populate the solution portal. The survey was co-developed in an iterative process involving A@A partners in eight review rounds. Along with the descriptive information, the survey collected significant supporting documentation, and the contact details of some of the principal actors involved in the planning and/or implementation processes.
An overview of the main information collected through the survey is given in Table 1 , while a copy of the survey can be found in the supplementary material. Project implementers fill in the survey through an electronic template. This process benefitted from the extensive media efforts of the A@A team that promoted the survey and ultimately the solution portal on websites of the partner institutions, Facebook, X (former Twitter) and LinkedIn, as well as in workshops, seminars, and conferences, mainly under the umbrella of the A@A programme. In addition to project implementers directly responding to the survey, the A@A team also actively collected information from project resources available online, in all cases iterating with project implementers to ensure accuracy of the information entered into the portal. Training resources for filling in the survey, such as a step-by-step guide, an example of a filled-in survey, and the inclusion of sample responses into the questionnaire were made available through the A@A website. To secure consistency and high quality of information, all completed surveys undergo a quality control evaluation, performed by the project team before the corresponding adaptation solution is published on the portal. At the time of writing this article, the A@A Solution Portal consisted of 88 solutions.
For the purpose of this study, we assessed the (1) general characteristics of the solutions, namely location, climate impact addressed, type of mountain ecosystem, sectors where the solution was implemented and type of solution, (2) their feasibility and effectiveness, and (3) their transformation potential. To measure feasibility, we followed a concept developed by Singh et al. 2020 where feasibility is understood as the potential for an adaptation solution to be implemented. We measured the contribution made to the implementation of the solutions in terms of knowledge, technology, political/legal, institutional and socio-cultural factors, to which we refer as “capacities”. Such list of factors was agreed upon using existing literature (Singh et al. 2020 ) and supplemented by the user needs consultations. The analogy of feasibility with capacity is related to the concept of adaptive capacity in adaptation science, which is the ability of a systems to prepare for, or respond to potential damages, and to take advantage of new opportunities by making the appropriate adjustments. The definition of each category is provided in Table 1 . We measured each category using a qualitative scoring from 0 (not present) and 1 (very low), to 5 (very high). To capture effectiveness, we focused on the outcomes of adaptation (Singh et al. 2020 ), both as risk reduction benefits and as more extensive benefits derived from adaptation as improvement in environmental, economic or socio-political conditions (Remling and Persson 2015 ; Sharifi 2021 ).
Regarding the transformation potential of adaptation solutions, this was measured using the four key dimensions for transformations developed by the World Bank (World Bank Group 2016 ). This choice is justified by the need to focus on an approach coming from an applied or practical perspective. In a nutshell, we measured four dimensions:
Relevance – does the solution address a major constraint or problem of critical importance to sustainable development in mountain regions?
Depth of change – does the solution cause or support fundamental change in a governance system or behaviour?
Scalability of change – could the solution be feasibly scaled-up and duplicated in other mountain regions?
Sustainability – does the solution demonstrate financial, economic, and environmental sustainability?
One key difference from more academic approaches such as those that measure transformations as speed (how fast adaptation is being implemented), scope (breadth of the measures in terms of both sectorial and spatial extent), and depth (represents the novelty of adaptation actions) (Termeer et al. 2017 ; Berrang-Ford et al. 2021a ), is that we allocated a greater emphasis on the potential for scaling up, rather than on the initial scale of the solution. This enabled the inclusion of small-scale solutions (e.g., community-based approaches) that may be only in the pilot phase but offer large potential for future replication and mainstreaming. An overview on the characteristics assessed, as well as proxies to measure feasibility, effectiveness and transformation (or transformative potential) is given in Table 1 .
For the data analysis, the information included in the solution portal was downloaded from the A@A Portal website and saved in an excel sheet. The dataset was subjected to a series of pre-processing steps to ensure its suitability for subsequent analysis. The dataset was structured into a Pandas dataframe object. The dataframe serves as a two-dimensional, size-mutable, and heterogeneous tabular data structure, providing a convenient and intuitive way to perform data manipulation and analysis (Pandas 2024 ). To facilitate analysis of categorical variables, we applied one-hot encoding, converting categorical attributes into a binary representation. Such transformation is essential for preparing categorical data for certain types of analysis that require numerical input. To analyse the solution description text, we first utilize the spaCy ( https://spacy.io/ ), which is an open-source natural language processing library specifically crafted for extracting information from text corpora. Subsequently, the term-frequency times inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) technique is employed to reducing the influence of frequently occurring words that lack informative value within the corpus (Leskovec 2014 ). TF-IDF serve diverse purposes, including facilitating the visualization of words via word clouds.
The capacities were scored on a five-point scale going from very low to very high. The score for each solution and its capacities was assessed by a minimum of 2 project members to check for consistencies and discussions were held until agreement was reached on the final score. The score was also triangulated with the qualitative description of the text on the corresponding capacity, which is also stored in the solution database.
At the time of analysis, the solution portal contained 88 discrete adaptation solutions. New solutions are being uploaded to the A@A Portal on an ongoing basis. The final dataset with the 88 solutions can be found in the supplementary material and the notebooks needed to reproduce all analysis and figures are available through the https://github.com/vmuccion/Adaptation-Altitude .
The first entry in the database alongside the unique title, is a description of the solution. Figure 2 displays a word cloud illustrating the prevalence of the words extracted from the description text. Notably, “water” is highlighted as the most prevalent word, followed by other key words such as “community”, “land”, “local”, and “capacity”. This pattern indicated a prevalence of community and local based measures, with water being the dominant aspect, not only in terms of sector, but also concerning the typology of solutions.
World cloud of most frequent single words obtained from the summary description of the solutions
The geographical distribution of solutions in Fig. 3 (top panel) shows that there is a considerable tendency in the portal towards specific regions such as North and Southwestern South America, East Africa, and the Hindukush Himalaya (HKH) region. Moreover, there is a handful of solutions in Europe and the Caucasus, but so far, none from North America or Oceania. This is because the solution portal was mainly an effort to collect solutions from the Global South, expressed through the stakeholder needs consultation. However, efforts are underway to have a more balanced geographical coverage that includes additional regions. When it comes to the impacts addressed (Fig. 3 bottom panel), a diversity can be observed in the majority of continents, except in Europe.
Top figure shows a choropleth map of the solutions per country. The bottom figure shows the proportion of climate impacts addressed per continent. Only continents having at least one solution or more are shown
The general characteristics of the solutions are shown in Fig. 4 . Across all solutions, drought emerges as the most common climate impact addressed (63), followed by flood (39), and almost in equal proportion, landslides, altered growing seasons, and heat stress. Wildfire is addressed by only 5 solutions. In addition to these main impacts, the portal retains information on secondary impacts as well. The open nature of this question resulted in greater diversity in terms of reported impacts. In this case, water stress is the most common secondary impact, followed by land degradation, and glacier lake outburst flood. Other secondary impacts include erosion, snow scarcity, and unseasonal frost. The distribution of solution types shows that education and awareness, as well as land use practice, are the most common solution types, followed by monitoring and engineering strategies. Finance solutions are the least common. The sectorial distribution is dominated by agriculture and water, reflecting the emphasis on addressing drought and flood. A similar distribution is seen amongst other sectors, namely human health and well-being, natural hazards, plans and policy, ecosystem, and biodiversity. Tourism and transport are the least covered sectors. Finally, there is a more proportional distribution in the ecosystem types, with a prevalence of agricultural land, forest and high alpine. Urban solutions represent the lowest percentage.
Summary of the main characteristics across all solutions, from top to bottom clockwise, in orange the number of solutions per climate impact addressed, in blue the number of solutions per mountain ecosystem type, in green the number of solutions per solution type and finally in pink the number of solutions per sector
To gain deeper insights into adaptation efforts—particularly the nature, location, and methodologies of implemented solutions—we analyzed the co-occurrence of selected pairs of characteristics. As depicted in Fig. 5 , this analysis focuses on the relationships between solution types and climate impacts (left panel), as well as between solution types and ecosystems (right panel). Notably, education and awareness initiatives, along with land use practices, emerge as the predominant strategies employed to address a wide array of impacts. This includes adapting to the effects of droughts and floods, which constitute the primary climate impacts documented within our portal. Our observations reveal that solutions emphasizing education and awareness are frequently implemented in response to these challenges, complemented by the adoption of land use practices and engineering solutions. However, wildfire mitigation efforts are relatively limited, represented by only five documented solutions, thus revealing a lack of discernible co-occurrence patterns. Moreover, when examining the ecosystems wherein these solutions are enacted, it becomes evident that education and awareness types, alongside land use practices, are prevalent across diverse ecosystem types, spanning from agricultural lands to lakes and rivers. Conversely, fewer solutions are observed in ecosystems such as meadows, peatlands, and urban mountain areas, resulting in a lack of notable co-occurrence patterns within these contexts.
The heatmap on the left side represents co-occurrence between solution types and climate impact addressed; the heatmap on the right side represents co-occurrence between solution types and ecosystem types. The numbers within each cell represent the observation counts in ascending order from light blue to dark blue
Presented here are the feasibility results assessed through the lenses of five capacity categories, scored on a qualitative scale ranging from very low to very high, as shown in Fig. 6 . As can be observed, many of the solutions exhibit very high capacity in all the categories. Knowledge capacities ensure that adaptation is informed from the outset by diverse knowledge types, including scientific, evidence based, and indigenous knowledge. Overall, political/legal and technology capacities were evaluated by solution providers as less crucial than knowledge, institutional, and socio-cultural capacities in enabling the implementation of the solutions. In contrast, providers gave high evaluations to the role played by socio-cultural and institutional capacities. However, it should be noted that approximately one quarter of solutions do not report results on one or more capacities. This gap in reporting complicates the determination of whether a specific capacity is relevant for that solution or not.
The figure shows the number of self-assessed solutions with respect to the five dimensions of capacity on a qualitative scale going from very low to very high. NA means that the dimension was either not assessed or was not relevant
In order to understand the effectiveness of solutions in delivering positive changes ex-post, we explored various categories of benefits. All solutions have benefits associated to them. Our observations indicate that the majority of solutions have resulted in environmental benefits (33), followed by climate risk reduction (32). Other key benefits include social (13), economic (6), and technological (1) benefits. No solution indicates political benefits (Fig. 7 ).
Number of solutions reporting some type of benefits after implementation
The last segment of the analysis focuses on the assessment of the transformative potential of solutions whereby transformation is assessed according to the indicators described in SM Fig. 1 . The file used to assess the transformative potential is uploaded as supplementary dataset. Figure 8 summarises the results, depicting the number of solutions addressing specific criteria measured by corresponding sets of indicators. As it can be observed, relevance is prevalent across almost all the solutions, except for a handful which either address only one sector or report no specific climate impacts. The depth of change also shows a similar behaviour, with most solutions showing evidence of innovation within their own context and addressing multiple SDGs and Sendai Targets. Further details on specific SDGs and Sendai Target, as well as on their relationship, is provided later in this section. Sustainability is reported in more than two thirds of the solutions, while only a few solutions provide evidence on the scalability of change. While we acknowledge the importance of tailoring adaptation solutions to local environmental, cultural, social and institutional contexts, under transformative adaptation there is an expectation to see learnings and a pathway forward as to how the basic fundamentals of the solution could be transferred to another community, village, district, country or region. Evidence of mainstreaming into wider policies and plans is reported in less than one third of the solutions, and approximately half of them offer evidence of overcoming barriers and successful replication.
Number of solutions for each indicator of transformative potential. A score of 1 is given for each of the indicators being present and 0 when there is no evidence of such. Indicators corresponding to the same dimension of transformations are grouped by colour to facilitate observations. The dimension is shown on top of each group of indicators
In line with the survey design and scope of the study, this analysis includes a review of the principal contributions that the solutions provided to the SDGs (United Nations, 2022). Likewise, the survey also sought to investigate evidence of supporting at least one of the 7 global targets set under the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. Observations indicate that most solutions address at least one SDG, while 18 solutions do not address any of the Sendai targets. Overall, all SDGs, except “life under water” (Fig. 9 ), and all of the Sendai targets (Fig. 10 ) are addressed by the solutions. Some solutions address more than one SDG or Sendai target. As it could be expected given its relevance on the matter of climate adaptation, the most common SDG addressed is Goal 13 (Climate Action), followed by Goal 15 (Life on Land), and Goal 1 (No Poverty). Goals 4 (Quality Education), 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), and 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions) are the least frequent. In the case of Sendai Targets, target B, “Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030”, is addressed by almost 2/3 of the solutions. Target A, “Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030”, is the least addressed target.
The figure shows the number of solutions addressing each of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Details on the SDGs are provided on the right side of the figure
The figure shows the number of solutions addressing each of the 7 Sendai Targets. Details on the targets are provided on the right side of the figure
Documented adaptation efforts which are measurable and comparable are critical to track progress on the status of implementation (Magnan and Chalastani 2019 , Nalau 2021 ). Therefore, it is essential to assess adaptation experiences by systematically collecting and analysing information on implementation that is happening on the ground (McDowell 2019 ). To respond to this need and as testimony of increasing adaptation efforts, several adaptation portals have appeared in the past few years. These portals facilitate organized tracking of adaptation progress and are well suited for further analysis and assessments (Cebrián-Piqueras 2023 ). In this study, we analysed and assessed the recently implemented or ongoing adaptation solutions in mountain regions, that were collected from the Adaptation at Altitude Solution’s Portal.
The initial survey employed to populate the portal, was co-designed with a bottom-up process by experts and practitioners, this with the aim to capture the elements of adaptation which matter to both groups.
Our research results illustrate that drought (63) is largely the most targeted climate impact, followed by flood (39). This finding is corroborated by systematic reviews, and research articles consistently highlights drought as the primary climate impact targeted for adaptation, followed by flood, in mountain regions (Dubo et al. 2022 ; Wyss et al. 2022 ). Furthermore, the latest IPCC report also indicates that drought and flood pose key risks with the potential for severe consequences for mountain people and livelihoods and highlighted the significance and urgency of addressing water-related hazards in mountains (Adler et al. 2022 ). The prevalence and importance of water for mountains and adaptation are visible in the key words analysis of solutions summary description in Fig. 2 . Interestingly, it is observed that many of the solutions addressing water-related impacts prioritize the integration of watershed management practices. These practices have demonstrated their capacity to effectively tackle multiple concerns beyond climate impacts, including the improvement of water quality (Shin et al. 2023 ), the promotion of aquifer recharge (Bigdeli Nalbandan et al. 2023 ), and the enhancement of the natural linkages between upstream and downstream areas through transdisciplinary planning process (Cheng et al. 2017 ).
When examining the type of solutions, there is a prevalence of education and awareness focused solutions, followed by land use practices. These solutions although implemented to address the majority of climate impacts, appear to be commonly implemented to respond to impacts from floods and droughts (see Fig. 5 ). Evidence indicates that the implementation of this type of solutions is often accompanied by improvements in project acceptability and reduced risk of maladaptation (Nalau and Cobb 2022 ). This positive outcome is attributed to the fact that awareness is, in most cases, the result of community involvement (Oliver et al. 2023 ). The solutions showcased on the A@A Solutions Portal reveal a high involvement of local community groups and populations in project activities, well beyond the classical initial consultations. Remarkably, about 75% of solutions show inclusive decision making (see Fig. 8 ). However, despite the pivotal role of community participation, the exercise often faces a number of challenges and requires careful handling to prevent the reinforcement of social issues, such as gender inequality and class-based hierarchies (Nalau and Cobb 2022 ; Singh 2020 ).
Agriculture land and forests emerge as the main mountain ecosystems wherein solutions are reported, with agriculture and water being the main sectors within which solutions are mostly implemented. This further reflects the importance of tackling water-related impacts and risks for the management of critical sectors, given that mountains boast some of the highest proportions of water availability globally, as well as water withdrawal (Reader et al. 2023b ). The type of solutions implemented in these mountain ecosystems point at a prevalence of education and awareness and land use practices since, as already mentioned, these are by far the most used solutions. It is not surprising that land use practices are highly present in forest and agricultural land areas. However, while the dataset highlights a significant contribution of education and awareness as adaptation solutions in almost every typology of ecosystem, it paradoxically reveals a low impact on Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) regarding quality education (Fig. 7 ). This discrepancy may stem from the underreporting of capacity-building and awareness-raising activities under the broad category of education. Additionally, it prompts consideration of whether the targets outlined in SDG 4 are perceived as exclusively related to conventional curriculum-based education, potentially overlooking non-traditional forms of educational initiatives such as those related to awareness raising or building capacity. McKenzie et al. ( 2024 ) have argued that indeed it is currently difficult to track progress on SDG4 in relation to climate change due to a lack of quality and appropriate indicators. Despite this discrepancy, the overall picture remains positive, with many Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Sendai targets being addressed laterally within the solution portal, with only a few exceptions (Fig. 7 ). This observation aligns with the significant synergies underscored in the IPCC WG2 Cross-Chapter paper on Mountains (Adler et al. 2022 ). Based on the findings of our research, we have identified that several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Sendai targets are indeed addressed within the solution portal. This evidence counters previously highlighted gaps that acknowledged the limited evidence of implementation of international agendas in addressing disaster risk reduction and adaptation in mountainous regions (Adler et al. 2022 ; Alcántara-Ayala et al. 2022 ). By tracking evidence collected from empirical adaptation, we underscore here the imperative for sustained efforts to bridge the disparity between policy frameworks and their practical implementation on the ground.
Nuanced concepts such as feasibility, effectiveness, and transformative potential, were assessed by means of proxy indicators. In the case of feasibility, we examined the score of five main categories of capacity that were present in the project survey and that are analogous to the characterisation of feasibility according to existing literature (Singh et al. 2020 ). Although the results in Fig. 6 would point at high to very high capacity for many categories, we recognise that there is a high proportion of solutions which do not provide such information and cannot be assessed. There are nonetheless some noticeable patterns as for example, the fact that knowledge capacities score very high for more than half of solutions, whereas technological capacities show a more heterogeneous picture as enablers of solution implementation. This could be due to technology in mountain areas, being used in diverse ways, such as the development of high-resolution models that incorporate climate and socio-economic impacts on natural ecosystems, and on significant resources such as hydrological components (Immerzeel et al. 2020 ). At the same time, adaptation initiatives may rely on the formulation of structural and physical components (e.g., hard adaptation), addressing agriculture and food security, water management, and infrastructure, for example, through the creation of reservoirs and modern irrigation systems, water conservation techniques, and hazard management technologies such as early warning systems (Adler et al. 2022 ). However, in contrast, solutions which focus on education and awareness raising do not rely upon strong technical capacities from the onset, but rather aim to build these capacities through the lifetime of the project. A more pessimistic explanation for the medium to low scores could be the lack of appropriate technological know-how and technology transfer where it is most needed (Wang et al. 2020 ). This though would be at odds with the high score in the knowledge capacities, which can be reasonably associated with technological knowhow, among other dimensions of knowledge. The effectiveness also scores low in technical and political benefits, which might again indicate a persistence in the low technologic and political scores even after solutions are implemented. This last assertion would confirm the findings in McDowell et al. 2021 ; which cite limited technological know-how and political willingness as hindrances to the full realization of adaptation solutions in mountainous areas. In general, we can infer that solutions are being effective in reducing risks and improving environmental conditions and are benefitting from high knowledge capacities to enable implementation. Nevertheless, solutions do not seem to spur technological or political improvements, or such improvements are not relevant to the project scope, which suggests possible missed opportunities for important co-benefits. Analogous studies which performed systematic assessments of the adaptation literature in mountain regions have reported also environmental co-benefits but limited political or institutional positive spill over (Aggarwal et al. 2022 ).
To get a sense of the transformative potential of solutions, we explored transformations through the lenses of four criteria, namely relevance, depth of change, scalability of change, and sustainability. We see from the results in Fig. 8 that solutions are being implemented where they are most relevant, and that almost all of them cause or support fundamental change (depth of change). As most solutions are local or sub-national (see Fig. 3 ), it is plausible to infer that such depth of change happens more at the community level. However, the fact that upscaling is difficult to achieve poses questions concerning the identification of the enabling factors that eventually lead to upscaling. This is also supported by the finding that only a handful of solutions provide evidence of mainstreaming and replication. Berrang-Ford et al. ( 2021a ) confirmed this trend of limited scope of solutions in their global stocktake of human adaptation. Indeed, they reported that globally, adaptation solutions generally have a limited geographical extent and low levels of mainstreaming (Berrang-Ford et al. 2021a ). In part, this comes down to the typical short duration of adaptation projects (4–5 years) where mainstreaming becomes something of an afterthought towards the end of the project cycle rather than a goal in itself. Nonetheless, the reported success of the mountain solutions in terms of depth of change at local or sub-national level bodes well for future mainstreaming and upscaling, even if this is not occurring as rapidly as would be desired.
In essence, we can say that while the criteria of relevance and, to a geographically limited extent, depth of change, have largely been met, solutions had difficulties in demonstrating that their contribution to deliver large-scale impact by introducing new measures into the local policy frameworks or by replicating their actions in other locations. Research on social innovation identifies different types of upscaling that may be instrumental also for climate adaptation (Moore et al. 2015 ), namely, scale up (impacting laws and policies), scale out (increasing number of people or communities impacted by the solution), and scale deep (impacting cultural values and beliefs). Given the longer time frames needed, designing project with a second phase dedicated to mainstreaming and upscaling efforts would significantly increase the transformative potential of adaptation solutions in mountain regions.
The sustainability criteria are moderately met for our analysed solutions, and it is encouraging to see that inclusive decision-making processes and future proofing are being embedded in many of them. It is less clear though, whether long term plans are being integrated, and again, this is something that confirms the limited scalability and mainstreaming potential of solutions. Limited scalability, mainstreaming, and long-term planning could be all explained by an observed tendency in climate project decision making to leave planning and discussion around scaling up or replication until very late stages or following the closure of interventions (Jain and Bardhan 2023 ). Furthermore, the gap in the implementation of adaptation mainstreaming seems closely related to the lack of political commitment and mandate at the higher governmental levels (Runhaar et al. 2018 ).
Far from being all encompassing, the A@A Solution Portal misses yet the showcasing of other important mountain regions, possibly because of a bias in the initial scope of the survey and solicitation efforts, which were mainly geared towards international development and cooperation. Fortunately, efforts are underway to have a more geographically balanced display of solutions that will enhance learning between mountain regions in the global south and north. It is worth pointing out that the portal collected information not only from the project developers and implementers but also triangulated this information with project evaluation reports, which are usually developed by independent evaluation bodies and consultants. Typical mid-term or final project reports are normally based on a mix of interviews conducted with those involved in project implementation and projected beneficiaries. To minimise bias in reporting, the information was thoroughly screened for quality control by the independent team members from the A@A project. For example, project reports only seldomly involve any longer-term monitoring and evaluation of the solutions. Hence, effort was made during the quality control to ensure that statements around the foreseen long-term success and sustainability of the solutions was well-supported with concrete evidence that financial and technical plans were in place. Obvious difficulties exist for reaching out to an independent and representative sample of stakeholders, particularly ensuring representation of the most vulnerable or marginalised members of the communities. Therefore, the implementation of adaptation project design should from the beginning include more regular external evaluations and broader stakeholder engagement, whose views would equally constitute the body of independent evidence for ex-post project assessment (Wamsler et al. 2020 ; Oliver et al. 2023 ). In absence of such independent information, it is often difficult to get a sense of the progress for those who are the direct beneficiaries of these solutions and therefore such views cannot fully by captured in the remit of this solution portal. The second phase of the A@A project will attempt to fill this gap for selected solutions, by undertaking focus group meetings and interviews with benefactors and other stakeholders to gain ground level insights on the long-term effectiveness of the implemented solutions.
Another challenge of adaptation is the persistent lack of integration of concepts and terminology across different strains of literature, whether adaptation, vulnerability, or impact driven (Berrang-Ford et al. 2021a ). This has been identified as a persistent barrier to adaptation assessment. To this end we invoke here for a common adaptation taxonomy. Currently absent, such a taxonomy would require consensus within the broadest community, offering scholars and practitioners a detailed and common description of benefits, ecosystems, sectors, solutions, capacities, as well as other critical concepts. The survey conducted within this study presents intriguing entry points for such a taxonomy specific to mountain regions. For instance, it identifies solutions and their characteristics in mountains, including sectors, ecosystems, and solution types. Yet, further work is necessary to achieve a robust consensus.
Data and Jupyter notebooks for the analysis are all accessible through the following GitHub repository https://github.com/vmuccion/Adaptation-Altitude .
The notebooks are accessible through GitHub: https://github.com/vmuccion/Adaptation-Altitude .
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This research has been supported by the Adaptation at Altitude project, which is a project financed by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC).
Open Access funding provided by Lib4RI – Library for the Research Institutes within the ETH Domain: Eawag, Empa, PSI & WSL. No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript. The authors also declare that they have no financial interests.
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Veruska Muccione
Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
Veruska Muccione, Julia Aguilera Rodriguez, Anna Scolobig, Markus Stoffel & Simon K. Allen
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VM developed the concept for the paper and wrote every section of the manuscript. She did extensive data pre-processing and most of the data analysis. SKA had the initial ideas for such a paper and contributed in developing the methodology to assess the transformative potential together with JA. AS and JA were actively involved in the development of the methodology for the data collection and quality control. RW and JB hosted the portal database and provided VM with the raw dataset from the Adaptation at Altitude website. RW maintained the Adaptation at Altitude Portal together with JZ, OS, and SKA. Everyone contributed to edit and revise the paper. Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to [email protected].
Correspondence to Veruska Muccione .
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Muccione, V., Aguilera Rodriguez, J., Scolobig, A. et al. Trends in climate adaptation solutions for mountain regions. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change 29 , 74 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-024-10168-8
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Received : 19 December 2023
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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-024-10168-8
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