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Article Contents

Molecular analysis of skeletal evidence, migrant identification, search, detection and recovery, commingling analysis, biomechanics of bone trauma, decomposition research, bone microscopy, isotope analysis, facial imaging, recent advances in forensic anthropology.

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Douglas H. Ubelaker, Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Sciences Research , Volume 3, Issue 4, December 2018, Pages 275–277, https://doi.org/10.1080/20961790.2018.1466384

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Forensic anthropology involves diverse applications of anthropological knowledge to medico-legal problems. While the applications are evidence-driven, the available scientific methodology and foundation have developed through decades of research and experience. The roots of this field are anchored in comparative human anatomy but methodology has developed through experimentation, the assemblage of documented collections and databases and thoughtful research design. While forensic anthropology represents a mature scientific field, it continues to evolve and advance through new, innovative global research. Much of this progress is fuelled by issues encountered in casework. The unique evidence and problems presented in forensic cases call for the very best scientific approaches available. Usually, the correct approaches and solutions can be found in the existing scientific literature. However, sometimes the unique issues presented by the casework cannot be addressed adequately with the existing techniques. These situations stimulate forensic anthropologists to seek new solutions through targeted research.

This Special Issue presents research advances in several areas of forensic anthropology that have sustained rapid, recent progress. While our journals continually reveal new information in all aspects of forensic anthropology, several areas of investigation have registered particularly strong academic interest featuring innovative research.

Successful recovery and analysis of DNA has dramatically affected many areas of forensic science. In the field of forensic anthropology, molecular analysis can yield highly accurate information regarding the sex of the individual represented and provide positive identification [ 1 ]. Molecular approaches also can contribute to ancestry evaluation and species recognition. The use of DNA for positive identification has had a major impact on the practice of forensic anthropology and related fields of forensic science.

While the merits and contributions of DNA analysis are profound, many related issues express the need for new, innovative research and technological development. Frequently, evidence submitted for forensic anthropological analysis is not in pristine condition. In many cases, recovered remains are incomplete and/or extremely degraded due to criminal activity and/or taphonomic factors. Some site investigations produce only small fragments where even species is not apparent. Decisions need to be made regarding what areas of bone or tooth should be examined. Since DNA analysis is an expensive and destructive process, these decisions are critical and can affect the outcome of the case. Of course, decisions regarding the type of DNA analysis also are critical and largely driven by both the availability of the antemortem information and the nature of the evidence. Experimentation and casework experience have greatly improved approaches to these issues.

Deaths related to the global movement of undocumented people across national borders present major forensic challenges. Even within countries, identification of citizens can be difficult with incomplete evidence and lack of information regarding missing persons. These problems are greatly exacerbated when different countries are involved and the international movement of the person represented is not registered officially. Such cases call for extraordinary investigation, thoughtful forensic analysis and international communication. These efforts can strain the available local resources and often fall short of positive identification.

Recent years have witnessed remarkable efforts to address the identification of deceased, undocumented border crossers. These initiatives have involved international cooperation, careful exhumation procedures, comprehensive anthropological analysis and new techniques such as isotope analysis to identify the likely regions/countries of origin.

The entire process of forensic anthropological investigation begins with the procedures of search, detection and recovery. Improper or inadequate detection and recovery of human remains can compromise the downstream analysis and interpretation. While the traditional techniques of surface survey and excavation continue to be needed, new approaches, especially those using advanced technology offer significant advances.

Search procedures can be especially challenging when only very general information is available regarding the likely location of human remains. Topographic features can present limitations, especially with dense vegetation and other ground cover. Investigations of humanitarian and human rights issues can present special search and recovery challenges when information suggests that wells, cisterns, sewer systems, mass graves or disposal in water were involved. Confronted with these problems, researchers have devised innovative new approaches to improve the probability of success.

Secondary deposits of human remains or those that have sustained significant disturbance involve loss of normal bone articulation patterns. When multiple individuals are involved, the resulting commingling presents challenges to determine the number of persons represented and to assemble remains of individuals for analysis, identification and return to families. Traditional approaches to commingling problems have involved sorting by the type and side (left or right) of bone, age at death, bone size and maturation, sex and pathological conditions. In some skeletal assemblages, taphonomic indicators can be helpful as well.

Once obvious sorting has been completed, questions persist regarding bone morphology related to individuals. Could a robust femur relate to a robust humerus and represent one individual? Recent advances in commingling analysis address this issue. New databases and computerized techniques establish the probabilities that different bones could relate to the same individual. Applications refine the determination of the number of individuals represented and facilitate analysis aimed at identification.

A primary function of anthropological analysis relates to the interpretation of bone trauma. Anthropologists must differentiate the skeletal alterations representing perimortem trauma from those relating to antemortem injury, developmental features or postmortem and taphonomic factors. Assessment of the biomechanical factors involved plays a key role in any interpretation. Knowledge of biomechanical principles is required to explain fracture patterns and other alterations likely related to perimortem trauma. Interpretation of bone trauma can be challenging. Such challenges have led to greater understanding of the principles involved and experimental work designed to improve interpretation.

Major new initiatives in forensic anthropology have focused on decomposition research. Experiments involving both humans and non-human animals have revealed great detail about the process and variation of soft tissue decomposition and hard tissue alteration. In general, such research has elucidated the many factors that influence both the nature and timing of the decomposition process. Clearly temperature and location (surface, in-ground, aquatic, etc.) have long been regarded as key factors. Research has also indicated that soil conditions, moisture, body composition, body condition, presence of clothing or enclosures, funerary treatment and many other factors can influence the process. Such information is needed to properly assess time since death (post-mortem interval) and post-mortem events related to criminal activity.

In 1965, Ellis R. Kerley [ 2 ] published a technique that allowed age at death to be estimated from microscopic examination of features in human compact bone from the femur, tibia and fibula. Kerley's procedure involved the examination of primary osteons, secondary osteons, osteon fragments and the extent of remaining circumferential lamellar bone. This approach gained recognition due to its reported accuracy and the fundamental processes of bone formation and remodelling that it expressed. Since 1965, the technique has undergone many revisions and expansions for application to other bones of the skeleton. Research also has revealed how bone microscopic examination can provide useful information on many issues of forensic anthropological analysis.

For decades, analysis of elemental stable isotopes has offered key anthropological information related to diet. Stable carbon isotopes recovered from human tissues have revealed if diet focused on plants with a C 3 photosynthetic pathway or a C 4 pathway and the herbivores that fed upon them. Analysis of nitrogen isotopes provides insight into the trophic level of human diet. In anthropological studies of ancient populations, such information is crucial to interpretations of dietary and horticultural practices.

Recently, researchers have applied the concepts of isotopic analysis to examine the geographical origin of human remains. When unidentified human remains are recovered in forensic contexts, investigators question if they represent someone who lived in the area of recovery or from somewhere else. This question is especially relevant in cases involving terrorism and unidentified possible migrants. Using a battery of stable isotope analyses, researchers can determine if the isotopic signatures from the unknown match local baseline data. If not, attempts can be made to determine from what geographic area the unknown originated. This exciting new area of forensic science investigation depends on the assemblage of baseline data from appropriate geographic regions.

Forensic anthropologists relate to issues of facial imaging in facial approximation, craniofacial photographic superimposition and interpretations of surveillance images. Facial approximation refers to the process of estimating the living facial image of a person from the evidence presented by a recovered skull. This technique is used to reach out to the public for leads in missing persons that could culminate in identification using other methods.

Craniofacial photographic superimposition involves comparing a facial photograph of a missing person with a recovered skull. This technique is used primarily to exclude when photographs are available of a missing person thought perhaps to be represented by the recovered remains.

Recent research has focused on enhanced use of computers and related technology, as well as targeted efforts to clarify the relationship between soft and hard tissues. Facial approximation continues to represent a blend of art and science; however, recent advances have strengthened the scientific foundation.

Articles in this Special Issue of Forensic Sciences Research focus on overviews of the published literature on these topics. They also share results from the latest innovative research on these key areas of forensic anthropology applications.

Baker   L . Biomolecular applications . In: Blau   S   Ubelaker   DH , editors.   Handbook of forensic anthropology and archaeology . 2nd. ed. New York: Routledge ; 2016 . p. 416 – 429 .

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Kerley   ER . The microscopic determination of age in human bone . Am J Phys Anth . 1965 ; 23 : 149 – 163 .

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Forensic Anthropology

What do forensic anthropologists and detectives have in common.

Forensic anthropology is a special sub-field of physical anthropology (the study of human remains) that involves applying skeletal analysis and techniques in archaeology to solving criminal cases. When human remains or a suspected burial are found,  forensic anthropologists are called upon to gather information from the bones and their recovery context to determine who died, how they died, and how long ago they died.  Forensic anthropologists specialize in analyzing hard tissues such as bones. With their training in archaeology, they are also knowledgeable about excavating buried remains and meticulously recording the evidence. 

Reading a Skeleton

A forensic anthropologist can read the evidence in a skeleton like you read a book. The techniques they use to answer questions in criminal cases can be applied to skeletons of any age, modern or ancient. The stages of growth and development in bones and teeth provide information about whether the remains represent a child or adult. The shape of pelvic bones provides the best evidence for the sex of the person. Abnormal changes in the shape, size and density of bones can indicate disease or trauma. Bones marked by perimortem injuries, such as unhealed fractures, bullet holes, or cuts, can reveal cause of death. The trained anthropologist is also able to identify skeletal clues of ancestry. Even certain activities, diet, and ways of life are reflected in bones and teeth.

Analyzing Human Remains

Anthropologists at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History have been called upon to analyze human remains for over a century. The remains may represent victims of violence or natural disasters. In these cases Smithsonian anthropologists work with the FBI , State Department, and other law enforcement agencies to identify the individuals and solve crimes. They also conduct research on historic and prehistoric human remains to learn more about people from the past. As Smithsonian forensic anthropologist Kari Bruwelheide says, "The bones are like a time capsule."

Smithsonian anthropologist Dr. Douglas Owsley , examining a skeleton from historic Jamestown , discovered evidence of chops to the skull from an axe or other sharp bladed, implement. Knife cuts were also observed on the bone. Along with other information such as biological indicators and discovery location of the remains, Dr. Owsley concluded that a 14-year-old girl had been cannibalized after she died. His discovery supported other historic data that the colonists of Jamestown suffered severe starvation during the harsh winter of 1609-1610.

Techniques: Leaving No Bone Unturned

Anthropologists at the National Museum of Natural History use a variety of techniques to analyze human remains and record their observations. For example, the bones are typically photographed and X-rayed. Some remains may undergo CT scanning or be examined with high-powered microscopes. These techniques provide detailed information about remains without altering them while providing a visual record. DNA analysis may be used to help establish identity. This type of testing is most often used in modern forensic case work, but mitochondrial DNA in bones and teeth can be used to confirm relationships of old remains with deceased or living descendants. Other chemical analyses, such as those involving isotopes, can provide information about the age of bones and a person’s diet.

The data gathered is studied and combined to draw conclusions about the deceased individual. For a modern case, photos of the skull may be superimposed on photos of missing people to look for consistencies between the bone and fleshed form. Even in cases where no photos exist, the face can be reconstructed based on the underlying bone structure and known standards of facial tissue thicknesses. For example, using facial reconstruction, Smithsonian forensic anthropologist Dr. David Hunt was able to bring about correct identification of the remains of a child found near Las Vegas. Owsley and Bruwelheide were able to help rebuild the likeness of the girl from Jamestown .

Collections of Bones

Comparing found remains to other human skeletons is essential for many analyses. The National Museum of Natural History has one of the world's largest Biological Anthropology collections , with over 30,000 sets of human remains representing populations from around the world. Many of the skeletons have associated age, sex, ancestry, and cause of death data. Individual remains with known biological information are especially valuable references.  Forensic anthropologists have used these skeletons to develop standards for determining sex, age and ancestry in unknown remains. The bones and teeth are also used as comparative materials in cases where interpretation of certain features is difficult. They are also used to train students who are the next generation of biological anthropologists. Skeletal reference series may also be used to document trends in health and population structures over time. Smithsonian Curator Dr. Douglas Ubelaker , looking at a range of skulls from 16th-20th century Spain and Portugal, found that women's faces got larger over time.

Reconstructing the Past

The study of historic human remains by biological anthropologists at the Smithsonian has led to discoveries that are changing our view of the past and how we investigate it. The work of Dr. Owsley and Kari Bruwelheide has helped create a better picture of how people lived and died in colonial America. For example, even a wealthy woman, the wife of the governor of Maryland's first English colony, St. Mary's City, suffered from limited medical care for a fractured thigh bone. The sorts of treatments that would be used today (traction and screws), were not options at the time. Available treatments, such as medicine containing arsenic, may have made conditions worse. Chemical testing of this woman's preserved hair show ingestion of this toxin with increasing dosage closer to death. 

Whether used to better understand modern or historic remains, the tools and techniques of forensic anthropology give the living a window into the lives of the dead.

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Forensic Anthropology

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Forensic anthropology, a subdiscipline of physical anthropology, is dedicated to the biological identification of human remains discovered within a legal context in advanced stages of decomposition, or in situations where the integrity of the body has been compromised, thereby thwarting a positive identification through conventional means. Since its inception during the late nineteenth century (Stewart 1979 ), forensic anthropology has matured as a science, and professionals in this field have become actively involved in domestic or international police investigations, human rights investigations, and disaster victim identification (DVI), forming an integral element of body handling within the mortuary and in some instances in the field during the search and location of victims.

The advent of global participation and communication among forensic anthropologists has led to the development of new methodologies, such as state-of-the-art 3D imaging technology, which assist with the...

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David Weisburd

Faculty of Law, The Hebrew University, Mt. Scopus, Jerusalem, Israel

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Ferllini, R. (2014). Forensic Anthropology. In: Bruinsma, G., Weisburd, D. (eds) Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2_171

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299+ Forensic Science Research Topics (Updated 2024)

Welcome to the world of Forensic Science Research Topics. Get ready to dive into a treasure of fascinating ideas that crack the mysteries behind crime-solving techniques. This year’s collection spans 15 stunning categories, each including 20 engaging topics.

From DNA Analysis uncovering secrets in genes to Ballistics & Firearms exploring the science behind bullets, these categories open doors to understanding how science solves puzzling cases. Cyber Forensics delves into the digital world of crime, while Forensic Anthropology examines the stories hidden within skeletal remains.

Explore Toxicology & Drug Analysis, diving into the science of poisons and medications, or journey into Wildlife Forensics, where nature meets investigation. Uncover the secrets of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis or delve into the linguistic clues in Forensic Linguistics.

Join us as we uncover the mysteries, piece by piece, and go on a thrilling journey into the captivating realm of Forensic Science Research for the year 2024.

Top 5 Applications of Forensic Science

Table of Contents

Forensic science stands as a crucial pillar in solving mysteries within the kingdoms of crime and justice. It includes various scientific disciplines applied to legal matters, providing key insights that aid investigations and legal proceedings. This multidisciplinary field plays a crucial role in solving crimes, identifying culprits, and bringing closure to victims’ families. Here are the top 5 applications of Forensic Science:

• Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) : Forensic science’s foundation involves detailed examination of crime scenes. It encompasses evidence collection, analysis of fingerprints, bloodstains, fibers, and other trace evidence. This critical process helps reconstruct the sequence of events leading to a crime.
• DNA Analysis : The advancement in DNA technology has revolutionized forensic science. DNA analysis helps identify individuals, link suspects to crime scenes, and exonerate innocent parties. It’s a powerful tool in criminal investigations and solving cold cases.
• Toxicology & Drug Analysis : Forensic toxicology focuses on detecting drugs, poisons, or toxins in the body. It’s instrumental in determining causes of death or establishing impairment due to substances.
• Ballistics & Firearms Analysis : This branch involves studying firearms, bullets, and cartridge cases. It assists in linking weapons to crimes, identifying shooting distances, and determining trajectories.
• Digital Evidence Examination : In the digital age, forensic science extends into cyberspace. Experts analyze digital devices and data to recover, interpret, and present evidence pertinent to cybercrimes.

These five applications showcase how forensic science’s diverse toolkit and methodologies are instrumental in solving crimes, offering justice, and ensuring a safer society.

Top 299+ Forensic Science Research Topics

Now, join us in exploring these thought-provoking themes and be part of the thrilling journey where every clue leads to a new revelation in the field of forensic research. Let us start.

Top 20 Research Topics For DNA Analysis

• Advances in Next-Generation Sequencing Technologies
• Application of DNA Phenotyping in Criminal Investigations
• Forensic Use of Microbial DNA Analysis
• Ethical Implications of DNA Data Sharing
• Rapid DNA Testing in Law Enforcement
• Epigenetics and Its Role in DNA Analysis
• DNA Methylation as an Age Estimation Tool
• Familial DNA Searching in Cold Cases
• Forensic Application of CRISPR Technology
• Mitochondrial DNA Analysis in Identification
• DNA Barcoding for Species Identification
• DNA Preservation Techniques in Forensics
• Y-Chromosome Analysis for Lineage Tracing
• Population Genetics and DNA Variation Studies
• Role of Artificial Intelligence in DNA Analysis
• DNA Damage and Repair Mechanisms
• Forensic Genealogy and Genetic Genealogy
• Environmental DNA (eDNA) Analysis in Forensics
• Forensic Interpretation of DNA Markers
• Comparative Genomics in Forensic DNA Analysis

Top 20 Research Topics For Cyber Forensics

• Cybercrime Investigation Techniques
• Network Traffic Analysis in Digital Forensics
• Malware Analysis and Forensic Examination
• Internet of Things (IoT) Forensics
• Cloud Forensics and Data Recovery
• Cyber Threat Intelligence Analysis
• Incident Response and Readiness in Cyber Forensic
• Social Media Forensic Analysis
• Steganography Detection and Analysis
• Cryptocurrency Forensics
• Mobile Device Forensics
• Digital Evidence Collection and Preservation
• Network Intrusion Detection and Analysis
• Email Header and Content Examination
• Cyber Forensics in Financial Crimes
• Digital Forensic Challenges in Cloud Computing
• Live Data Acquisition and Analysis
• IoT Device Security and Forensics
• Cyber Forensics in Industrial Control Systems
• Anti-Forensic Techniques and Countermeasures

Top 20 Research Topics For Forensic Anthropology

• Skeletal Trauma Analysis in Forensics
• Age Estimation Methods from Skeletal Remains
• Forensic Facial Reconstruction Techniques
• Skeletal Identification Procedures
• Forensic Taphonomy Studies
• Bone Histology in Forensic Investigations
• Forensic Anthropology in Mass Disasters
• Skeletal Analysis for Ancestry Determination
• Skeletal Pathology and Disease Identification
• Entomology in Forensic Anthropology
• Postmortem Interval Estimation from Skeletal Markers
• Burned and Fragmentary Remains Analysis
• Forensic Anthropology in Child Abuse Cases
• Human Rights and Forensic Anthropology
• Forensic Facial Approximation Methods
• Bioarchaeology and Cultural Forensic Anthropology
• Skeletal Stature and Body Mass Estimation
• Forensic Anthropology in War Crimes Investigations
• Skeletal DNA Analysis in Identification
• Skeletal Patterning in Trauma Analysis

Top 20 Research Topics For Ballistics & Firearms

• Firearm Examination and Toolmark Analysis
• Gunshot Residue Analysis Techniques
• Bullet Trajectory Reconstruction Methods
• Forensic Ballistics in Crime Scene Reconstruction
• Firearms Identification Procedures
• Terminal Ballistics and Wound Analysis
• Cartridge Case Examination and Comparison
• Striation Analysis in Bullet and Barrel Matching
• Bullet Penetration and Damage Studies
• Firearm Serial Number Restoration Techniques
• Gunshot Acoustics and Audio Forensics
• Firearm Modification Analysis
• Forensic Analysis of Ammunition Types
• Forensic Ballistics in Shooting Incident Reconstructions
• Shotgun Pattern Analysis Methods
• Bullet Fragment Analysis Techniques
• Distance Determination in Shooting Cases
• Trajectory Analysis in Vehicle-Involved Shootings
• Gunshot Residue Collection and Analysis Methods
• Ballistics and Firearms in Expert Testimony

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Digital Evidence Examination

• Data Recovery and Reconstruction Techniques
• File System Forensics
• Mobile App Forensic Analysis
• Internet History and Browsing Analysis
• Cloud Storage Forensics
• Metadata Analysis in Digital Evidence
• Deleted File Recovery and Interpretation
• Social Media Forensics
• IoT Device Forensic Analysis
• Network Packet Capture and Analysis
• Timestamp Analysis in Digital Evidence
• Malware Analysis and Behavior Examination
• Database Forensics
• GPS and Geolocation Data Forensics
• Steganalysis and Hidden Data Detection
• Memory Forensics and RAM Analysis
• Artifact Extraction from Operating Systems
• Wearable Technology Forensic Analysis

Top 20 Research Topics For Toxicology & Drug Analysis

• Emerging Drug Trends and Novel Psychoactive Substances
• Forensic Analysis of Opioids and Overdose Deaths
• Designer Drugs Identification and Analysis
• Postmortem Toxicology in Fatalities
• Drug-Facilitated Crimes Analysis
• Workplace Drug Testing Methods
• Forensic Toxicology in Sports Doping
• Analytical Techniques in Drug Detection
• Toxicology of Prescription Medications
• Herbal and Natural Product Toxicology
• Hair Analysis in Drug Detection
• Forensic Toxicology and Environmental Exposure
• Toxicological Analysis in Poisoning Cases
• Analytical Chemistry in Toxicological Studies
• Alcohol Biomarkers and Analysis
• Forensic Toxicology and Forensic Pathology Collaboration
• Forensic Toxicology in Criminal Investigations
• Forensic Toxicology and Age Estimation
• Driving Under the Influence (DUI) Cases
• Forensic Toxicology and Public Health Impact

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Wildlife Forensics

• Illegal Wildlife Trade Analysis
• DNA Forensics in Wildlife Crime Investigations
• Forensic Identification of Endangered Species
• Wildlife Product Trafficking Investigations
• Forensic Analysis of Poaching Incidents
• Species Identification using Forensic Techniques
• Forensic Entomology in Wildlife Crime Scenes
• Forensic Anthropology in Wildlife Investigations
• Timber Trafficking Forensics
• Wildlife Forensics and Conservation Genetics
• Forensic Odontology in Wildlife Crime Cases
• Trace Evidence Analysis in Wildlife Crime
• Forensic Ballistics in Wildlife Poaching
• Forensic Examination of Fishing and Hunting Gear
• Forensic Imaging and Photography in Wildlife Forensics
• Wildlife DNA Database Development
• Forensic Botany and Plant DNA in Wildlife Investigations
• Forensic Veterinary Pathology in Wildlife Cases
• Wildlife Forensics and International Law Enforcement
• Wildlife Trafficking Routes Analysis

Top 20 Research Topics For Forensic Accounting

• Financial Statement Fraud Examination
• Money Laundering Investigations
• Forensic Analysis of Corporate Fraud
• Forensic Audit Techniques
• Asset Misappropriation Investigations
• Tax Evasion and Fraud Analysis
• Digital Forensics in Financial Investigations
• Investigative Accounting in Bankruptcy Cases
• Forensic Accounting in Divorce Proceedings
• Forensic Accounting in Insurance Claims
• Fraudulent Financial Reporting Analysis
• Bribery and Corruption Investigations
• Forensic Accounting in Nonprofit Organizations
• Business Valuation in Forensic Accounting
• Forensic Accounting and Economic Damages Calculation
• Investigating Embezzlement Cases
• Forensic Accounting in Government Agencies
• Forensic Accounting in Investment Fraud
• Forensic Accounting Ethics and Standards
• Forensic Accounting in Risk Management

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

• Impact Angle Determination in Bloodstain Analysis
• Bloodstain Pattern Classification Methods
• Spatter vs. Transfer Bloodstain Analysis
• Low-Velocity Bloodstain Patterns
• High-Velocity Bloodstain Pattern Analysis
• Area of Convergence and Area of Origin Calculation
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis in Shooting Incidents
• Void Patterns in Bloodstain Analysis
• Cast-off Bloodstain Analysis
• Saturation and Dilution Analysis in Bloodstains
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis in Assault Cases
• Swiping and Wiping Bloodstain Patterns
• Bloodstain Pattern Documentation Techniques
• Altered Bloodstain Patterns and Their Analysis
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis and Crime Scene Reconstruction
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis on Textiles and Fabrics
• Spine and Travel Analysis in Bloodstain Patterns
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis in Homicide Investigations
• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis in Accidental Injuries
• Impact Spatter Analysis in Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

Top 20 Research Topics For Forensic Pathology

• Postmortem Interval Estimation Methods
• Cause of Death Determination Techniques
• Forensic Autopsy Procedures
• Blunt Force Trauma Analysis
• Sharp Force Injuries Examination
• Gunshot Wound Examination in Forensic Pathology
• Forensic Toxicology in Autopsy Analysis
• Thermal Injury and Burns Examination
• Asphyxiation and Suffocation Investigations
• Decompositional Changes in Forensic Pathology
• Forensic Pathology and Child Abuse Cases
• Forensic Anthropology in Autopsy Investigations
• Electrical and Lightning Injury Analysis
• Drowning and Water-related Deaths in Forensic Pathology
• Forensic Pathology and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
• Forensic Pathology in Traumatic Brain Injury Cases
• Forensic Pathology in Mass Fatality Incidents
• Forensic Pathology and Forensic Odontology Collaboration
• Forensic Pathology and Infectious Disease Investigations
• Forensic Pathology and Forensic Psychiatry Interface

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Forensic Odontology

• Bite Mark Analysis and Interpretation
• Dental Identification Techniques
• Forensic Radiography in Odontology
• Age Estimation from Dental Development
• Forensic Odontology in Mass Disasters
• Human Identification using Dental Records
• Bite Mark Analysis in Criminal Investigations
• Dental Impressions and Evidence Collection
• Bite Mark Comparison Methods
• Forensic Odontology in Child Abuse Cases
• Dental Evidence in Bite Injury Cases
• Forensic Bite Mark Photography Techniques
• Dental Morphology and Identification
• Forensic Odontology and Patterned Injury Analysis
• Dental Forensics and Bite Mark Validation
• Dental DNA Analysis in Forensic Odontology
• Bite Mark Analysis in Sexual Assault Cases
• Forensic Odontology in Age Estimation
• Dental Prosthetics in Forensic Identification
• Bite Mark Analysis and Courtroom Testimony

Top 20 Research Topics For Forensic Linguistics

• Authorship Identification in Textual Analysis
• Forensic Stylistics and Writing Analysis
• Threat Assessment and Textual Analysis
• Linguistic Profiling in Criminal Investigations
• Voice Identification and Speaker Profiling
• Deception Detection through Linguistic Analysis
• Forensic Discourse Analysis
• Linguistic Analysis of Suicide Notes
• Comparative Text Analysis in Forensic Linguistics
• Linguistic Analysis of Ransom Notes
• Forensic Phonetics and Speaker Identification
• Linguistic Forensics in Threatening Communication
• Language Analysis in Hate Speech Investigations
• Forensic Linguistics in Cyberbullying Cases
• Verbal Lie Detection Techniques
• Forensic Linguistics and Anonymous Communication
• Language Variation Analysis in Legal Contexts
• Linguistic Profiling in Extortion Cases
• Forensic Linguistics in Profanity Analysis
• Linguistic Analysis of Recorded Conversations

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Forensic Entomology

• Postmortem Interval Estimation using Insects
• Forensic Use of Blow Flies in Investigations
• Insect Succession Patterns on Decomposing Bodies
• Maggot Mass Temperature and Development Analysis
• Forensic Entomotoxicology (Insects and Toxins)
• Insect Colonization on Buried Remains
• Diptera Identification in Forensic Contexts
• Insect Artifacts on Human Remains
• Forensic Acarology (Mites and Forensics)
• Forensic Entomology in Cold Climate Regions
• Insect Arrival Time and Death Scene Analysis
• Decomposition Studies on Different Environments
• Seasonal Variation in Insect Colonization
• Insect Evidence in Wildlife Forensics
• Forensic Entomology and Crime Scene Investigation
• Insect Pupation and Life Cycle Analysis
• Forensic Use of Beetles and Other Insects
• Forensic Entomology and Postmortem Changes
• Insect Species Diversity on Decomposing Remains
• Insect Evidence Preservation and Collection Techniques

Top 20 Research Topics For Forensic Botany

• Pollen Analysis in Forensic Investigations
• Vegetation Succession on Decomposing Remains
• Forensic Palynology and Crime Scene Analysis
• Plant DNA Profiling in Forensic Botany
• Phytolith Analysis in Soil Forensics
• Botanical Traces and Environmental Significance
• Forensic Use of Algal Evidence
• Plant Tissue Analysis in Death Investigations
• Forensic Seed Identification and Analysis
• Plant-based Toxin Detection in Poisoning Cases
• Botanical Evidence in Wildlife Crime Investigations
• Forensic Plant Anatomy and Morphology
• Plant Ecology as Evidence in Legal Cases
• Forensic Phytogeography and Geolocation
• Plant Trace Evidence on Clothing and Tools
• Forensic Herbal Medicine Analysis
• Dendrochronology in Forensic Botany
• Forensic Plant Pathology
• Forensic Botany and Soil Analysis
• Plant DNA Barcoding for Species Identification

Top 20 Forensic Science Research Topics On Psychology

• False Memory Formation and Witness Testimony
• Investigative Interviewing Techniques
• Psychological Profiling in Criminal Investigations
• Eyewitness Identification Accuracy
• Deception Detection in Forensic Contexts
• Risk Assessment and Recidivism Prediction
• Mental Health in Correctional Facilities
• Psychological Factors in Jury Decision-Making
• Forensic Assessment of Competency to Stand Trial
• Rehabilitation Programs for Offenders
• Trauma and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
• Forensic Psychology in Child Custody Cases
• Behavioral Analysis in Criminal Profiling
• Mental Health and Criminal Responsibility
• Psychological Effects of Crime on Victims
• Psychopathy and Antisocial Behavior
• Juvenile Offenders and Intervention Strategies
• Forensic Neuropsychology and Brain Imaging
• Forensic Assessment of Risk in Violent Offenders
• Witness Credibility and Memory Distortion

Exploring the world of Forensic Science has been a thrilling journey through mysteries and discoveries. With more than 299 forensic science research topics, we’ve uncovered the secrets behind DNA, cyber mysteries, bones, and much more. From decoding crimes with linguistics to unraveling wildlife mysteries, every category held its own treasure of knowledge.

 Remember, these topics aren’t just for experts, they invite everyone to dive into the fascinating world of crime-solving science. As we conclude this adventure, let these topics inspire curiosity and understanding in unraveling the secrets of the forensic world in 2024 and beyond.

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Anthropology

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Books and handbooks. Look for ones written by scholars and experts in forensic anthropology. These are great for overviews on a topic as well as guidance for methods and procedures. They will often lead you to other experts and literature on the topic.

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Journal Articles.  Forensic anthropologists often share new discoveries via peer-reviewed articles in scholarly journals. You can find these via databases such as the ones listed on this guide, including the one-search. Be sure to limit to peer review (or scholarly/peer-reviewed). Scholarly articles are written for other experts, so are less likely to include introductory material.

To find scholarly articles, use one of the search tools listed at the top of this page. Limit or refine your search to scholarly or peer-reviewed.

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Forensic anthropology center, forensic anthropology center college of arts & sciences, the staff of the forensic anthropology center will be attending the annual meeting of the american academy of forensic sciences february 19-24. please forgive us if we are slow to return your call during this time., please click here if you wish for information on body donation.  if you wish to make arrangements for an already deceased individual, please contact the forensic anthropology center directly at 865-806-5106. **a postmortem negative covid-19 test is required prior to donor acceptance**, learn more about the five women leading the forensic anthropology center.

The FAC celebrated 20 years of training the FBI Evidence Recovery Team!  “>Watch the video for a detailed look at the training program.

  Watch the video commemorating the 35th anniversary of the Body Donation Program featuring training participants from the NCIS!

Dr. William M. Bass established the Forensic Anthropology Center in 1987. Beginning with a modest spot of land for the Anthropology Research Facility, also known as The Body Farm, the Forensic Anthropology Center has grown into a leading institution for forensic anthropology research and training. Our resources and facilities include the Anthropology Research Facility (commonly known as The Body Farm), a dynamic body donation program, the UTK Donated Skeletal Collection , Professional Training Courses and the William M. Bass Forensic Anthropology Building . These resources are available to students, researchers, and law enforcement agencies. For further information, see Fast Facts and Research and Collections .

NOTE: We do not provide tours of The Body Farm.

The purpose of the Forensic Anthropology Center is to provide research, training and service with compassion. The Body Donation Program is the heart and soul of the Forensic Anthropology Center, and we ensure that all of the families and donors are treated with the utmost respect and compassion. The donation program enables individuals to contribute to science in a direct and meaningful way.

Each donor is of tremendous scientific value and we are grateful to our donors and their families.

Mission Statement

The mission of the Forensic Anthropology Center is to achieve excellence in research, training, and service in forensic anthropology and closely-related fields. Forensic anthropology is the application of the principles of biological anthropology to questions of medicolegal significance (see What is Forensic Anthropology and the American Board of Forensic Anthropology ).

The mission is pursued in part by actively engaging scientists, institutions and agencies in research and training for students and professionals worldwide. Additionally, we serve the community via our body donation program, consultations to the medico-legal community, and outreach to promote science and disseminate our research results.

For over three decades the FAC has garnered an international reputation for research on human decomposition and modern human variation. At the core of our program is the dynamic body donation program that currently comprises more than 1800 individuals in the UTK Donated Skeletal Collection and over 4000 registered future donors (pre-donors).

1 Refer to the for the definition of forensic anthropology.

• The Anthropology Research Facility is the first of its kind to permit systematic study of human decomposition. The 1.3 acres of land made famous by Dr. Bass recently expanded to approximately 2 acres. This addition provides space for studies using advanced technology to quantify how bodies interact with the environment.
• The skeletal collections provide unparalleled opportunities to study modern human skeletal variation, pathology and trauma. The hallmark of these collections is the UTK Donated Skeletal Collection that now consists of over 1800 individuals, the largest collection of contemporary human skeletons in the United States.
• The Forensic Data Bank (FDB) contains data on over 4080 forensic cases in the U.S. and has recently expanded to include contemporary individuals from Central and South America, Europe and Asia. The FDB has been instrumental in documenting changes within human populations.
• Most of the collections and facilities are available to qualified researchers. See the research page and contact Dawnie Steadman for further information.
• The FAC offers several professional development courses to the anthropological community. These courses make use of many of the collections, the Bass Building , and the Anthropology Research Facility.
• The FAC provides specialty courses throughout the year for several agencies including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Tennessee Bureau of Investigation and Kentucky Criminalistic Academy. For more information on agency-specific course development, please contact Giovanna Vidoli.
• The FAC faculty and staff provide forensic anthropological services (e.g., skeletal analysis, body recovery, etc.) to a variety of medico-legal agencies.  For assistance with forensic casework, please contact Dawnie Steadman .
• Faculty, staff and graduate students provide lectures to civic groups, school-age children, and the general public to promote science and disseminate our research results. For more information, see FAC presentations .

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A special issue of Biology (ISSN 2079-7737).

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Dear colleagues,

Forensic anthropology, while still relatively in its infancy compared to other forensic science disciplines, adopts a wide array of methods from many disciplines for human skeletal identification in medico-legal and humanitarian contexts. The human skeleton is a dynamic tissue that can withstand the ravages of time given the right environment, which may be the only remaining evidence left in a forensic case whether a week or decades old. Improved understanding of the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that modulate skeletal tissues allows researchers and practitioners to improve the accuracy and precision of identification methods ranging from establishing a biological profile such as estimating age-at-death, and population affinity, estimating time-since-death, using isotopes for geolocation of unknown decedents, radiology for personal identification, histology to assess a live birth, to assessing traumatic injuries and so much more.

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112: Special Topics in Biological Anthropology: Forensic Anthropology

Instructor : 

Term : Summer 2019 Session :  D

Time :  M, T, W, Th 12:00pm - 1:59pm

Forensic anthropology has seen a lot of exposure through popular television, shows like CSI, Bones, and Law and Order. Have you ever wondered how much of what you were seeing was real? How much can we learn about a person’s life and death from their body/skeleton? This course is designed as an introductory class for students interested in demystifying and getting to know the real forensic anthropology - a sub-field which applies many of the methods of biological anthropology to the discovery, excavation, and identification of human remains in a medico-legal context. This class will explore the key methods that are used in the identification of individuals, trauma assessment, and the broader ethical roles and responsibilities of forensic anthropologists.

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• Forensic Anthropology Research Paper

This sample anthropology research paper on forensic anthropology features: 5700 words (approx. 19 pages) and a bibliography with 25 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Forensic anthropology involves the identification of an individual. As such, it can be considered a medico-legal subspecialty of both physical anthropology and forensic science. Forensic anthropology focuses on the study of human osteology in order to make a positive identification, while physical anthropology focuses on the study of our species in terms of primate evolution, human genetics, and biological variations. A difference between physical anthropology and forensic anthropology is the age of the human remains. Physical anthropology is interested in all ages, while the focus of forensic anthropology is specific to human remains that are less than 50 years old. A second difference between physical anthropology and forensic anthropology is that while each analyzes human remains, forensic anthropology does so in order to meet a specific objective of identifying the dead through biological characteristics and, if possible, determining the circumstances of unexplained death. Forensic anthropology focuses on differences in the human skeleton to determine specific physical traits, such as age, sex, height, weight, health, anomalies, and ethnic background.

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These differences came to light particularly in 1972 when the American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) established a physical anthropology section. Membership in this section entailed exclusively forensic applications of anthropology rather than all anthropology in general; the 14 members in 1972 became known as forensic anthropologists. This led to the establishment in 1977 of the American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA) (www.theabfa.org/index.html) with sponsorship by the AAFS and the Forensic Sciences Foundation.

Origin of Forensic Science

Forensic sciences were practiced before they were identified as forensic anthropology or even forensic science. Forensic science was first documented in France in 1910 with Dr. Edmond Locard’s establishment of a center where scientists studying biology, physics, and medicine came together to examine evidence for criminal investigations. This group analyzed materials and shared resources in an attempt to reconstruct crime scenes. Eventually known as a criminalistics laboratory, or crime lab, this model was followed in 1914 by the city of Montreal. The center in Montreal followed Locard’s philosophy, called Locard’s exchange principle, the foundation of the field of forensic science. Montreal’s center was run by a physician and thus became known as a medicolegal lab, a subspecialty of medicine. The structure of this model lab became popular, and in 1923, the first lab based on this model was established in the United States by the Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department. In 1932, the newly established Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) set up its own lab, which could be accessed nationwide, although unlike the lab in France, contributions were minimal from different areas of science such as biology, chemistry, and physics.

Over the last 100 years, physical anthropologists have assisted with medico-legal investigations. Many physical anthropologists, especially from the Smithsonian Institute, acted as advisors to medico-legal officials through published articles and law enforcement bulletins during the 1930s and 1940s. In the 1960s, Lawrence Angel joined the Smithsonian staff and continued as a consultant for the FBI, including the launching of a training program for the forensic applications of skeletal biology.

Forensic Anthropology

The need for forensic anthropology.

There are five main objectives in forensic anthropology: (1) Determine ancestry, sex, age, and living height; (2) attempt to identify the nature and causative agent if evidence of traumatic injury to human bone exists; (3) render a determination of postmortem interval; (4) assist in locating and recovering remains so that all evidence relevant to a forensic investigation is recovered; (5) provide information useful in obtaining a positive identification of deceased persons (Byers, 2002, p. 1).

Forensic anthropology is needed to restore names and identities to unknown human remains from murder, mass disaster, or other found human remains. Forensic anthropologists assist both in the identification of bones and also in the recovery of bodies. Besides identifying the bones, forensic anthropologists also analyze trauma to the bone in order to gain necessary knowledge on the cause and manner of death. Nafte (2000) asserted that identifying remains may actually prevent the time and expense of a large-scale legal investigation. Forensic anthropologists not only process and analyze human remains in a laboratory but also are called on to assist in locating and recovering remains as well as to interpret any ante-, peri-, or postmortem (pre, during, or after death) movements or modifications of the remains.

Development of Forensic Anthropology

Forensic anthropology can be divided into three time periods, according to Rhine (1998): formative (early 1800s–1938), consolidation (1939–1971), and modern (1972 onward). Prior to the 1970s, those physical anthropologists working particularly with the medico-legal and forensic aspects of anthropology had no official name. The father of American forensic anthropology is Thomas Dwight, a Harvard anatomy professor in the late 19th century who published The Identification of the Human Skeleton, a Medicolegal Study in 1878. In his book, Dwight discussed how an examination of human bones could lead to the determination of gender and stature of the remains.

During the formative period (early 1800s–1938), one of the first known cases occurred. In 1849, Dr. Jeffries Wyman of Harvard University identified human remains in order to help solve the death of a prominent Boston-area doctor, George Parkman. In this case, Dr. John White Webster, a colleague of Dr. Wyman, was accused of the murder based on evidence that on November 23, 1849, Parkman went to claim money owed to him by Webster. This date was the last time anyone saw Parkman alive. Less than a week later, a janitor at the Harvard Medical School called the police on discovery of what appeared to be human remains in a stone vault underneath Webster’s office. While officers suspected these approximately 150 bones, some of which were burned, and set of false teeth belonged to Parkman, the police left it up to a team of doctors and dentists to prove it in court. On examination, the doctors were able to testify that these remains matched a person of Parkman’s age, build, and height. Three hours of deliberation led to a guilty verdict for Webster.

More forensic anthropological activity was recorded during the consolidation period (1939–1971), such as the identification of servicemen killed on the battlefields during World War II and the Korean War. The work of the physical anthropologists called on by the United States Army during World War II for the identification of skeletal remains for repatriation led to the establishment of the Central Identification Laboratory (CIL) at the Hickman Air Force Base in Hawaii in 1947.

The third, or modern period, which began approximately 20 years ago, is when the application of forensic anthropology to the investigation of human rights violations increased dramatically, mostly due to the reinstatement of democratic governments along with higher levels of public awareness and social action. Requests for such action have been from countries such as those in Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe. One team in particular demand is the Forensic Anthropology Team of Argentina (EAAF), which has established its own precedent by becoming involved in other missions worldwide; this team is very much in demand due to their expertise, particularly in presenting evidence for war tribunals.

Methods in Forensic Anthropology

The process of forensic anthropology can be described, according to Mercedes Doretti of the EAAF, as three parts: interviews, excavation, and analysis (Burns, 1999). However, interviews are less likely to be conducted by forensic anthropologists as the bones are often already decomposed and witnesses are not easily located. In addition, many forensic anthropologists prefer to work with as little preconceived knowledge as possible to avoid tainting their conclusions and findings. The three parts identified by Doretti can be redefined into two types of methods: data gathering (interviews and excavation) and data analysis (analysis). The data is gathered from skeletal remains, while the analysis answers questions posed by forensic-anthropology protocol.

Data Gathering

Data is gathered using four techniques: anthroposcopic, osteometric, chemical, and histological. Anthroposcopic data is gathered visually, including through the use of X-rays, and involves such characteristics as ancestry, sex, age, and stature. Osteometric data involves the measurement of human bone on an objective scale using calipers or an osteometric board in an attempt to quantify many of the anthroposcopic characteristics. Chemical data is gathered through the examination of chemical makeup of certain structures of the skeleton, including mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and associated matter such as the ground beneath the skeleton. Histological data is gathered through the study of the microstructure of teeth and bone.

Data Analysis

There are five methods to analyze the data from the skeleton: decision table, range chart, index, discriminant function, and regression equation. The last two methods come from statistics.

A decision table helps the researcher judge the importance of conflicting information to arrive at a single conclusion. In a decision table, options are listed across the top of the table, while characteristics for determining these options are listed down the left-hand side. A forensic anthropologist marks the columns where characteristics observed indicate agreement with the option at the top. The name of the column (option) with the most marks is the one most likely to be correct.

A range chart provides multiple ranges of estimates so that a central tendency can be determined. To use a range chart, a forensic anthropologist charts the ranges of features observed. Where the most overlap on the chart occurs is the data range that is most likely to be correct. These are particularly useful for parameters in which multiple sources of data are encountered such as time since death and age at death.

An index is a method to standardize skeletal measures for two dimensions. This method was developed so that numerical expressions of the shape of a structure can be compared between two groups. An index is a simple yet powerful statistical method for quantifying anthroposcopic traits. When two measurements express visually identifiable characteristics, the forensic anthropologist will divide one into the other, multiple the quotient by 100, and arrive at an index.

A discriminant function is a method for calculating a numerical expression of shape that can be used when more than two measurements are available. A forensic anthropologist would use a discriminant function whenever there are discrete categories to determine to assist in distinguishing between two or more predetermined groups. These might consist of gender or hair color.

A regression equation is a method by which one value can be predicted from the values of other measurements.

While regression equations are included in the five methods to analyze data from skeletons, these are often incorrect because they do not account for the increasingly unknown nature of points away from the middle line of a set of values, and they do not consider that other samples might yield other values.

Facial Reconstruction

Facial reconstruction is a subset of the methods of forensic anthropology. In facial reconstruction, the forensic anthropologist works to recreate the facial characteristics to assist in identification. This is considered a last resort, one to use only if a search of missing persons’ files has not revealed a potential match. Traditionally, this was done manually by molding and casting the original skull, applying spacers to indicate the amount of tissue thickness at various places on the facial skeleton, and filling in the areas between and around these spacers. Today, preferably, computer software is used to produce faces on images of the skull. However, in other cases, artists drawings, restoration of disrupted or damaged tissue put back on the skull, or photo/portrait superimposition is also used. There are still problems found by forensic anthropologists and other practitioners such as predicting individual characteristics not apparent on the skull regardless of the method used.

There are three software programs commonly used: CARES (computer assisted reconstruction and enhancement system), FACE (composite picture software), and Faces (face recognition software); each of which uses radiographs or photographs of faces or skulls, which are then digitized. Using banks of stored features from both cadavers and living samples using magnetic resonance imaging (MRIs) and computerized tomography (CT) scans, a face is then electronically restored or reconstructed.

Human Skeleton

Forensic anthropologists should be familiar with every feature of the human skeleton, including the range of variation between individuals and the differences between human and nonhuman bones. The familiarity is needed to assist in the critical matter of identifying human skeletal remains. The bones to be familiar with include the 29 bones of the head (cranium, inner ear, mandible, and hyoid) and the 177 bones of the postcranial skeleton below the head. This number varies, however, based on age and other circumstances, all of which the forensic anthropologist needs to be aware of. In particular, a child’s skeleton will have more bones since not all bones found in a younger body will have fused together to create the bones found in the adult skeleton. Forensic anthropologists need to be familiar with the landmarks and features, growth and development of each of these bones and their components to help determine age and other characteristics of the skeleton.

The postcranial skeleton can be further subdivided into the torso and limbs. The torso includes the ribs, vertebra, scapulae, clavicles, sternum, pelvis, and sacrum. The limbs include the arms (the humerus, radius, ulna) and legs (the femur, tibia, and fibula). The pelvis, composed of three portions (ilium, ischium, and pubis), contains information critical to determination of age at death or gender in adults.

When referring to bones in the human skeleton, it is necessary to use specific terminology to assist others in locating the same bones one is referencing. This is done by thinking of the skeleton standing (or lying on its back) with arms at the sides, palms forward, and thumbs to the outside. This position was chosen, in part, due to the fact that in this position none of the bones cross each other, and it is possible to consistently describe the relationships between bones (Adams, 2007).

Identification Process

Identification occurs after the forensic anthropologist has gathered all of the data and analyzed this data through various methods. The identification is rarely definitive but rather provides a guide or range from which identification can be drawn. As time passes, modeling and remodeling of bones within the skeleton records events in the person’s life such as growth, disease, and environmental change, providing a lasting record of past events, lifestyle habits, and occupational stress. Earlier in life, generally within the first three decades of life, the growth and maturation of the human skeleton is most reliable for its relation to the time and sequence of age change as it relates to sex and race differences.

Definitive identification is rare based solely on the skeleton as there are external factors that can affect the records stored in the bones, for example, nutritional deficiencies, diseases, medications, pathological conditions, anomalies, and more. The markers on the bones indicating occupational stress provide an additional means of identifying a person from a skeleton, which is particularly helpful in aiding law enforcement officials in their search for a missing person. The most important details in the identification of an individual person occur in the head: eyes, ears, nose, and mouth.

How Bones Change

Though living bone is mainly inorganic, it is a dynamic tissue that is capable of responding to a wide variety of stimuli. As such, it is in a constant state of change. Modeling is the change, or growth and development, of living bone that takes place from approximately the third intrauterine month to approximately 25 to 30 years of age. Remodeling, or changes in the density, shape, and size of bone, takes place throughout the person’s life. Remodeling is due to factors such as aging, exercise, diet, injury, trauma, disease, and occupational stress. In particular, there can be lesions due to occupational stress. These lesions manifest in four ways: modifications to areas of insertion, osteophytosis, discrete markers, and stress fractures.

The forensic anthropologist needs to be aware of the different responses of bone to stress during and after life. The type and patterning of a fracture can help establish the sequence of damage to skeletal material.

The forensic anthropologist can estimate the age of the decedent through knowledge of changes to the skeleton that occur both during growth and deterioration. There are several methods to determine age at death that require special instruments such as cortical bone loss, counts of bone histological structures, and the Gustafson method on teeth. Byers (2002) asserted that the “methods for determining age are not accurate enough to be usable in forensic situations” (p. 192) although the age for individuals under the age of 12 years is said to be estimable from the lengths of the long bones combined with the development and eruption of teeth and fusion of primary and secondary ossification centers. In adolescents, the forensic anthropologist can also estimate the age of the skeleton at death through the amount of union in various epiphyses. In adults, the forensic anthropologist needs to be aware of changes in pubic face, auricular surface, the sternal ends of ribs, and the amount of suture closure in the skull. In general, the age of a skeleton is more accurately determined the younger the decedent was at time of death.

In determining gender, the statistics are generally higher than for most other characteristics. There is a 50% chance of a correct guess without other information available. The pelvis is where the strongest and most accurate indication of male versus female is found as the pelvis of a woman is generally broader than that of a male. When examining the pelvis, particular attention should be paid to the bone of the anterior pelvic area (the pubis) as the lower margin of the pubis forming the border of the subpubic angle is wider in a female than a male. This margin is determined using the ischium-pubic index, the only commonly used metric method for distinguishing sexes. If the pubis is missing, then the skull difference can assist in determining the gender, but there is a certain amount of overlap in the middle of the size differences.

The stature of a skeleton is determined by adding together the measurements of many bones in the skeleton. It is very important to obtain as many bones as possible and to correctly identify each bone. The bones measured to determine the stature include the skull and the combined heights of the vertebrae, the femur and tibia, and articulated calcaneous. Although it is less accurate, forensic anthropologists commonly calculate stature based on the lengths of the long limb bones solely: the humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, and fibula. Because it has been documented that persons lose stature with age, estimates of living heights among persons determined to be 45 years or older at death need to be adjusted downward.

Race/Ancestry

When determining the race or ancestry of a skeleton, the forensic anthropologist depends on the skull. The skull has the most traits to use in determining the race or ancestry. Without a skull, there are a limited number of postcranial skeleton traits to use. This categorization is often the most difficult and least precise due to problems of inconsistency between racial categories. Forensic anthropologists depend on the categories for race/ancestry most widely used by law enforcement agencies: Caucasian, African, Asian, Native American, and Hispanic.

When examining the skeleton, the forensic anthropologist often can estimate the handedness of the decedent by comparing the right- and left-upper-limb bones. The side with the largest and most modified bones is generally the dominant side.

Basis of Examination and Evaluation to Identify the Dead

Krogman and Iscan (1986) provided a guideline that forensic anthropologists follow today when examining and evaluating to identify the dead. Krogman and Iscan suggest beginning with “the big four”—stature, age at time of death, sex, and race/ethnicity. Once this information is determined as well as possible, the forensic anthropologist should then continue with the “accessory” information— weight/body build, duration of interment, cause of death if registered in the bones, and a final registry of miscellaneous details of individuality to assist in identifying the decedent such as fractures, amputations, and so on.

The Human Genome (DNA)

The human genome provides the ability to chart any person’s genetic makeup. However, particularly for forensic anthropologists, this is not always possible to obtain. When it is obtainable, often it is the forensic biologist who processes the DNA, not the forensic anthropologist. The human genome, or DNA, is, according to Bass and

Jefferson (2007), the “gold standard” for making a positive identification. However, they note, this is not always the fastest or most efficient method to obtain a positive identification. There are still older methods that are much faster and more affordable than DNA testing. Advances in the analysis of DNA extraction from archaeological bone allows for personal identification. However, the DNA preserved from crime scenes or other evidence may be affected by human errors that will affect the quality of the DNA, degrade the DNA, or be in minute quantities. As the DNA falls apart due to degradation, the pieces become smaller and smaller, which causes DNA analysis to become harder and harder.

Newer DNA analysis is based on DNA (such as mitochondria) that is not located in the cell’s nucleus as it was in the past. Cells have organs just as bodies do; these organs are called organelles, existing in the cell but outside of the nucleus. Select organelles have their own packets of DNA, such as the mitochondria. This DNA, called mtDNA, is carried on the mother’s side and survives in numerous quantities in hairs, bone, and teeth, according to Houck (2007).

Other Evidence

Other evidence gathered can be from the location itself, scraps of clothing or human remains beyond the skeleton, and interviews with people. In collecting evidence through interviews, one needs to be sensitive to the culture of those being addressed as this can vary from place to place, culture to culture, and country to country.

Collecting Evidence

There are four major steps in collecting evidence: location, mapping, excavation (if needed), and retrieval. The forensic anthropologist is not always involved with these steps although it is helpful and often time and cost saving to have the forensic anthropologist involved from the start rather than relying on the findings of others. Locating the remains is the first step of the process. Next is mapping, which includes drawings, photographs, videos, and other methods of recording the location and the process itself from locating to retrieving to relocating the remains to the forensic anthropologist’s laboratory. The excavation includes searching and collecting the bones and other materials considered necessary for the forensic anthropologist’s work, while the retrieval includes packing and transporting the materials to the forensic anthropologist’s laboratory.

It is helpful, from the start, to make an inventory of what is found. This inventory will help establish the number of sets of human remains. If there is more than one left femur, other limb bones, or skulls, then this is a general indication of collocation (arrangement) of more than one human skeleton, or commingling. Additional vertebra, ribs, or sesamoid bones (bones that grow in tendons) are not indicators of commingling as it is not abnormal for an individual to have one or more of these. The recording of the process, along with the proper usage of methods of collection and retrieval, will enhance the reliability and success with which the case can be resolved.

Interpreting and Applying Evidence

When interpreting evidence to assist in making an identification, attempts made by humans to disguise or destroy remains can cause problems. Problems can also be caused by any other postmortem damage from a number of sources, including human dismemberment to prevent identification or to show disregard for the victim, and nonhuman animals; heat such as fire; and weathering, burial, and water. The effects of fire include charring, cracking, discoloration, warping, and shrinkage, while weathering—due mainly to sunlight—manifests itself through cracking and warping. Burial has similar effects to weathering and low-temperature burning, whereas water causes abrading and scattering of skeletal elements. The overlap of effects can also cause problems in interpretation for cause of death or postmortem damage that has occurred.

There are three types of bone disease (deformative, lytic, and proliferative) as well as four types of skeletal anomalies (accessory ossicles, nonfusion anomalies, accessory foramina, and miscellaneous anomalies) that the forensic anthropologist needs to be aware of to better help determine what has happened to a bone.

One of the main interpretations by the forensic anthropologist is the manner of death, or the manner in which a person died. There are five recognized manners of death: homicide, suicide, accident, natural, and unknown. It is the forensic anthropologist’s job to avoid as much as possible an unknown cause of death, unless there is insufficient evidence to prove one of the other four manners of death.

While determining the type of bone injury, the forensic anthropologist should also attempt to determine the timing of the bone injury: during life, or antemortem trauma; around the time of death, or perimortem trauma; or damage done after death, or postmortem damage. This timing will help establish if the bone trauma discovered is the cause of death.

The bones can tell a lot about the cause of death. There are four types of bone trauma that can indicate the type of death: blunt, sharp, projectile, and miscellaneous. In the analysis of a blunt force bone trauma, the forensic anthropologist must start with a complete description of the injury, including the type (fracture or infraction), the bone affected, which side of the bone, and the placement in the bone of the injury. Next, the forensic anthropologist should attempt to determine the size, shape, and weight of the causative instrument. Of particular note, a fracture of the hyoid bone is the main osteological consequence of death by strangulation, which is caused by hanging, ligature, or manual strangulation. Sharp trauma results from narrowly focused dynamic compression forces applied to the surface of a bone, such as evidenced in punctures, incisions, and clefts. A projectile bone trauma needs to be analyzed by a forensic anthropologist who understands a number of characteristics of firearms and ammunition such as size (e.g., caliber gauge), velocity, and bullet construction. The forensic anthropologist, when examining a gunshot wound to the bone, should also determine, to the best of his or her ability and knowledge, the causative weapon, the placement of the firearm, and any other information that can be accurately determined.

The forensic anthropologist should create a report that is stated clearly. The report should be generated after careful examination, research, and reflection and based on notes taken throughout the process. The length of time it takes to create a report depends on the complexity of the case. Regardless, the forensic anthropologist’s report should provide as much detail and precise data as possible at the time of writing, although modifications for further clarification can be made if needed. This report “records physical observations on the remains, identifies important biological characteristics, and identifies and differentiates changes in the remains due to natural and cultural forces” in a way that is understandable to the medico-legal officer in charge (Pickering & Bachman, 1997, p. 35). The report should be presented in two parts. The first part of the report should be approximately one page in length and should briefly describe the results in a readable form to the nonforensic anthropologist and include a description of methods used and discuss details of the results obtained from the analysis.

The second part of the report consists of six sections. Part 1 presents background, including names, dates, and places as they apply to the case, including how the forensic anthropologist was summoned, what was done prior to the summoning of the forensic anthropologist, and who was present during the analyses. In Part 2, the general condition of soft tissue that is present and the state of preservation of osteological material along with any photos of the body, which are included as an appendix to the report, can be referenced here. Part 3 is a complete inventory of osteological and odontological remains, including the number of individuals present. Part 4 presents each of the four aspects of demography (ancestry, sex, age at death, and stature) in separate subsections that fully describe how these characteristics were determined. Part 5 explains antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem injuries using photographs, line drawings, and other supportive material. Part 6 includes any recommendations for further testing outside the realm of the forensic anthropologist, which can include searches of missing persons’ files or the names of ethnic enclaves to approach for information on the decedent. Appendices can include supportive photographs and tables.

Expert Witness

1948 was the turning point in the United States for the forensic anthropologist to be accepted by the legal system as an expert witness. Today, forensic anthropologists are being asked to offer expert testimony for both prosecuting and defense attorneys.

A biological profile is the information presented by the forensic anthropologist as testimony in a court of law. The human skeleton or other human remains are not part of an exhibit in a court of law. Therefore, a well-documented analysis or conclusion with verbal testimony, written statements, photographs, and slides are the supporting facts and exhibits in the court of law.

The forensic anthropologist must always be certain, whether in the report or when testifying as an expert witness, to present the data and opinion honestly. Particularly in court, this must be done so as to ensure that the judicial process is not affected by the forensic anthropologist’s pre-

sentation of the data and opinion. It is imperative for the forensic anthropologist to differentiate between evidence or data and opinion or interpretation. This evidence-opinion dichotomy is one of the most important distinctions for a forensic anthropologist to make before presenting findings for others’ use.

There are three types of opinions a forensic anthropologist may form: speculation, possible, and probable. Speculation is based on few or no data and should be given only if specifically asked and never in a written form. A possible opinion is one that is based on a characteristic or event that is possible but is too unlikely to be taken seriously. A probable opinion is one with the highest level of certainty,

Ongoing Advances in Modern Forensic Anthropology

In 1986, the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank was created at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville to help identify the race or ancestry of a skeleton. The Forensic Anthropology Data Bank contains measurements and observations of thousands of individual skeletons analyzed in forensic cases and from museum collections. This vast data helps the forensic anthropologist to detect previously unrealized subtleties. This data bank is the foundation for FORDISC, a computer tool that analyzes these subtleties to confirm or challenge an anthropologist’s findings. FORDISC enables the user to enter measurements from a current case to help estimate sex, ancestry, and stature.

Forensic anthropology has become used more for identifying victims of current disasters, such as 9/11, and mass disasters, such as hurricanes and earthquakes. Forensic anthropology has also become used more and more as a way to gather evidence of victims who can no longer speak, those who are dead—such as in cases of human rights violations worldwide. Forensic anthropologists are stepping outside serving not only the community in which they work but also serving internationally, traveling to large-scale conflicts to work with governments.

Future Use of Forensic Anthropology

Forensic anthropologists are being called on more and more to assist in the identification of victims of homicides, mass disasters, and political atrocities (Camenson, 2001). As the methods to identify human remains become more accurate and exacting, older cases will be reopened for further analysis by forensic anthropologists to assist in solving cold cases.

Bibliography:

• Adams, B. J. (2007). Forensic anthropology. Inside forensic science series. New York: Chelsea House.
• American Board of Forensic Anthropology. (2008). Available at http://www.theabfa.org/index.html
• Bass, B., & Jefferson, J. (2007). Beyond the body farm: A legendary bone detective explores murders, mysteries, and the revolution in forensic science. New York: William Morrow.
• Birx, H. J. (2006). Forensic anthropology. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology (Vol. 2, pp. 366–367). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Burns, K. R. (1999). Forensic anthropology training manual. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Byers, S. N. (2002). Introduction to forensic anthropology: A textbook. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
• Camenson, B. (2001). Opportunities in forensic science careers. Lincolnwood, IL: VCM Career Books.
• Chamberlain, A. (1994). Human remains [Interpreting the Past Series]. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• El-Najjar, M. Y., & McWilliams, K. R. (1978). Forensic anthropology: The structure, morphology, and variation of human bone and dentition. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
• Haglund, W. D., & Sorg, M. H. (2002). Advances in forensic taphonomy, method, theory, and archaeological perspectives. Washington, DC: CRC Press.
• Houck, M. M. (2007). Forensic science: Modern methods of solving crime. Westport, CT: Praeger.
• Jackson, D. M. (1996). The bone detectives: How forensic anthropologists solve crimes and uncover mysteries of the dead. Boston: Little, Brown.
• Joyce, C., & Stover, E. (1991). Witnesses from the grave: The stories bones tell. Boston: Little, Brown.
• Krogman, W. M. (1941). Growth of man. The Hague, the Netherlands: W. Junk.
• Krogman, W. M., & Iscan, M. Y. (1986). The human skeleton in forensic medicine (2nd ed.). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
• Manheim, M. H. (2005). Trail of bones: More cases from the files of a forensic anthropologist. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
• Morse, D., Duncan, J., & Stoutamire, J. (Eds.). (1884). Handbook of forensic archaeology and anthropology. Tallahassee: Florida State University Foundation.
• Nafte, M. (2000). Flesh and bone: An introduction to forensic anthropology. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
• Pickering, R. B., & Bachman, D. C. (1997). The use of forensic anthropology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
• Reichs, K. J. (Ed.). (1986). Forensic osteology: Advances in the identification of human remains. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
• Rhine, S. (1998). Bone voyage: A journey in forensic anthropology. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
• Schmitt, A., Cunha, E., & Pinheiro, J. (Eds.). (2006). Forensic anthropology and medicine: Complementary sciences from recovery to cause of death. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.
• Stewart, T. D. (1979). Essentials of forensic anthropology: Especially as developed in the United States. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
• Ubelaker, D. (2004). Forensic anthropology. In C. R. Ember & M. Ember (Eds.), Encyclopedia of medical anthropology: Health and illness in the world’s cultures (pp. 37–42). New York: Kluwer Academic.
• Ubelaker, D., & Scammell, H. (1992). Bones: A forensic detective’s casebook. New York: Edward Burlingame Books.

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Contributions of forensic anthropology to positive scientific identification: a critical Review

Douglas h. ubelaker.

Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA

Austin Shamlou

Amanda kunkle.

This review covers previous and current literature on the impact of forensic anthropologists on the positive scientific identification of human remains and aims to provide an understanding of what information a forensic anthropologist can contribute to an investigation. Forensic anthropologists looking to identify human remains study traits of the skeleton and any orthopedic devices present. In order to obtain a positive scientific identification, evidence that is both sufficiently unique to the individual and comparable to available antemortem data from that individual must be found. The increased availability of radiographs, scans and implants in recent decades has facilitated the identification process. When these records are unavailable, other techniques, such as craniofacial superimposition and facial approximation, can be employed. While these methods may assist the identification process, they are most useful for exclusion of certain individuals and gathering leads from the public. Forensic anthropologists have heavily relied on the skull and its complexities for identification – typically focusing on the frontal sinus and other unique traits. Post-cranial remains can provide important information about bone density, possible disease and other characteristics that may also be utilized. Techniques used to positively identify individuals are not limited to medicolegal death investigations, and have been useful in other legal contexts. In the future, a team approach, utilizing all the information gathered by multiple forensic scientists – including forensic anthropologists – will most likely become more common.

Introduction

Positive scientific identification of human remains recovered in a medicolegal context represents a central goal of forensic anthropology analysis. Many facets of anthropological activity, including search and recovery, determining species, estimation of sex, age at death, stature, time since death, and ancestry and detection of unique anatomical features produce information used to narrow the search of missing persons. Ultimately, forensic anthropologists contribute to positive scientific identification either directly, or through the wealth of supplemental information provided. Direct contributions involve assessment of a variety of anatomical features and comparison with antemortem information, usually revealed through radiography and related imagery.

Types of identification include tentative, circumstantial, presumptive and positive types [ 1 ]. The first three types listed indicate that the actual identification cannot be excluded and thus the remains, or other evidence examined, might represent a particular individual. Research and casework has demonstrated that facial recognition is generally unreliable in identification, especially with advanced decomposition [ 2 ].

Positive identification represents a much higher level of probability and involves a two-step process. First, anatomical features must be discovered that are shared between the examined evidence and the known antemortem information relating to a particular individual. Second, the analyst must determine that the features being compared are sufficiently unique to enable the identification. In addition, any differences must be noted and explained in a satisfactory manner. When errors are made in identification they usually fall into two categories: (1) differences are considered as evidence for exclusion that actually represent other factors, and (2) shared features are presented in support of identification with insufficient consideration of their uniqueness. Great caution is needed in interpretation since misidentification can lead to tragic consequences.

Contributions of forensic anthropologists to identification are especially needed and valuable in the analysis of extensively decomposed and/or skeletonized human remains. Experimental research reported by Sauerwein et al. [ 3 ] indicates that the process of decomposition can rapidly destroy many indicators commonly used in identification, although the rate of destruction depends on many variables. In their research, fingerprints survived 4 days postmortem with warm temperatures but more than 50 days with cold temperatures. Postmortem iris recognition ranged from 2 to 34 days, depending on the variables involved. Of course, this research is location specific and rates may vary in other regions.

Proper recovery, documentation and assessment of the biological profile of human remains are essential elements leading to positive identification [ 4 ]. Details of this methodology are beyond the scope of this article; however, shortcomings of any aspect of these procedures can prevent identification and/or derail investigation. To focus on the proper set of missing persons for possible identification, investigators must have meaningful information on the age at death, sex, ancestry, stature and time since death [ 5 ]. All of the evidence must be recovered with detailed documentation. Both the recovery and analysis must be conducted in a manner to meet the demands of the legal process [ 6 , 7 ].

The unique features needed for positive identification can be provided by surgical procedures, especially those generating devices that remain in the skeletal tissue [ 8 ]. For example, Hogge et al. [ 9 ] were able to positively identify remains through their detection of post-surgical defects relating to a unilateral lambdoid synostectomy. The remains were identified as an individual who had undergone neurosurgery for this rare congenital anomaly.

Many orthopedic devices recovered with human remains may present information revealing the manufacturer [ 10 ]. Some devices, following current law, may include numerical information that can be traced to a particular surgical office or even the individual patient.

Forensic anthropologists have found these inorganic materials fundamental in their cases. For example, Bennett and Benedix [ 11 ] report positive identification of burned remains recovered from an automobile through detection of an internal fixation device. Radiographic examination of recovered remains revealed a complex of wires that were determined to represent an osteostimulator. No serial number was noted, but the metal materials related to a documented osteostimulator surgically employed to stimulate bone production in treatment of a back injury of a patient.

When lacking surgical modifications, anthropologists must look for organic anomalies or unique traits in skeletal remains. The classic text of Stewart [ 12 ] discussed positive identification in a chapter entitled “Traits Peculiar to the Individual.” Stewart noted the value of unique, highly variable anatomical features in identification. He also recognized the importance of careful cleaning of remains to facilitate observation of such features. Hogge et al. [ 13 ] later called attention to the value of experience in recognition and interpretation of anatomical features used in identification.

Dental features frequently provide information needed for identification [ 14 ]. Forensic odontologists are uniquely qualified to interpret dental restorations and other features related to the practice of dentistry. However, anthropologists share with odontologists an interest and expertise in aspects of dental morphology that can provide evidence for positive scientific identification. Useful features include the number of teeth present, antemortem loss of teeth, patterns of displaced teeth and patterns of unusual rotation [ 15 ].

Comparative antemortem information is usually available through radiographs and related imagery. Murphy and Spruill [ 16 ] report that in a 15-month period from April 1978 to July 1979 in the St. Louis area of the United States, 60% of scientific identifications resulted from radiographic assessment. Anatomical variants, disease modification and postsurgical features provided most of the unique data utilized in positive scientific identification. As noted by Fitzpatrick and Macaluso [ 17 ], techniques of positioning, magnification, beam centering, angulation and bone orientation must be employed properly to facilitate comparison.

Craniofacial superimposition

Craniofacial superimposition compares features of a recovered skull thought to be of medico-legal interest with antemortem photographs of a missing person who might be represented by the remains. This technique may be employed when positive identification has not been accomplished through molecular analysis, dental reconstruction comparison or anthropological radiographic assessment [ 18 ]. Usually, the method is utilized when complete skulls or crania are available for comparison [ 19 ], but attempts have been made using even fragmentary evidence [ 20 ]. Once clear images are found that can be used to compare the recovered crania, forensic anthropologists must take the time to orient the skull, often using Q-tips as place markers, in order to be able to lay the images properly over each other [ 21 ]. The techniques of comparison have become more complex and sophisticated [ 18 , 19 ] but primarily allow exclusion rather than positive scientific identification. Images are often pulled from police records, surveillance or directly from relatives of the possible individual. The quality of this image typically corresponds to the accuracy of the exclusion process [ 21 ].

Dorion [ 22 ] notes that photographic superimposition can lead to misidentification if not properly employed. He cautions that the technique should not be used as the only means of identification. Research reported by Austin-Smith and Maples [ 23 ] supports this expression of concern. They compared frontal and lateral views of three skulls with photographs of 98 different persons. They reported a positive comparison with 9.6% of the lateral views and 8.5% of the frontal views. However, the percentage of consistency was reduced to 0.6% when both frontal and lateral views were utilized.

Facial approximation

Facial approximation represents the attempt to produce a facial likeness of an individual from a skull. While the method cannot be used for positive identification directly, the image produced can be used to communicate with the public in an effort to gather information on missing persons who might be represented by the recovered remains. Major advances in methodology include new population data of soft tissue depth, new guidelines of assessing facial features and innovative computerized approaches [ 24 ]. Although multiple studies of soft tissue depth have been published, Stephan and Simpson [ 25 ] note that the data indicate no clear secular trends and the values have wide variation. They suggest that existing data be pooled for use with adults. Stephan and Simpson [ 26 ] also found similar results with subadult data and recommended categorizing the data into two age groups (0–11 years and 12–18 years).

Although facial approximations have been reported to be useful in gathering information relative to identification, Stephan and Cicolini [ 27 ] reported concern about the associated resemblance ratings. Stephan and Henneberg [ 28 ] published an experimental approach to judge the recognition value and questioned the value for identification.

Techniques of facial approximation are improving with enhanced information regarding the relationship of facial hard and soft tissues and more sophisticated computer technology. Despite these advancements, facial approximation does not represent a method of positive scientific identification. However, the generated image may prove useful to assist public communication that the remains of someone with particular visual and demographic characteristics have been recovered.

Unique cranial evidence

While other methods have led to tentative identifications, distinctive features present on the skeleton allow for a more certain classification. The skull frequently has provided the unique information needed for positive scientific identification in anthropological analysis for two primary reasons: (1) historically, considerable research has focused on the skull revealing great variation of many anatomical features, and (2) antemortem radiographs and related imagery frequently are available for the head and may include multiple views. As noted by Smith et al. [ 29 ], skull images can present numerous unique features useful for identification. In their case report, Smith et al. [ 29 ] indicated that positive scientific identification was enabled by computerized tomographic (CT) examination of the frontal sinus, sphenoid sinus, ethmoidal mastoid air cells, the sagittal suture and aspects of the internal occipital protuberance. Culbert and Law [ 30 ] provide a very early reference to their use of radiographic examination of nasal accessory sinuses and the mastoid processes for identification of a former patient who died in India. Rhine and Sperry [ 31 ] provide an additional example of identification using the frontal sinuses and endocranial arterial patterns. Rogers and Allard [ 32 ] also employed cranial suture patterns (location, length and slope of sutural lines) and argued their approach to these features met legal requirements in the United States and Canada at that time.

Frontal sinus variation

Although many features of the human skull display extensive variation and thus are useful for individual identification, many investigators have focused on the frontal sinus. This sinus located superior to nasion in the area of the supraorbital ridges displays remarkable variation ranging from minimal presence to large labaryinthion formations. Apparently reflecting environmental and developmental influences, even identical twins display morphological differences in frontal sinus expression [ 33 ].

As early as 1921, Schϋller [ 34 ] called attention to the value of the frontal sinus for positive scientific identification. Later, Asherson [ 35 ] developed a system of using outlines of the sinus expression for comparative purposes. In 1984, Ubelaker [ 33 ] described how frontal sinus comparison, coupled with morphology of the sella turcica and other cranial features, was utilized for positive scientific identification in a murder trial. Ubelaker [ 33 ] also used radiographs of cranial collections at the Smithsonian Institution to demonstrate population variation of the frontal sinus. Angyal and Dérzy [ 36 ] presented cases from Hungary showing how radiography of the frontal sinus, along with features of the pelvis, humerus and lumbar vertebrae, allowed positive scientific identification.

Although most early comparative studies of frontal sinus morphology utilized in medicolegal applications featured pattern recognition, metric and more sophisticated statistical treatments have been introduced as well. Kirk et al. [ 37 ] introduced a metric approach that documented the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the sinus expression. They declared a match if the comparative measurements were within 5 mm of each other. In their retrospective study of 39 cases from the Ontario Chief Coroner’s Office, Kirk et al. [ 37 ] reported using both pattern recognition and their metric analysis for positive scientific identification. In addition, they reported that adult age, sex and cause of death had no effect on the likelihood of identification using this feature.

Noting the growing demands from the legal arena for increased quantification and probability assessment of features used in identification, Christensen [ 38 ] applied Elliptic Fourier analysis in assessing the individualization of the frontal sinus. As suggested in the literature published earlier, this application indicated that assessment of frontal sinus morphology represented a reliable approach to human positive scientific identification.

Post-cranial remains

Skeletal remains from the post-cranial skeleton also present abundant anatomical features useful for identification if corresponding antemortem radiographs can be located. Post-cranial bones may be less affected by animal scavenging and other postmortem factors [ 39 ]. General trabecular bone patterns [ 40 ], as well as general bony contours, anomalies and radiodensities [ 41 ] can provide unique features useful for identification. Post-cranial approaches to identification have focused on the clavicle [ 42–46 ], general chest area [ 47–49 ], hand and wrist [ 50 ], patella [ 51 ] and foot deformity [ 52 ]. Unusual medical conditions are important since they often can be linked to radiographs showing skeletal anatomical details.

Applications to the living

Although contributions of forensic anthropologists to positive scientific identification usually involve recovered skeletal remains, similar techniques can be applied to medicolegal issues involving the living. Fenger et al. [ 53 ] report how radiographic evaluations of skeletal details were used to address cases of workers’ compensation fraud. Individuals in Colorado with pre-existing medical conditions were feigning injuries while at work and claiming workers’ compensation. Using different identities, they were making multiple claims for the same apparent medical condition. Comparative examination of radiographs revealed that multiple claims supposedly of different persons actually related to one person.

Team approach

Although anthropologists frequently apply their skills to individual skeletal features, ultimately identification represents a team effort [ 54 ]. Apart from investigative efforts, reports and analyses by forensic anthropologists join those generated from analysis of DNA, fingerprints, dental restorations and other data [ 55 ]. Ideally, identification should represent a holistic, comprehensive process that builds on the biological profile and circumstantial evidence.

Future advances

Critical evaluation of past progress reveals trends likely to produce future advances. Technological advances clearly represent key potential for enhanced capability in positive scientific identification. The images generated by computerized tomography (CT) reveal much more skeletal detail than those previously available from conventional radiography. The rapidly advancing technology available for imagery clearly will contribute to major advances.

Recent years have witnessed increased scrutiny of the forensic sciences in the legal arena. Constructive criticism has stimulated research focus on probability assessment, cognitive bias, error analysis and the general scientific foundation of forensic applications. Future analyses of features contributing to positive scientific identification must relate accurately the probabilities involved. Those involved in the identification process must guard against cognitive bias that might impact assessment. Research must attempt to define the uniqueness of features commonly involved in skeletal identifications. Concepts of “match” and “consistency” likely will be replaced with more precise statements of probability and associated error. More sophisticated statistical analyses predictably will become apparent in the research designs targeting methods of identification.

The team approach discussed above likely will become more commonplace in the identification procedure. Individual techniques and statistical analysis present individual probabilities of identification. The team approach offers the potential for combined probabilities that should enhance the identification effort.

Identification benefits from the training and experience of anthropologists conducting the analysis. Internationally, the best and brightest students are becoming increasingly attracted to the field of forensic anthropology. This surge of academic interest and dedication bodes well for the future of forensic anthropology and for methodology of positive scientific identification.

Compliance with ethical standards This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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Forensics Digest

All about Forensics

Recent Dissertation Topics in Forensic Science

This article serves as a compass, guiding readers through a diverse array of recent dissertation topics that encapsulate the multifaceted nature of forensic research. From digital forensics to forensic psychology, the chosen dissertation topics reflect the evolving challenges and advancements in solving complex legal puzzles.

Forensic DNA Analysis:

• “Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) in Forensic DNA Profiling: Opportunities and Challenges”
• “The Impact of DNA Transfer and Secondary DNA Transfer in Forensic Investigations”
• “Ethical Implications of DNA Phenotyping: A Critical Analysis”

Digital Forensics:

• “Artificial Intelligence in Digital Forensic Analysis: A Comprehensive Review”
• “Cloud Forensics: Investigating Digital Crimes in Cloud Computing Environments”
• “Deepfake Detection Techniques: Safeguarding Digital Evidence Integrity”

Forensic Anthropology:

• “Facial Approximation in Forensic Anthropology: Integrating 3D Modeling Techniques”
• “The Role of Forensic Anthropologists in Mass Graves Investigations”
• “Advancements in Skeletal Trauma Analysis for Forensic Purposes”

Forensic Toxicology:

• “Metabolomics in Forensic Toxicology: Profiling Endogenous and Exogenous Compounds”
• “Designer Drugs: Analytical Approaches for the Detection of Novel Psychoactive Substances”
• “Forensic Challenges in Analyzing Postmortem Fluids for Toxicological Investigations”

Forensic Psychology:

• “The Impact of Jury Bias on Forensic Psychologists’ Testimonies: A Case Study Analysis”
• “Virtual Reality Applications in Forensic Psychology Training: Enhancing Investigative Skills”
• “Exploring the Ethical Dilemmas in Forensic Psychological Assessments”

Forensic Pathology:

• “Cardiac Biomarkers in Forensic Pathology: Exploring their Role in Cause of Death Determination”
• “The Use of Postmortem Imaging in Forensic Pathology: A Comparative Analysis”
• “Forensic Aspects of Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injuries: Patterns and Challenges”

Forensic Odontology:

• “Age Estimation in Subadults: Integrating Dental and Skeletal Methods in Forensic Odontology”
• “Digital Methods in Bite Mark Analysis: Enhancing Accuracy and Reliability”
• “Role of Dental Records in Disaster Victim Identification: A Global Perspective”

Forensic Entomology:

• “Forensic Entomogenomics: Unraveling New Dimensions in Time of Death Estimation”
• “Environmental Factors Influencing Insect Colonization on Decomposing Remains: A Forensic Study”
• “The Use of Entomotoxicology in Forensic Investigations: Current Trends and Applications”

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January 7, 2024 at 2:22 am

thank you for this post. I needed to submit a topic for my dissertation on Monday and you guys saved me big time

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