essay about war of 1812

The War of 1812 Essay

The War of 1812 was fought between the United States of America and the provinces of the British North America, especially the Upper Canada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Quebec), New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton Island and Bermuda. It took place between 1812 and 1815 and was staged mainly at the Atlantic Ocean and the waters along the Northern Americas.

There are many immediate causes that led United States to declare the war. It all began in 1807 when Britain came up with trade restrictions to hinder the United States from trading with France, which was a strong rival of the Britain. The United States argued that according to the International laws of trade it was wrong to impose the restrictions.

Apart from that, the British military had assisted the American Indians to attack American settlers in the Northwest further worsening their failing relations. The Indians attacks prevented the U.S. from expanding towards the Northwest Territories, which is currently occupied by states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and Michigan. The British argued that the aim of the U.S. was to annex some parts of Canada (Pearson, 254).

Another cause of the War of 1812 was the fruitless attempt of the United States to exploit its irredentist and imperialistic interests and uphold its honors as they considered the Britain challenge to be insult. This war led to massive loss of lives and property but neither of the irredentists lost their territories.

The war ended with signing of the Treaty of Ghent, which created the “status quo ante bellum” assuring the rivals to retain their territories. Unites States and the British North America later came up with the Treaty of 1818, which adjusted borders. The British North America considered the War of 1812 as a success as they defended their territory and it instilled confidence and the militia myth, which led to nationalism among the Canadians.

The Battle of York was staged on 27 th April 1813, at York, which is nowadays known as Toronto. During the War of 1812, an American unit backed by a navy flotilla docked on the Lake Ontario shore near the West, fought the defensive British unit and captured the city and its dock.

The victory of the mission was blemished by acts of plunder and stealing done out by the American units on the British supply chain, which later justified the Burning of Washington by the British units.

The Battle of Stoney Creek was staged in 6 th June 1813 at the time of the War of 1812 in what is nowadays known as Stoney Creek, Ontario. The Americans had victoriously fought the Battle of Fort George, which made the British armies to attack the American camps during the night. The British emerged victors in the war due to the capture of two senior officials of the American unit and the overconfidence of the Americans over the British (Pearson, 310).

The Battle of Beaver Dams was fought on 24 th June 1813, at the time of the Anglo American War of 1812. The battle broke out after Laura Secord delivered a warning of an American effort to attack a British colony at Beaver Dams, Fort George. The Americans were ousted by Native warriors and later surrendered to the commander of the small British deployment.

Major-General Sir Isaac Brook was a British Army official, in charge of Upper Canada since 1802 defending the Upper Canada from the Americans.

Whereas many people in Canada and Britain thought that war could be avoided, Brock was preparing his regiment for a battle that was foreseeable and when the War of 1813 broke out, Brock and his army were ready and easily defeated the Americans in Fort Mackinac and in Detroit. Brock was killed at the Battle of Queenston Heights, which British won.

Tecumseh was a Native American leader of the Shawnee and a great tribal confederacy, which fought against the Americans at the Tecumseh War and at the War of 1812. At the time of the War of 1812, Tecumseh and the tribal confederacy united with the British troops in Canada and assisted in the capturing Fort Detroit.

The American unit under the leadership of Harrison, an American commander, initiated a counterattack on Canada, which led to the Battle of the Thames where Tecumseh died (Pearson 344).

Works Cited

Pearson, Greg. Canadian history: a sense of time . Vancouver, BC: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2006. Print.

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War of 1812

By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 24, 2023 | Original: October 27, 2009

In the War of 1812, the United States took on the greatest naval power in the world, Great Britain, in a conflict that would have an immense impact on the young country’s future. Causes of the war included British attempts to restrict U.S. trade, the Royal Navy’s impressment of American seamen and America’s desire to expand its territory. 

The United States suffered many costly defeats at the hands of British, Canadian and Native American troops over the course of the War of 1812, including the capture and burning of the nation’s capital, Washington, D.C., in August 1814. Nonetheless, American troops were able to repulse British invasions in New York, Baltimore and New Orleans, boosting national confidence and fostering a new spirit of patriotism. The ratification of the Treaty of Ghent on February 17, 1815, ended the war but left many of the most contentious questions unresolved. Nonetheless, many in the United States celebrated the War of 1812 as a “second war of independence,” beginning an era of partisan agreement and national pride.

Causes of the War of 1812

At the outset of the 19th century, Great Britain was locked in a long and bitter conflict with Napoleon Bonaparte’s France. In an attempt to cut off supplies from reaching the enemy, both sides attempted to block the United States from trading with the other. In 1807, Britain passed the Orders in Council, which required neutral countries to obtain a license from its authorities before trading with France or French colonies. The Royal Navy also outraged Americans by its practice of impressment, or removing seamen from U.S. merchant vessels and forcing them to serve on behalf of the British.

In 1809, the U.S. Congress repealed Thomas Jefferson ’s unpopular Embargo Act, which by restricting trade had hurt Americans more than either Britain or France. Its replacement, the Non-Intercourse Act, specifically prohibited trade with Britain and France. It also proved ineffective, and in turn was replaced with a May 1810 bill stating that if either power dropped trade restrictions against the United States, Congress would in turn resume non-intercourse with the opposing power.

After Napoleon hinted he would stop restrictions, President James Madison blocked all trade with Britain that November. Meanwhile, new members of Congress elected that year—led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun—had begun to agitate for war, based on their indignation over British violations of maritime rights as well as Britain’s encouragement of Native American hostility against American westward expansion .

Did you know? The War of 1812 produced a new generation of great American generals, including Andrew Jackson, Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott, and helped propel no fewer than four men to the presidency: Jackson, John Quincy Adams, James Monroe and William Henry Harrison.

The War of 1812 Breaks Out

In the fall of 1811, Indiana’s territorial governor William Henry Harrison led U.S. troops to victory in the Battle of Tippecanoe . The defeat convinced many Indians in the Northwest Territory (including the celebrated Shawnee chief Tecumseh ) that they needed British support to prevent American settlers from pushing them further out of their lands. 

Meanwhile, by late 1811 the so-called “War Hawks” in Congress were putting more and more pressure on Madison, and on June 18, 1812, the president signed a declaration of war against Britain. Though Congress ultimately voted for war, both House and Senate were bitterly divided on the issue. Most Western and Southern congressmen supported war, while Federalists (especially New Englanders who relied heavily on trade with Britain) accused war advocates of using the excuse of maritime rights to promote their expansionist agenda.

In order to strike at Great Britain, U.S. forces almost immediately attacked Canada, which was then a British colony. American officials were overly optimistic about the invasion’s success, especially given how underprepared U.S. troops were at the time. On the other side, they faced a well-managed defense coordinated by Sir Isaac Brock, the British soldier and administrator in charge in Upper Canada (modern Ontario). 

On August 16, 1812, the United States suffered a humiliating defeat after Brock and Tecumseh’s forces chased those led by Michigan William Hull across the Canadian border, scaring Hull into surrendering Detroit without any shots fired.

War of 1812: Mixed Results for American Forces

Things looked better for the United States in the West, as Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry’s brilliant success in the Battle of Lake Erie in September 1813 placed the Northwest Territory firmly under American control. Harrison was subsequently able to retake Detroit with a victory in the Battle of Thames (in which Tecumseh was killed). Meanwhile, the U.S. navy had been able to score several victories over the Royal Navy in the early months of the war. With the defeat of Napoleon’s armies in April 1814, however, Britain was able to turn its full attention to the war effort in North America. 

As large numbers of troops arrived, British forces raided the Chesapeake Bay and moved in on the U.S. capital, capturing Washington, D.C ., on August 24, 1814, and burning government buildings including the Capitol and the White House .

Inspiration for 'The Star Spangled Banner'

On September 11, 1814, at the Battle of Plattsburgh on Lake Champlain in New York, the American navy soundly defeated the British fleet. And on September 13, 1814, Baltimore’s Fort McHenry withstood 25 hours of bombardment by the British Navy. 

The following morning, the fort’s soldiers hoisted an enormous American flag, a sight that inspired Francis Scott Key to write a poem that would later be set to music and become known as  “ The Star-Spangled Banner .” (Set to the tune of an old English drinking song, it would later be adopted as the U.S. national anthem.) British forces subsequently left the Chesapeake Bay and began gathering their efforts for a campaign against New Orleans .

End of the War of 1812 and Its Impact

By that time, peace talks had already begun at Ghent (modern Belgium), and Britain moved for an armistice after the failure of the assault on Baltimore. In the negotiations that followed, the United States gave up its demands to end impressment, while Britain promised to leave Canada’s borders unchanged and abandon efforts to create an Indian state in the Northwest. On December 24, 1814, commissioners signed the Treaty of Ghent , which would be ratified the following February. 

On January 8, 1815, unaware that peace had been concluded, British forces mounted a major attack in the Battle of New Orleans , only to meet with defeat at the hands of future U.S. president Andrew Jackson ’s army. News of the battle boosted sagging U.S. morale and left Americans with the taste of victory, despite the fact that the country had achieved none of its pre-war objectives.

Impact of the War of 1812

Though the War of 1812 is remembered as a relatively minor conflict in the United States and Britain, it looms large for Canadians and for Native Americans, who see it as a decisive turning point in their losing struggle to govern themselves. In fact, the war had a far-reaching impact in the United States, as the Treaty of Ghent ended decades of bitter partisan infighting in government and ushered in the so-called “Era of Good Feelings.” 

The war also marked the demise of the Federalist Party , which had been accused of being unpatriotic for its antiwar stance, and reinforced a tradition of Anglophobia that had begun during the Revolutionary War. Perhaps most importantly, the war’s outcome boosted national self-confidence and encouraged the growing spirit of American expansionism that would shape the better part of the 19th century.

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The War of 1812 for The USA

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Course: US history   >   Unit 4

• The election of 1800
• Jefferson's presidency and the turn of the nineteenth century
• The Louisiana Purchase and its exploration
• Jefferson's election and presidency

The War of 1812

• The Monroe Doctrine
• The presidency of John Quincy Adams
• Politics and regional interests
• The Market Revolution - textile mills and the cotton gin
• The Market Revolution - communication and transportation
• The Market Revolution - impact and significance
• Irish and German immigration
• The 1820s and the Market Revolution
• The War of 1812 , which lasted from June 18, 1812 to February 18, 1815, was fought over issues that continued to plague relations between the United States and Britain after the Revolutionary War, like impressment of American sailors and trade restrictions on American shipping.
• Though many American grievances were resolved during the course of the war, the Treaty of Ghent , which formally ended the War of 1812, involved no significant change in pre-war borders or boundaries.
• For Native Americans who had allied with the British, the outcome of the war was devastating to their land and political autonomy.

War in Europe and grievances in the United States

The hartford convention and the treaty of ghent, the end of the war of 1812, the war of 1812 and native americans, what do you think.

• For more on the Napoleonic Wars, see Mike Rapport, The Napoleonic Wars: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
• For more on the military history of the conflict, see Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012).
• For more, see Walter R. Borneman, 1812: The War that Forged a Nation (New York: HarperCollins, 2004).
• For more on the American Indians and the War of 1812, see Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies (New York: Random House, 2010).

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1812: War and the Passions of Patriotism

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Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, 1812: War and the Passions of Patriotism, Journal of American History , Volume 100, Issue 2, September 2013, Pages 507–508, https://doi.org/10.1093/jahist/jat198

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The War of 1812, known primarily for its military disasters—the burning of Washington, the near capture of Baltimore, the failure to seize Canada—and the diplomatic stalemate that marked the war's end, is easily dismissed as an event of little significance. Not so, Nicole Eustace tells us in her powerful analysis of the political rhetoric the war generated. Despite U.S. military defeats, the war ended the British–Native American coalition, opening the West to rapid white settlement. It transformed a people bitterly divided along class, regional, and ideological lines into an ebullient nation, energized by the task of establishing white dominance over the American continent and confidently embracing a revitalized national self-image as a virtuous, freedom-loving empire. Insisting that the pen is mightier than the sword, Eustace presents the war more as a cultural event than a military one and examines the nation that emerged from the war, re-formed by aggressive Republican party rhetoric.

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War of 1812 Overview

The War of 1812 pitted the young United States in a war against Great Britain, from whom the American colonies had won their independence in 1783. The conflict was a byproduct of the broader conflict between Great Britain and France over who would dominate Europe and the wider world.

In Britain’s effort to control the world’s oceans, the British Royal Navy encroached upon American maritime rights and cut into American trade during the Napoleonic Wars. In response, the young republic declared war on Britain on June 18, 1812. The two leading causes of the war were the British Orders-in-Council, which limited American trade with Europe, and impressment, the Royal Navy’s practice of taking seamen from American merchant vessels to fill out the crews of its own chronically undermanned warships. Under the authority of the Orders in Council, the British seized some 400 American merchant ships and their cargoes between 1807 and 1812. Press gangs, though ostensibly targeting British subjects for naval service, also swept up 6,000 to 9,000 Americans into the crews of British ships between 1803 and 1812. Some of the impressed sailors were born in British possessions but had migrated to the United States, while many others had attained citizenship that was either in question or simply could not be documented.

With only 16 warships, the United States could not directly challenge the Royal Navy, which had 500 ships in service in 1812. Instead, the new nation targeted Canada, hoping to use the conquest of British territory as a bargaining chip to win concessions on the maritime issues. Most Americans assumed that the conquest of Canada would be, in the words of former president Thomas Jefferson, “a mere matter of marching.” The United States enjoyed a huge population advantage over Canada—7.7 million to 500,000—and it was widely believed in America that U.S. troops would be welcomed as liberators. But events did not play out as Americans expected. Waging war at the end of extended supply lines over the vast distances of the North American wilderness was no easy task. The British and their allies from indigenous nations in North America proved a formidable foe.

American armies invaded Canada in 1812 at three points, but all three campaigns ended in failure. One army surrendered at Detroit at the western end of Lake Erie, a second army surrendered at Queenston Heights at the other end of the lake, and a third army withdrew after little more than a skirmish north of New York. A similar multi-pronged invasion went better in 1813, but only in the West, where an American victory on Lake Erie paved the way for a land victory at the Thames in Upper Canada, which restored U.S. ascendancy throughout the region. But further east, American forces made little headway.

In 1814, the United States was thrown on the defensive because the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in Europe enabled the British to shift additional resources to the war in America. The U.S. continued to remain on the offensive on the Niagara front, but the bloody fighting there was inconclusive. Elsewhere the British took the offensive, although their forces encountered the same problems waging wilderness warfare across vast distances that had plagued the United States earlier in the war. The British occupied Washington, DC, burning the public buildings there, and successfully occupied a hundred miles of the Maine coast. Elsewhere however, the British were rebuffed. British forces withdrew from New York when they lost another inland naval battle, this time on Lake Champlain. They had to give up an assault on Baltimore when they were unable to compel Fort McHenry to submit, and they were decisively defeated at New Orleans.

If the war went worse than Americans expected on land, it went surprisingly well at sea, at least initially. Early in the war, the new nation won a series of single-ship duels between American and British warships. Especially noteworthy were the four successful cruises made by USS  Constitution  in the war. The frigate outran a large British squadron in 1812 and subsequently defeated four Royal Navy ships in combat. Constitution  also earned her nickname, “Old Ironsides,” when round shot in the duel with HMS  Guerriere  appeared to bounce off the ship’s 22-inch-thick hull. An American seaman exclaimed, “Huzza! Her sides are made of iron!” Soon after,  Constitution was known as “Ironsides,” which in time became “Old Ironsides.” American privateers also took a toll on British shipping early in the war.

In the end, however, British naval power held. The British used their navy to ship troops to Canada, to keep them supplied, and to blockade and raid the American coast. The blockade had a devastating impact on the U.S. economy and public finance, and also kept most American warships in port. The British convoy system—in which warships escorted merchant vessels—cut down on the success of American privateers. Furthermore, the British evened the score in single ship duels by defeating USS  Chesapeake , USS  Essex , and USS  President .

Ultimately, the War of 1812 ended in a draw on the battlefield, and the peace treaty reflected this. The Treaty of Ghent was signed in modern-day Belgium on December 24, 1814, and went into effect on February 17, 1815, after both sides had ratified it. This agreement provided for returning to the  status quo ante bellum , which meant that the antagonists agreed to return to the state that had existed before the war and restore all conquered territory.

Both sides could claim victory, the British because they held on to Canada and their maritime rights, and the United States because just fighting the “Conqueror of Napoleon” and the “Mistress of the Seas” to a draw vindicated its sovereignty and earned the respect of Europe. As British diplomat Augustus J. Foster acknowledged at war’s end, “The Americans . . . have brought us to speak of them with respect.”

The only real losers in the war were the indigenous nations of North America, who were defeated in two wars connected to the War of 1812: Tecumseh’s War in the Old Northwest and the Creek War in the Old Southwest. American success in these wars opened the door for westward expansion and threatened the indigenous peoples and their ways of life east of the Mississippi River.

The war was fraught with a host of other consequences. It laid the foundations for the emergence of Canada as an independent nation and induced the British to seek peaceful relations with the United States for the remainder of the 19th century and beyond. It also helped forge the United States into a nation. Americans could celebrate their victories on the high seas and on Lake Erie and Lake Champlain, as well as at Fort McHenry and New Orleans. These victories introduced new American heroes (including Oliver H. Perry and Dolley Madison) and future United States presidents (William Henry Harrison and Andrew Jackson), developed new expressions (including “We have met the enemy and they are ours” and “Don’t give up the ship!”), established American symbols (USS  Constitution , the Fort McHenry flag, and Uncle Sam), and inspired a patriotic song that eventually became the national anthem (“The Star-Spangled Banner”).

The War of 1812 may have been a small war, but it left a profound and lasting legacy that reverberated through history and continues to be felt even today.

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Article by James H. Marsh , Pierre Berton

Updated by Tabitha de Bruin

Published Online March 6, 2012

Last Edited October 31, 2018

The War of 1812 (which lasted from 1812 to 1814) was a military conflict between the United States and Great Britain. As a colony of Great Britain, Canada was swept up in the War of 1812 and was invaded several times by the Americans. The war was fought in Upper Canada , Lower Canada , on the Great Lakes and the Atlantic , and in the United States. The peace treaty of Ghent (1814), which ended the war, largely returned the status quo. However, in Canada, the war contributed to a growing sense of national identity, including the idea that civilian soldiers were largely responsible for repelling the American invaders. In contrast, the First Nations allies of the British and Canadian cause suffered much because of the war; not only had they lost many warriors (including the great Tecumseh ), they also lost any hope of halting American expansion in the west, and their contributions were quickly forgotten by their British and Canadian allies. ( See also First Nations and Métis Peoples in the War of 1812 .)

This article focuses primarily on land campaigns; for more detailed discussion of naval campaigns, see Atlantic Campaign of the War of 1812 and War on the Lakes in the War of 1812 . Additionally, this is a full-length entry on the War of 1812. For a plain-language summary please see War of 1812 (Plain-Language Summary) .

Causes of the War of 1812

The origins of the War of 1812 were in the conflict that raged in Europe for almost two decades after Napoleon Bonaparte became First Consul (later Emperor) of France. These Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815) caused Great Britain to adopt measures that greatly aggravated the United States.

On 21 November 1806, Napoleon ordered a blockade of shipping (the Berlin Decree) aimed at crippling British trade. He ordered all European ports under his control closed to British ships and further decreed that neutral and French ships would be seized if they visited a British port before entering a continental port (the so-called Continental System).

Great Britain responded to Napoleon with a series of orders-in-council requiring all neutral ships to obtain a licence before they could sail to Europe. Following the victory of Lord Nelson at Trafalgar on 21 October 1805, Great Britain had the sea power to enforce its blockade of France.

For many years the Americans had grappled with the problems of being a neutral nation in the great European war. Tensions mounted as the British began stopping American ships from trading in Europe. Even more vexing was the British practice of searching American vessels for “contraband” (defined by the British as goods they declared illegal) and of searching for deserters who had fled the harsh conditions of the Royal Navy. Many of these deserters had taken jobs on American ships, but American certificates of citizenship made no impression on the British. Moreover, some British captains even tried to impress (seize) native-born Americans and put them into service on British ships.

These maritime tensions exploded, literally, in 1807 off the shore of Chesapeake Bay. While a British naval squadron was watching the area for French ships, several British sailors deserted and promptly enlisted in the American navy. The captain of the American 38-gun frigate Chesapeake knew that he had deserters on board when HMS Leopard tried to board and search his ship. When the Chesapeake refused to heave to, the 50-gun Leopard opened fire, killing three and injuring 18 of the crew. The British boarded and seized four men. Known as the “ Chesapeake Affair ,” the event outraged even temperate Americans. Several years later, on 1 May 1811, officers from the British ship HMS Guerriere impressed an American sailor from a coastal vessel, causing further tension.

This dispute over maritime rights might have been resolved with diplomacy; in fact, the new British government of Lord Liverpool rescinded the orders-in-council a few days before the US declared war, though the news hadn’t reached America in time. Moreover, not all Americans wanted war with Great Britain, notably the merchants of New England and New York.

However, President James Madison was intrigued by the analysis of Major General Henry Dearborn that in the event of war, Canada would be easy pickings — even that an invasion would be welcomed by the Canadians. Furthermore, the “War Hawks,” a group of Congressmen from the south and west, loudly demanded war. Motivated by Anglophobia and nationalism, these Republicans encouraged war as a means to retaliate against Britain for the economic distress caused by the blockade, and for what they perceived as British support for the First Nations in resisting American expansion into the West. On 18 June 1812, President Madison signed a declaration of war against Great Britain, supported by both the Senate and Congress.

American and British Planning

As American leaders planned their invasion of Canada, they quickly decided that Upper Canada was the most vulnerable to attack. The Atlantic provinces were protected by British sea power, and Lower Canada was protected by its remoteness and by the fortress of Quebec ( see Quebec City in the War of 1812 ). In contrast, Upper Canada seemed to be an easy target. The population was predominantly American, and the province was lightly defended.

Upper Canada was defended by about 1,600 British regulars, formed mostly from the 41st Regiment of Foot and detachments from other units. However, the badly outnumbered British were in fact better prepared than the Americans knew. The 41st Regiment of British regulars had been reinforced by a number of militia units (although their loyalty and reliability was uncertain). The Provincial Marine controlled Lake Ontario . Much of the preparation was thanks to the foresight of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock , administrator of Upper Canada. Brock had a thorough grasp of the challenges of the upcoming conflict and had been preparing for five years, reinforcing fortifications, training militia units and, perhaps most important, developing alliances with the First Nations .

First Nations and Métis Peoples in the War of 1812

Two Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa , implored Indigenous peoples to unite in order to defend their dwindling lands against the growing incursions of American settlers and the United States government. The promise of such an Indigenous state never came to fruition. During negotiations for the Treaty of Ghent (1814) that ended the war, the British tried to bargain for the creation of an Indian Territory, but the American delegates refused to agree.

For Indigenous peoples living in British North America , the War of 1812 marked the end of an era of self-reliance and self-determination. Soon they would become outnumbered by settlers in their own lands. Any social or political influence enjoyed before the war dissipated. Within a generation, the contributions of so many different peoples, working together with their British and Canadian allies against a common foe, would be all but forgotten ( see Indigenous Title and the War of 1812 ).

The British Attack

Sir Isaac Brock was dissatisfied by the number of troops at his disposal, with only some 1,600 regulars in the province. But he was not prepared to simply wait passively for the Americans to act. He believed that a bold military stroke would galvanize the population and encourage First Nations to come to his side. He therefore sent orders to the commanding officer of Fort St. Joseph on Lake Huron to capture a key American post at Michilimackinac Island on 17 July. Nearly 400 Dakota (Sioux) , Menominee, Winnebago, Odawa and Ojibwe warriors, along with 45 British soldiers and some 200 voyageurs (including Métis ) captured the fort quickly and without bloodshed.

Meanwhile, an American force under General William Hull had crossed from Detroit into Canada, forcing Brock to quickly march his men from the town of York to counter the invasion. When he arrived at the British fort at Amherstburg , Brock found that the American invasion force had already withdrawn to Detroit ( see Fort Amherstburg and the War of 1812 ). With the great Shawnee chief Tecumseh at his side, he boldly demanded that Hull surrender Detroit, which the hapless general did on 16 August, in effect giving the British control of Michigan territory and the Upper Mississippi ( see Capture of Detroit, War of 1812 ).

Did You Know? Shawnee war chief Tecumseh (1768–1813) sided with the British, not because he fully trusted them, but because he saw them as a strategic ally with common interests. Tecumseh combined a passionate concern for his people with an acute strategic military sense. During the War of 1812, a large number of Indigenous nations fought under Tecumseh, who gained the alliance of the Potawatomi, Ojibwa , Shawnee, Odawa , Kickapoo and others, though not all groups supported him.

Campaigns in Upper Canada (1812)

At this point Thomas Jefferson’s remark that the capture of Canada was “a mere matter of marching” returned to haunt Washington. Having lost one army at Detroit, the Americans lost another at Queenston Heights (13 October 1812) after their militia refused to cross into Canada, citing the constitutional guarantee that it would not have to fight on foreign soil. (However, during the engagement, Brock was killed — a significant loss to the British and Canadian cause.)

Did You Know? Outnumbered more than 10 to 1, Mohawk chiefs John Norton (Teyoninhokarawen) and John Brant (Ahyonwaeghs) and about 80 other Haudenosaunee and Delaware warriors held back American forces at Queenston Heights for several hours — long enough for reinforcements to arrive so that the British could retain the crucial outpost.

A new American army under William Henry Harrison struggled up from Kentucky to try to retake Detroit. One wing was so badly mauled at Frenchtown (22 January 1813) by a force of British, Canadians and First Nations under Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Procter , that further attempts at invasion that winter were abandoned. The only Americans in Canada were prisoners of war.

With the death of Brock, British strategy was to act defensively and allow the invaders to make mistakes. Governor Sir George Prevost conserved his thin forces carefully, keeping a strong garrison at Quebec and sending reinforcements to Upper Canada only when additional troops arrived from overseas.

Coloured Corps

The Coloured Corps was a militia company of Black men raised during the War of 1812 by Richard Pierpoint , a formerly enslaved man from Bondu (Senegal) and military veteran of the American Revolution. Created in Upper Canada , where enslavement had been limited in 1793 , the corps was composed of free and enslaved Black men. Many were veterans of the American Revolution , in which they fought for the British ( see Black Loyalists ). The Coloured Corps fought in the Battle of Queenston Heights and the Battle of Fort George before it was attached to the Royal Engineers as a construction company.

The company was disbanded on 24 March 1815, following the end of the war. In claiming rewards for their service, many faced adversity and discrimination . Sergeant William Thompson was informed he “must go and look for his pay himself,” while Richard Pierpoint , then in his 70s, was denied his request for passage home to Africa in lieu of a land grant. When grants were distributed in 1821, veterans of the Coloured Corps received only 100 acres, half that of their White counterparts. Many veterans did not settle the land they were granted because it was of poor quality. Despite these inequities, the Coloured Corps defended Canada honourably, setting the precedent for the formation of Black units in future ( see The Coloured Corps: Black Canadians and the War of 1812 ).

Campaigns in Upper Canada (1813)

As the campaign of 1813 opened, an American flotilla of 16 ships landed at York (now Toronto ), the capital of Upper Canada . The Americans briefly occupied the town, burning the public buildings and seizing valuable naval supplies destined for Lake Erie ( see The Sacking of York ); however, the British frustrated the American plan to appropriate a half-completed warship at York by burning it instead. Had the Americans succeeded, they might have gained greater control over Lake Ontario . As it was, neither side totally controlled that lake for the balance of the war.

The Americans soon abandoned York and on 27 May 1813 their fleet seized Fort George at the mouth of the Niagara River . While this was the bleakest period of the war for the British, the military situation was not irretrievable. The Americans did not take advantage of their success, and failed to immediately pursue General John Vincent and his army as they retreated from Fort George to Burlington Heights. The American forces did not set out from Fort George until 2 June, allowing the British time to recover and prepare. On the night of 5 June 1813, Vincent’s men attacked the American forces at Stoney Creek . In a fierce battle, the British dislodged the Americans, capturing two of their generals. The dispirited American force retired towards Niagara.

The Americans suffered another defeat three weeks later at Beaver Dams , where some 600 men were captured by a force of 300 Kahnawake and a further 100 Mohawk warriors led by Captain William Kerr ( see Mohawk of the St. Lawrence Valley ). The British had been warned of the American attack by Laura Secord , a Loyalist whose husband had been wounded at the Battle of Queenston Heights .

Did You Know? Laura Secord walked 30 km from Queenston to Beaver Dams, near Thorold , to warn James FitzGibbon that the Americans were planning to attack his outpost. Secord took a circuitous route through inhospitable terrain to avoid American sentries on her trek and was helped by a group of Mohawk warriors she encountered along the way.

Finally, worn down by sickness, desertion and the departure of short-term soldiers, the American command evacuated Fort George on 10 December and quit Canada. On leaving, the militia burned the town of Newark (Niagara-on-the-Lake) , an act that drove the British to brutal retaliation at Buffalo. These incendiary reprisals continued until Washington itself was burned by the British the following August ( see The Burning of Washington ).

War on the Western Flank (1813–14)

The Americans fared better on the western flank. The British tried and failed to take William Henry Harrison’s stronghold at Fort Meigs on the Maumee River. A struggle for control of Lake Erie followed ( see War on the Lakes ). The two rival fleets, both built of green lumber on the shores of the lake, met 10 September 1813 at Put-in-Bay . The British were hampered by the American seizure of naval supplies at York the previous spring and by the loss, early in the battle, of several senior officers. American commodore Oliver Hazard Perry , a bold seaman, used unorthodox tactics to turn defeat into victory and become the first man in history to capture an entire British fleet.

The Americans gained dominance over the upper Great Lakes and Lake Erie in effect became an American lake. The British army abandoned Detroit and retreated up the Thames River . Henry Procter delayed fatally in his retreat, however, and Harrison caught up with him at the Battle of the Thames (Moraviantown) . There, the exhausted British regulars and First Nations warriors were routed and scattered. Procter fled and Tecumseh was killed. The defeat was not fatal to the province, as Harrison could not follow up his victory (his Kentuckians were eager to get back to their farms at harvest time), but it effectively ended the First Nations alliance.

On Lake Huron , the American fleet searched for British supply vessels, which led to the sinking of the Nancy ; they also razed Sault Ste. Marie on 21 July 1814, and attempted to recapture Fort Michilimackinac ( see Battle of Mackinac Island ). The British regained a presence on the lake in early September with the capture of the Tigress and Scorpion .

The War in Lower Canada (1813)

America forces also invaded Lower Canada during the war. The Americans could potentially have struck a mortal blow against the British in Lower Canada, but their invading armies, which outnumbered the British 10–1, were led with almost incredible ineptitude by Generals James Wilkinson and Wade Hampton. A miscellaneous force of British regulars, Voltigeurs , militia and First Nations harassed the advancing Americans and turned the invasion back at Châteauguay (25–26 October 1813) under Lieutenant-Colonel Charles de Salaberry , and at Crysler’s Farm (near Cornwall, ON ) on 11 November 1813, under Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph Wanton Morrison .

The Canadian Voltigeurs was a volunteer corps raised and commanded by Charles-Michel d’Irumberry de Salaberry , a British army officer born in Beauport , Lower Canada . The Voltigeurs were initially assigned to defend the Eastern Townships .

In November 1812, they faced American Major General Dearborn and his 6,000-strong force, who invaded the region from Plattsburgh. De Salaberry rushed with a company of Voltigeurs and 230 Kahnawake Mohawk warriors to staunch the invasion at Lacolle . While they could not halt the invasion, days of skirmishing increased the cost, and Dearborn retreated days later.

In the spring of 1813, the Voltigeur units split, with some bolstered the defences at Kingston and others participating in the failed assault on Sackets Harbor .

Last Invasion of Upper Canada (1814)

The following year, 1814, the Americans again invaded Upper Canada , crossing the Niagara River at Buffalo. They easily seized Fort Erie on 3 July, and on 5 July turned back a rash attack by the British under General Phineas Riall at Chippawa .

The whole Niagara campaign came to a climax with the bloodiest battle of the war, at Lundy’s Lane on 25 July. Fought in the pitch dark of a sultry night by exhausted troops who could not tell friend from foe, it ended in a stalemate.

The American invasion was now effectively spent, and they withdrew to Fort Erie . Here they badly trounced the forces of the new British commander, Lieutenant-General Gordon Drummond , when he attempted a night attack (14–15 August 1814). With both sides exhausted, a three-month standoff followed ( see Siege of Fort Erie ). Finally, on 5 November, the Americans again withdrew across the Niagara River , effectively ending the war in Upper Canada.

Invading the United States (1814)

On the Atlantic front, Nova Scotia ’s Lieutenant-Governor, Sir John Sherbrooke , led a force from Halifax into Maine, capturing Castine on 1 September 1814. By the middle of September, British forces held much of the Maine coast, which was returned to the US only with the signing of the peace treaty in December 1814.

The most formidable effort by the British in 1814 was the invasion of northern New York, in which Governor Sir George Prevost led 11,000 British veterans of the Napoleonic Wars to Plattsburgh on Lake Champlain . However, Prevost was hesitant to attack, and the defeat of the British fleet in Plattsburgh Bay by the American commodore, Thomas Macdonough, on 11 September led Prevost to withdraw his troops.

The Treaty of Ghent

Prevost’s decision to withdraw from American territory affected peace negotiations in Ghent, which had begun in August 1814. Had Prevost ’s invasion succeeded, much of upper New York State might be Canadian today. However, his withdrawal forced the British peace negotiators at Ghent to lower their demands and accept the status quo. When the treaty was signed on Christmas Eve 1814, all conquests were to be restored and disputes over boundaries were deferred to joint commissions ( see Treaty of Ghent ).

Hostilities continued after the peace treaty was signed, however. The last battle of the war is often cited as the Battle of New Orleans (8 January 1815), but British and American forces also clashed on 11 February 1815 at Fort Bowyer on Mobile Bay. Several naval engagements also followed the signing of the treaty, including the final battle of the war, between the US sloop Peacock and East India cruiser Nautilus in the Indian Ocean, four-and-a-half months after the peace treaty was signed.

Who Won or Lost the War of 1812?

Washington had expected the largely American population of Upper Canada to throw off the “British yoke” as soon as its army crossed the border. This did not happen. Lured northwards by free land and low taxes , most settlers wanted to be left alone. Thus the British and Loyalist elite were able to set Canadians on a different course from that of their former enemy.

Several units of the Canadian militia actively participated in the war; this included the Coloured Corps , a small corps of Black Canadians that fought at the Battle of Queenston Heights ( see also Richard Pierpoint Heritage Minute ). Although the majority of the fighting was done by British regulars and First Nations warriors, a myth developed that civilian soldiers had won the war, and this helped to germinate the seeds of nationalism in the Canadas.

Canada owes its present shape to negotiations that grew out of the peace, while the war itself — or the myths created by the war — gave Canadians their first sense of community and laid the foundation for their future nationhood. To this extent the Canadians were the real winners of the War of 1812.

For the Americans, the outcome was more ambiguous. Since the issues of impressment and maritime rights were not resolved in the peace treaty , the war could be considered a failure; however, the Americans had some spectacular victories at sea, which were indicators of the future potential of American power. The war was certainly a failure for the “War Hawks,” who wanted to annex, or take over, Canada — the war proved that this was not militarily feasible. The conclusions that the war was a “second war of independence” or a war of honour and respect are less easy to judge.

If the winners are qualified, the losers are easier to identify. The death of Tecumseh and the defeat of the First Nations at the Battle of the Thames broke apart Tecumseh’s confederacy ( see First Nations and Métis Peoples in the War of 1812 ). Similarly, in the related defeat of the Creek Nation, any hope of halting American expansion into First Nations territory effectively ended. While in Canada the First Nations fared better in preserving their land and culture, in the end the British abandoned their Indigenous allies in the peace, just as they had several times before.

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Further Reading

Pierre Berton, The Invasion of Canada (1980) and Flames Across the Border (1981); G.F.G. Stanley, The War of 1812: Land Operations (1983); J. MacKay Hitsman, The Incredible War of 1812: A Military History (1965, revised and updated by Donald E. Graves, 1999); Carl Benn, The Iroquois in the War of 1812 (1998); Barry M. Gough, Fighting Sail on Lake Huron and Georgian Bay: The War of 1812 and Its Aftermath (2002); Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (1989) and Don't Give Up the Ship! Myths of the War of 1812 (2006); Robert Malcomson, A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812 (2003), and Lords of the Lake: The Naval War on Lake Ontario, 1812-1814 (2001); John Sugden, Tecumseh's Last Stand (1990); W.B. Turner, The War of 1812: The War that Both Sides Won (2000) and British Generals in the War of 1812: High Command in the Canadas (1999); George F.G. Stanley, La guerre de 1812 : les opérations terrestres (1984); Benjamin Sulte, Histoire de la milice canadienne-française, 1760-1897 (1897); Pierre Berton, L'invasion du Canada : à l'assaut du Québec, tome 2, 1813-1814 (traduit de l'anglais par Michèle Venet et Jean Lévesque, c 1981); M. Guitard, La vie sociale des miliciens de la Bataille-de-la-Châteauguay (1983); Jacques Lacoursière, Histoire populaire du Québec (1985).

Pierre Berton, The Invasion of Canada (1980) and Flames Across the Border (1981); G.F.G. Stanley, The War of 1812: Land Operations (1983); J. MacKay Hitsman, The Incredible War of 1812: A Military History (1965, revised and updated by Donald E. Graves, 1999); Carl Benn, The Iroquois in the War of 1812 (1998); Barry M. Gough, Fighting Sail on Lake Huron and Georgian Bay: The War of 1812 and Its Aftermath (2002); Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (1989) and Don't Give Up the Ship! Myths of the War of 1812 (2006); Robert Malcomson, A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812 (2003), and Lords of the Lake: The Naval War on Lake Ontario, 1812-1814 (2001); John Sugden, Tecumseh's Last Stand (1990); W.B. Turner, The War of 1812: The War that Both Sides Won (2000) and British Generals in the War of 1812: High Command in the Canadas (1999).

External Links

La guerre de 1812 Biographies des individus et des événements marquants de la guerre de 1812. Par le Dictionnaire biographique du Canada.

L'exposition virtuelle 1812 L'expérience de la guerre de 1812 en ligne de perspectives canadiennes et américaines multiples. Par le Musée canadien de la guerre.

War of 1812 monument unveiled on Parliament Hill An article on the debut of the War of 1812 Monument in Ottawa featuring numerous photos and a video clip with artist Adrienne Alison explaining the monument’s features. From the Ottawa Citizen.

The War of 1812 Explore the major events and issues of the War of 1812 through the biographies of Canadians who served and sacrificed in that conflict. From the Dictionary of Canadian Biography.

Cartographier la Guerre de 1812 Un guide pédagogique illustré à la guerre de 1812 de la Association d'études canadiennes.

Lieu historique national de la Bataille-de-la-Châteauguay Un site Web sur l'une des batailles pivotales de la guerre de 1812. Par parcs Canada.

Pierre Berton's War Of 1812 Pierre Berton's compelling account of the War of 1812 from the perspectives of both common soldiers and the generals who led them. From indigo.ca.

GUERRE DE 1812 Une chronologie de la guerre de 1812 par Historica Canada.

La guerre de 1812 Consultez les documents d'époque et d'autres objets liés à la guerre de 1812 en Ontario. Des Archives de l'Ontario site.

1812: One War, Four Perspectives Experience the War of 1812 on-line from multiple Canadian and American perspectives. From the Canadian War Museum.

Mapping the War of 1812 A detailed and profusely illustrated teaching guide to the War of 1812 from the Association of Canadian Studies.

Causes and Events of the War of 1812: A Timeline A chronology of key political, military, and European events in the War of 1812. Also check this extensive site for details about individual military conflicts and prominent personalities in the War of 1812.

War of 1812 Check out this interactive timeline of the War of 1812 from Historica Canada.

War of 1812 Check out vintage documents and other artifacts related to the War of 1812 in Ontario. From the Archives of Ontario website.

Héros de la guerre de 1812 Biographies des héros et des héroïnes de la guerre de 1812. Par le site Web du gouvernement du Canada.

Recommended

Arms and the Men of the War of 1812

The coloured corps: black canadians and the war of 1812.

10 Facts: The War of 1812

The War of 1812 is one of the most overlooked conflicts in the history of the United States. Here are ten facts you need to know about the "Forgotten War." 

Fact #1: The war was fought between Great Britain and the United States from 1812-1815.

The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Great Britain backed by their Canadian colonies and Native American allies. Only 29 years after the American War for Independence, Great Britain, and the United States again found themselves embroiled in conflict. On June 1, 1812, American President James Madison sent a list of grievances to Congress, and four days later they granted a declaration of war. Madison signed the declaration on June 18, 1812, officially initiating the war. The war spanned two years and eight months, ending in February of 1815

Fact #2: There were many reasons Great Britain and the United States went to war.

The War of 1812 was the result of mounting tensions and global political conflict. The American merchant marine had doubled over the first decade of the 19th century, and British citizens genuinely feared the possibility of being surpassed by American merchant shipping. In 1807, as part of their war with France, Britain introduced trade restrictions prohibiting neutral countries to trade with France. The United States saw this as a blatant violation of international trade law, specifically targeting America’s growing economy. Along with restricting American trade, the British were actively seizing American ships and sailors. For years Britain had been capturing American soldiers and forcing them into serving in the royal navy, this practice was known as impressment. The British government justified this practice by arguing that British citizens could not become naturalized American citizens and therefore took many American ships hostage, seizing British-born American citizens hostage forcing them into the royal navy.

The origins of conflict did not just exist among the maritime practices of both countries; it was also a conflict of manifest destiny. The British supported Native American tribes in the Northwest Territory, at the same time many Americans wanted to expand westward. Madison’s predecessor, Thomas Jefferson , had instilled within the American populous that the continent was theirs for the taking.

Fact #3: Neither side was prepared for war.

Although many Americans and Congress had petitioned for war against the British, America was unprepared for conflict. The entirety of the United States military at the time consisted of only around 12,000 men. Despite Congress authorizing the expansion of the military, harsh disciplinary conditions and low pay created a lack of growth within the United States military.

The British were similarly underprepared. The British were already embroiled in a war with Napoleon, with many soldiers fighting in Spain and Portugal. As a result of the war with France, the vast majority of their navy was held up in the blockade of France.  While Britain had 6,034 troops stationed in Canada, the British could not spare many more from their war with France.

Fact #4: President James Madison believed the United States could easily capture Canada.

Madison’s first goal in the war was to take Canada. Madison, along with many Americans, assumed capturing Canada would not be difficult. Thomas Jefferson had once remarked, “[The] [a]cquisition of Canada will be a mere matter of marching.” However, the situation Americans found in Canada was not what was expected. The 7,000 American soldiers involved in the invasion were untrained, poorly led, and self-serving. The invasion was a complete failure. Within only a few months, the British pushed the Americans back and taken all of what was then the Michigan territory.

Fact #5: The War of 1812 inspired the Star-Spangled Banner.

While negotiating the exchange of prisoners, Francis Scott Key was held on a British ship for the entirety of the Battle of Baltimore. From his place on the ship, he could see the American Fort McHenry, which became the center of the British’s attacks. Key nervously watched hoping to see the American flag flying at the end of the bombardment, signifying that American troops still held the fort. When the attack concluded, the sight of the large American flag flying above the fort inspired Key, and on the back of a letter, he composed the first draft of a poem titled “Defence of Fort M’Henry.” Following the war, the poem was set to music by John Stafford Smith. In 1931, President Herbert Hoover officially acknowledged “The Star-Spangled Banner” as America’s national anthem.

Fact #6: Many famous Americans fought and served during the War of 1812.

Many prominent leaders in the war later became prominent Americans. William Henry Harrison , the famous hero of Tippecanoe in 1811, gained more fame from the War of 1812, leading successful campaigns against the British and Native Americans in the Northwest. The Whigs used his reputation as a rugged general and frontiersman, despite actually being from the elite Virginia aristocracy, to secure a presidential bid in 1841, but after only a month in office, he died of pneumonia.

General Winfield Scott would first gain military experience in the War of 1812, fighting in the Niagara frontier. After experiencing the ill-trained citizen militias of the War of 1812, he worked to establish a permanent trained American army. In 1821 Scott wrote General Regulations for the Army , the first American set of systematic military bylaws. He later commanded the campaign to take  Mexico City during the Mexican American War, along with designing the Anaconda plan for the Civil War.  

Perhaps the American who gained the most fame from the war was Andrew Jackson . Jackson served as a major general of the Tennessee militia during the War of 1812, first fighting in the Creek War. After accepting the Creek surrender in 1814, he was given command of New Orleans and promoted to General. At the Battle of New Orleans in January of 1815, after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed, Jackson decisively stopped the British. This victory made Jackson a national hero; he became known as the savior of New Orleans. His national recognition and military record helped him win the contested presidential election of 1828.

Fact #7: The United States Capitol, Washington D.C., was burned during the war.

After the Battle of Bladensburg , British General Robert Ross captured the nation’s capital and burned down essential centers of American government. Specifically targeting the Executive Mansion (the White House) and the Capitol Building, British soldiers set the city ablaze. The fires were put out by a massive thunderstorm less than a day later, and the British evacuated the city. The British held D.C. for only 26 hours; however, it is the only time a foreign enemy has captured Washington D.C.

Fact #8: The Treaty of Ghent officially ended the war. 

The Treaty of Ghent was signed on December 24, 1814, although not officially ratified until February 17, 1815, officially ending the war. Despite Britain making clear gains during the war, many within the British government and military, including the prime minister and the Duke of Wellington, argued for a peace treaty without demands for territory. The Duke of Wellington argued that while they could gain territory eventually, the current “state of [our] military operations, however creditable, does not entitle [us] to demand any.” The Americans similarly wanted a conclusion to the war, as the conflict had placed America in massive amounts of foreign debt. Both sides agreed to an essentially status quo ante bellum agreement, restoring borders to how they were before the war. While America did not secure its maritime rights, after the British war with Napoleon concluded, the Royal Navy did not require the sheer amount of human resources they did during the war, and the practice of impressment came to an unofficial end.

Fact #9: Nearly every group involved left the war victorious.

In the wake of the war, both American and British officials and civilians were satisfied with the end of the war. Americans had won the final battle of the war, the Battle of New Orleans, and saw it as a decisive defeat cementing America as a truly independent nation. While, many in Great Britain saw this war as a part of the more significant wars with the French, which the British decisively won at Waterloo. Canadians also found a sense of pride in the war. Having survived the American invasion, it created a renewed sense of Canadian pride. The only group who genuinely lost the war was Native Americans, who lost their powerful British allies and would soon be overwhelmed by American settlers.

Fact #10: Many of the battlefields from the War of 1812 still exist today.

The War of 1812 has been called “America’s Forgotten War.” It is studied much less than the American Revolution or the Civil War, as a result, many of its battlefields are ignored for development. In 2007 the National Parks Service identified 214 battlefields and other important sites to the War of 1812. However, development has placed these sites in danger, the National Parks service identified that 50% are destroyed or fragmented and 25% of these sites would be destroyed in the next decade.

Battle of New Orleans: The Last Battle of the War of 1812

The Founding of New Orleans

Naval Engagements Around New Orleans during the War of 1812

We're launching interpretation of African American history at 7 key battlefields, located in 5 states, spanning 3 wars.

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Compiled Service Records

Pre-World War I U.S. Army Pension and Bounty Land Applications

Genealogical Records of the War of 1812 , article discussing Pension and Bounty Land Warrant Application Files, Military Service Records, and Naval and Marine Corps Records. Written by Stuart L. Butler, and published in Prologue 23:4 (Winter 1991).

War of 1812 Discharge Certificates , learn about discharge certificates and other records relating to the discharge of soldiers from the Regular Army, 1792-1815.

Genealogical fallout from the War of 1812 , an article on Seamen's Protection Certificates written by Ruth Priest Dixon and published in Prologue 24:1 (Spring 1992).

Records about impressed seamen, 1793-1814 , learn about records relating to the repatriation of American citizens impressed by foreign powers from the end of the American Revolution to the conclusion of the War of 1812.

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