education in uk topic

Ten ideas to improve England’s education system, according to conversations with the experts

• Ravi Gurumurthy

About Nesta

Nesta is an innovation foundation. For us, innovation means turning bold ideas into reality and changing lives for the better. We use our expertise, skills and funding in areas where there are big challenges facing society.

London, 4 September 2024 - A new report sets out 10 ways to improve the education system in England. The ideas are drawn from consultation with leading experts with a focus on how to improve outcomes for children and young people, while reducing inequalities.

The report is published today by Nesta, a research and innovation think tank, as part of its UK Options 2040 programme. In total around 30 experts from a variety of professional backgrounds and perspectives contributed to the report.

• Create a professional development system for early-years practitioners. This idea proposes a system for early-years professionals similar to the one in place for school teachers. The goal is to raise the quality of early-years education, particularly for disadvantaged children, by promoting evidence-based practice. It would involve establishing a core body of expertise and training content, delivered through approved providers. Funding and regulation changes would be necessary for adoption, including potentially extending the Teacher Training Entitlement to early-years practitioners
• Build integrated family support services . This idea suggests a long-term plan for integrated family support services for families with young children, building upon the Sure Start and Family Hubs models. It emphasises collaboration across government departments and local partnerships to address the multifaceted needs of families. Data and evaluation would be central to the system, ensuring services are constantly evolving to meet user needs and demonstrating impact.
• Establish a single governance structure for schools . This idea proposes blending the academy and maintained school models into a single structure. Once this has been achieved, government could pilot the integration of other education phases, like further education and early years. This shift aims to address the challenges of the dual system, including disjointed support services, inefficiency and complexity. The transition would involve redesigning the regulatory framework, expanding the supply of high-performing trusts and a phased approach – starting with secondary schools.
• Make teaching a 21st century career through innovative working practices. This idea aims to make teaching more attractive, keeping good teachers in the profession for longer. It suggests backing school trusts to pilot and scale effective approaches, with a focus on workload reduction and flexibility. It would involve upskilling school leaders in these practices, investing in technology as an enabler, and incorporating staff retention as a key performance metric. An example of this is Dixons Academies Trust’s 9 day fortnight.
• Decouple Education, Health and Care Plans (EHCPs) from mainstream schools and retire the generic label of ‘SEND’. Devolve funding currently being spent on EHCPs directly to schools or trusts. This idea aims to address the crisis in the SEND system, which is failing to get the right resources to the children who need them, and is adversarial, bureaucratic and unsustainable. Instead, it advocates for a system where mainstream schools become more inclusive, and are able to meet a wide variety of learning needs. This would be enabled by high-quality teaching, strong professional development and strong leadership from schools and trusts. A more rigorous, evidence-based system for assessment and diagnosis, similar to NICE in healthcare, is also proposed, as well as standards to ensure teachers understand what works to meet different needs.
• Creating 'safe phones' for under-16s to protect mental health. This idea suggests creating a two-tier phone market to mitigate negative impacts of smartphones on young people. This would involve introducing a new range of regulated ‘safe phones’ for under-16s, offering essential functionality like calls, maps, and educational apps – while restricting social media and ‘addictive’ features. Legislation would be required to establish this system, including licensing for manufacturers, age verification mechanisms, and potentially a phased rollout based on birth year.
• Provide quality enrichment activities to all young people . This idea aims to provide all young people in England with access to high-quality enrichment activities from 8am to 6pm, Monday to Friday. Schools would be responsible for encouraging uptake among their pupils, and local authorities would have the mandate and appropriate resources to meet the demand. The proposal builds upon the previous extended services in schools programme, with a focus on addressing the 'enrichment gap' between disadvantaged pupils and their peers.
• Prioritise kinship care in children's social care. This idea proposes making kinship care the primary option considered when local authorities in England are concerned about a child's welfare, as proposed in the independent review of children’s social care The goal is to shift from costly, late intervention services to early, preventative support that aims to keep children within their families. This involves granting families the legal right to explore alternatives to formal care, such as family group decision-making. It also includes consistent financial support to kinship carers through an allowance.
• Revive youth apprenticeships to boost skills. This idea aims to boost skills and reduce youth unemployment by encouraging employers to take on more young apprentices, as proposed in the 2012 Richard Review. It suggests using Skills England to refocus the apprenticeship levy to prioritise youth apprenticeships in occupations suited for younger workers. This would involve identifying specific occupational standards eligible for levy funding,and making end-point assessments standalone qualifications so that young people would achieve the diploma by completing an apprenticeship, whereas adults would complete only the training they needed to pass the EPA.
• Introduce exit qualifications in higher education . This idea proposes introducing exit qualifications at the end of each year of university study in England, effectively allowing students to earn a Level 4 qualification after year one and a Level 5 after year two. This would increase flexibility, allowing students to enter the workforce with recognised qualifications or potentially switch courses or institutions without losing credit. It would also create a stronger market for Level 4 and 5 qualifications, addressing skills gaps and potentially revitalising further education colleges.

The publication will be followed by Policy Live (Thursday 12 September) , a new event focused on exploring potential policy solutions to some of the biggest challenges faced by the UK. Organised by Nesta and BIT (The Behavioural Insights Team) the one-day programme will convene influential leaders and emerging voices from across governments, the civil service, NGOs and the private sector.

Notes to editors

• For more information on the analysis or to speak to one of the experts involved, please contact Kieran Lowe, Media Lead, on 020 7438 2576 or [email protected] .
• The ideas are set out in more detail in the ‘ Education: the ideas ’. The ideas in the report are not necessarily endorsed by Nesta.
• We are grateful to Professor David Halpern for his contribution to this work and Lord Gus O’Donnell for sponsoring the UK 2040 Options project, and Matt Hood OBE for his guidance and expertise during the development of this report. We also thank the following for their time and insight on these ideas: Dr Sara Bonetti (NDNA), Helen Burrows, Mary Curnock Cook CBE, Naomi Eisenstadt CB, Claire Fernyhough (Smartphone Free Childhood), Dr Julian Grenier CBE (EEF), Daisy Greenwell (Smartphone Free Childhood), Ben Kingsley, Eva Kolker (BIT), Doug Lemov (Teach Like a Champion), Josh Macalister OBE MP, Damian McBeath (John Wallis Academy), Kelly McBeath (John Wallis Academy), Laura McInerney (TeacherTapp), Loic Menzies (University of Cambridge), Ndidi Okezie (UK Youth), Carey Oppenheim (Nuffield Foundation), Will Orr-Ewing, Baz Ramaiah (CfEY), Tom Rees (Ormiston Academies Trust), Daniel Sandford Smith (Gatsby Foundation), Luke Sparkes (Dixons Academies Trust), Tom Symons (Nesta), David Thomas OBE (Axiom Maths), Nick Worsley (EEF), Will Yates (Public First).

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Education, England and Wales: Census 2021

Usual residents aged 16 years and over who have academic, vocational, or professional qualifications, as well as the number of schoolchildren and full-time students, Census 2021 data.

This is the latest release. View previous releases

Contact: Email Beth Waddington

Release date: 10 January 2023

Next release: To be announced

Table of contents

• Main points
• Schoolchildren and full-time students
• Highest level of qualification
• How highest level of qualification varied across England and Wales
• Future publications
• Education, England and Wales: data
• Measuring the data
• Strengths and limitations
• Related links
• Cite this statistical bulletin

Print this Statistical bulletin

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1. Main points

This page is also available in Welsh (Cymraeg) (PDF, 386KB) .

There were 11.5 million schoolchildren and full-time students (20.4%) in 2021 across England and Wales, out of a total 56.4 million usual residents aged five years and over. 

More than 3 in 10 usual residents aged 16 years and over had Level 4 or above qualifications (for example, Higher National Certificate, Higher National Diploma, Bachelor's degree and post-graduate qualifications); this was 33.8%, or 16.4 million people.

In 2021, almost one in five (18.2%, 8.8 million) reported having no qualifications.

Across England and Wales, apprenticeships were the highest qualification for 5.3% of people (2.6 million).

The region with the highest percentage of the population with Level 4 or above qualifications was London with 46.7% (3.3 million).

Tell us what you think about this publication by answering a few questions .

2. Schoolchildren and full-time students

Census data can be used to identify the number of schoolchildren and students (aged five years and over) in full-time education. This is one way of looking at education across the two nations.

Across England and Wales, there were 11.5 million schoolchildren and full-time students in 2021, out of a total 56.4 million usual residents aged five years and over.

The overall number of schoolchildren and full-time students aged five years and over has increased since 2011, when it was 10.8 million. However, as a proportion of all usual residents aged five years and over, the percentage in 2021 (20.4%) is very similar to 2011 (20.5%).

Of the total number, 10.9 million schoolchildren and full-time students were in England (20.4% of the usual resident population aged five years and over) and 588,000 were in Wales (19.9%).

Figure 1: The number of schoolchildren and full-time students in 2021 has increased since 2011 in England and Wales

Schoolchildren and full-time students aged five years and over, 2011 and 2021, england and wales, download the data.

The census counts students at their term-time address. There was some evidence of changes to the term-time population resulting from the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Read more about how the ONS ensured an accurate estimate of students at their term-time address .

3. Highest level of qualification

Census 2021 helps us to understand education in England and Wales through usual residents' highest level of qualification.

Residents of England and Wales aged 16 years and over (48.6 million) were asked to record any qualifications (including academic, vocational, and professional qualifications) they had achieved in England, Wales or worldwide. This is used to calculate the highest level of qualification (so, the highest level of qualification that an individual reported irrespective of previous qualifications listed) using the following categories:

no qualifications: no formal qualifications

Level 1: one to four GCSE passes (grade A* to C or grade 4 and above) and any other GCSEs at other grades, or equivalent qualifications

Level 2: five or more GCSE passes (grade A* to C or grade 4 and above) or equivalent qualifications

apprenticeships

Level 3: two or more A Levels or equivalent qualifications

Level 4 or above: Higher National Certificate, Higher National Diploma, Bachelor's degree, or post-graduate qualifications

other qualifications, of unknown level

For equivalent qualifications, see Measuring the data .

Across England and Wales, 33.8% of usual residents aged 16 years and over (16.4 million) indicated that their highest level of qualification was at Level 4 or above.

The second most common category was no qualifications (18.2%, 8.8 million).

Apprenticeships were the highest qualification for 5.3% (2.6 million) of people.

Although highest level of qualification is broadly comparable between 2011 and 2021, there are caveats. The categories remain the same as they were in 2011 and are derived in the same way, however the way the questions were structured and how the respondent was routed in the qualification questions changed substantially from 2011. For more information, see our Qualifications question development for Census 2021 article . These changes to the collection methodology mean that a reasonable proportion of respondents will have identified a different qualification level than they did in 2011 even though they still hold the same qualifications. Therefore, any change in qualification levels when compared with 2011 will be partly a result of the methodology changes and be partly indicative of real change. As such, we advise interpreting these with caution, avoid drawing conclusions from the differences or using them to inform planning or evaluate policies.

Figure 2: In 2021, the most common highest level of qualification was at Level 4 or above across England and Wales

Highest level of qualification, usual residents aged 16 years and over, 2011 and 2021, england and wales.

• The structure and content of the Census 2021 questions on qualifications were largely different from those in the 2011 Census. These changes partly caused the differences over the decade. Take care when comparing highest level of qualification in 2011 with 2021; figures are for reference purposes only.

4. How highest level of qualification varied across England and Wales

England had a higher percentage of people who indicated their highest level of qualification was Level 4 or above (33.9%, 15.6 million), compared with Wales (31.5%, 807,000).

Conversely, Wales had a higher proportion of people indicating no qualifications (19.9%, 510,000) than England (18.1%, 8.3 million).

Level 4 or above qualifications, and no qualifications, in England

In England, the region with the highest proportion of people with Level 4 or above qualifications was London (46.7%, 3.3 million). The percentage in London was considerably higher than in the next highest region, the South East (35.8%, 2.7 million). In particular, the local authorities of the City of London (74.2%, 6,000) and Wandsworth (62.6%, 171,000) had the highest proportion of people with Level 4 or above qualifications.

The region with the lowest proportion of people with Level 4 or above qualifications was the North East (28.6%, 622,000), whereas the region with the highest proportion of people with no qualifications was the West Midlands (21.1%, 1.0 million). The local authority with the highest proportion of people reporting no qualifications was Sandwell (28.9%, 77,000). This was followed by Boston (27.6%, 16,000) and Leicester (26.7%, 78,000). The local authority with the lowest proportion of people reporting no qualifications was the City of London (6.6%, 500).

Level 4 or above qualifications, and no qualifications, in Wales

In Wales, the proportion of people with Level 4 or above qualifications was highest in Cardiff (40.0%, 119,000), and Monmouthshire (39.4%, 31,000) and lowest in Blaenau Gwent (21.6%, 12,000), and Merthyr Tydfil (25.0%, 12,000).

Conversely, the proportion of people with no qualifications was highest in Blaenau Gwent (27.9%, 15,000). The local authority with the lowest proportion of people reporting no qualifications was Ceredigion (14.7%, 9,000).

Apprenticeships in England and Wales

In England, 5.3% (2.4 million) of people reported an apprenticeship as their highest level of qualification. This was slightly lower than in Wales (5.6%, 143,000).

Across the regions of England, the proportion of people reporting an apprenticeship as their highest level of qualification, ranged from 3.2% (228,000) in London to 6.6% (145,000) in the North East.

Across both England and Wales, the local authorities with the largest proportion of people reporting an apprenticeship as their highest level of qualification were Barrow-in-Furness (10.9%, 6,000), Scarborough (8.1%, 7,000) and Copeland (8.1%, 5,000). In Wales, the highest proportion was in Flintshire (6.6%, 8,000), followed by the Isle of Anglesey (6.6%, 4,000).

To compare how qualification levels varied across local authorities in England and Wales, use our interactive map. In addition, we have created an index score, which is used to summarise how well-qualified people in an area are (using the range of qualification levels) relative to other areas. However, if you want to compare the percentage of people who hold any of the specific classification levels (for example, Level 4 or above) then you can change to this option.

Figure 3: Highest level of qualification varies across local authorities

Highest level of qualification, usual residents aged 16 years and over: index score ranked and percentage distribution, 2021, local authorities in england and wales.

• The highest level of qualification index score is a summary measure that can be used to compare how highly qualified population groups are. It assigns every individual aged 16 years and over a value based on their highest level of qualification, excluding those whose highest level of qualification was unknown. The index score is then the average value of all individuals in the selected area. The index score was used to rank local authorities from least highly qualified to most highly qualified. This ranking is for relative comparison and should be used alongside the percentage of people in the area who reported each of the different highest level of qualification categories for the full picture.

5. Future publications

More detailed data and analysis on education will be published in the coming months, alongside the release of multivariate data. Read more about our education analysis plans and the release plans for Census 2021 more generally.

6. Education, England and Wales: data

Highest level of qualification Dataset | Released 10 January 2023 This dataset provides Census 2021 estimates that classify usual residents aged 16 years and over in England and Wales by their highest level of qualification. The estimates are as at Census Day, 21 March 2021.

Schoolchildren and full-time students Dataset | Released 10 January 2023 This dataset provides Census 2021 estimates that classify all schoolchildren and full-time students in England and Wales. The estimates are as at Census Day, 21 March 2021.

7. Glossary

Highest qualification.

The highest level of qualification is derived from the question asking people to indicate all qualifications held, or their nearest equivalent.

This may include foreign qualifications where they were matched to the closest UK equivalent.

In full-time education

Indicates whether a person aged five years and over was in full-time education on Census Day, 21 March 2021. This includes schoolchildren and adults in full-time education.

8. Measuring the data

Equivalent qualifications.

The equivalent qualifications for "highest level of qualification" are as follows (please note, this is not an exhaustive list and therefore does not include every possible qualification):

Level 1 and entry level qualifications: any GCSEs at other grades, O levels or CSEs (any grades), Foundation Welsh Baccalaureate, one Advanced Subsidiary (AS) level, NVQ (National Vocational Qualification) level 1, Basic or Essential Skills, skills for life, literacy and numeracy, Level 2 Scottish Vocational qualifications

Level 2 qualifications: five or more GCSEs (A* to C or 9 to 4), O levels (passes), CSEs (grade 1), Intermediate Welsh Baccalaureate, one A level, two to three AS levels, NVQ level 2, Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC) General, City and Guilds Craft, Level 2 Scottish Vocational qualifications

Level 3 qualifications: two or more A levels, four or more AS levels, Advanced Welsh Baccalaureate, NVQ level 3, City and Guilds Advanced Craft, Ordinary National Certificate (ONC), Ordinary National Diploma (OND), BTEC National, International Baccalaureate, Level 3 Scottish Vocational qualifications

Level 4 or above qualifications: degree, foundation degree, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Master's degrees, Higher National Diploma (HND) or Higher National Certificate (HNC), NVQ level 4 or above, professional qualifications (for example, teaching or nursing)

Other: Any other qualifications, equivalent unknown

Highest level of qualification index score

For Census 2021, we use a qualification rank index score to compare how highly qualified population groups are. It converts a person's highest qualification into a single metric and creates an average rank score for the population.

The ranking system is based on the qualification levels attained at different phases of education: secondary education, post-16 further or upper secondary education and higher education.

Rank assigned to qualification levels and types

Rank 4 is the highest rank, and 0 is the lowest.

Higher education qualifications of Level 4 or above.

Upper secondary and advanced further education qualifications at Level 3 and apprenticeships.

Qualifications equivalent to secondary education (Level 2).

Qualifications below secondary education (Level 1 and entry level).

No qualifications.

Please note, apprenticeships data collected by the census did not include the level or type of an apprenticeship. Advanced further education was deemed the best fit overall for traditional trade or craft and modern apprenticeships.

The index score assigns every individual aged 16 years and over in the population a rank based on their highest level of qualification, excluding those whose highest level of qualification is unknown. The index score is then the average rank of all individuals in that population.

The theoretical maximum value for the index score is 4.00, indicating that 100% of individuals in a population have obtained Level 4 or above qualifications. The minimum value for the index score is 0.00, indicating that 100% of individuals in a population have obtained no qualifications.

However, the scores for the index do not always relate directly to the proportion of the population who are highly qualified. For example, a population with a score of 3.0 does not simply have twice the proportion of highly qualified people as a population with a score of 1.5. It is recommended that group order or decile, but not the raw score in isolation, are used in interpreting the index. As the index is a compound summary measure to evaluate differences in raw scores between two population groups, the index must be used in conjunction with the component rank proportions. For example, if population A has a score 0.35 higher than population B, this is primarily explained by population B having a 7.0% higher proportion of people with no qualifications.

The index does not account for differences in population characteristics within an area and can be sensitive to the number of people with a certain characteristic. At lower-level geographies or with smaller population groups, the population differences will have a greater effect on the index score. For example, an area with a higher student population is likely to have a lower index score, because they may not have completed their highest qualification level yet.

Reference date

The census provides estimates of the characteristics of all people and households in England and Wales on Census Day, 21 March 2021. It is carried out every 10 years and gives us the most accurate estimate of all the people and households in England and Wales.

We are responsible for carrying out the census in England and Wales but will also release outputs for the UK in partnership with the Welsh Government, the National Records of Scotland (NRS) and the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA). The census in Northern Ireland was also conducted on 21 March 2021, whereas Scotland's census was moved to 20 March 2022. All UK census offices are working closely together to understand how this difference in reference dates will affect UK-wide population and housing statistics, in terms of both timing and scope.

Response rate

The person response rate is the number of usual residents for whom individual details were provided on a returned questionnaire, divided by the estimated usual resident population.

The person response rate for Census 2021 was 97% of the usual resident population of England and Wales, and over 88% in all local authorities. Most returns (89%) were received online. The response rate exceeded our target of 94% overall and 80% in all local authorities.

Read more about question-specific response rates at local authority level in Section 4 of our Measures showing the quality of Census 2021 estimates methodology .

9. Strengths and limitations

Quality considerations, along with the strengths and limitations of Census 2021 more generally, can be found in our Quality and Methodology Information (QMI) for Census 2021 . Read more about the Education quality information for Census 2021 .

Further information on our quality assurance processes is provided in our Maximising the quality of Census 2021 population estimates methodology .

10. Related links

Census maps Interactive content | Updated 10 January 2023 Interactive map tool that visualises Census 2021 data on different topics down to a local authority area and neighbourhood level.

Education quality information for Census 2021 Methodology | Released 10 January 2023 Known quality information affecting education data from Census 2021 in England and Wales.

Education variables, Census 2021 Supporting information | Released 10 January 2023 Variables and classifications used in Census 2021 data about education.

Education in Wales (Census 2021) Statistical bulletin | Released 10 January 2023 A summary by Welsh Government of Census 2021 data about education in Wales.

11. Cite this statistical bulletin

Office for National Statistics (ONS), released 10 January 2023, ONS website, statistical bulletin, Education, England and Wales: Census 2021

Contact details for this Statistical bulletin

Education in the United Kingdom

Edited by Colin Brock. Bloomsbury, London, 2015, 352 pp. Education Around the World series. ISBN 978-1-4725-3123-0 (hbk); ISBN 978-1-4725-2531-4 (ePDF); ISBN 978-1-4725-3166-7 (ePUB)

• Book Review
• Published: 23 October 2017
• Volume 64 , pages 273–277, ( 2018 )

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British education system

An introduction to the british education system.

The education system in the UK is divided into four main parts, primary education, secondary education, further education and higher education.

The education system in the UK is also split into "key stages" which breaks down as follows:

• Key Stage 1:  5 to 7 years old
• Key Stage 2:  7 to 11 years old
• Key Stage 3:  11 to 14 years old
• Key Stage 4:  14 to 16 years old

UK primary education

Primary school education begins in the UK at age 5 and continues until age 11, comprising key stages one and two under the UK educational system.

Some primary schools are split up into Infant and Junior levels. These are usually separate schools on the same site. The infant age range (Key Stage 1) is from age 5 to 7. The Junior age range (Key Stage 2) is from age 7 to 11. The year groups at primary School level are:

Year R (Reception) (age 4 – 5) Year 1 (age 5 - 6) Year 2 (age 6 - 7) The year when SATs testing takes place for Key Stage 1 Year 3 (age 7 - 8) Year 4 (age 8 - 9) Year 5 (age 9 - 10) Year 6 (age 10 - 11) The year when SATs testing takes place for Key Stage 2

secondary school - years 7 and 8

Years 7 and 8 are the first two years of secondary school education in the UK. In some independent schools they are included in the Junior School, in others, they are part of the Senior School. 

Under the UK school system, all students study English, Maths, Sciences, a Humanity and a Modern Language. Besides these subjects, each school has a list with optional subjects (Art, Music, Drama, Latin, Sport Science, Design Technology, Computer Science),  and  students may choose a few subjects that interest them. 

In some schools, students sit the Common Entrance Exam in year 7. There are 3 examination sessions, in November, January and May/June. The transition from Junior to Senior School (from year 8 to year 9) may be conditioned upon the Common Entrance Exam results in those schools.

secondary school - year 9

Year 9 is a very important year in the British school system, as most of the students make the transition from Junior School to Senior School. It is also a very good foundation for the GCSE programme and it is an entry point to all schools. 

Students study English, Maths, Sciences, Humanity and Languages. In addition, students choose a few subjects from the optional subject list offered by each school. 

secondary education - years 10 and 11

GCSE programme

In the last two years of secondary education, which are called Year 10 and Year 11, starting at age 14, students prepare for GCSE exams that are taken after two years (General Certificate of Secondary Education).

In the UK school system, during the GCSE programme, students study between 9 and 12 subjects. Some of them are compulsory (English, Math, 2/3 Sciences, History/Geography, a Modern Language etc.), some are chosen by each student according to their abilities and preferences. At the end of the 2 year GCSE programme, following the examinations on each studied subject, students receive their GCSE Certificates.

The chosen subjects and the GCSE results are very important for their Further Studies (A-Level or IB) and for their University admission.

Intensive 1 year GCSE

Some schools offer a 1 Year GCSE programme in Year 11 for international students seeking a school education in the UK. These intensive, one year courses, are available for students aged 15 plus, with the appropriate academic level from their own country. Fewer subjects are studied (maximum 6).

The IGCSE programme ( International  General Certificate of Secondary Education) prepare international students for A-Level and/or IB.

Students study between 5 and 7 subjects, English, Maths and Science being included. Each school has a list of available subjects for IGCSE students. At the end of Year 11, students take exams in each studied subject and receive IGCSE Certificates.

university preparation - years 12 and 13

A level study

In the UK school system, once a student reaches the age of 16, they can start a 2 year programme which leads to A (Advanced) level examinations. Students specialise in 3 or 4 subjects, that are usually relevant to the degree subject they wish to follow at university. A levels are state examinations and are recognised by all UK universities and by institutions worldwide.

At the end of Year 13, following the examinations in each subject, the students receive A level Certificates.

International Baccalaureate (IB)

Those who would like to study more than 3-4 subjects, may continue their studies in a broader number of subjects with the International Baccaularete Diploma Programme, offered by some independent schools.

During the IB, students study 6 subjects, 3 at higher level (HL) and 3 at standard level (SL). Each school offers different subjects at different study levels (HL/SL). The IB programme also includes a compulsory Core programme consisting of Theory of Knowledge (TOK), Extended Essay (EE) and Creativity, Activity, Service (CAS).

Students take written examinations on each subject at the end of their courses.

further education - vocational courses

International students can either choose a state sixth form college or a college of further education as an alternative to private education. Both offer GCSE and A level courses for students from the age of 16. Colleges of further education also offer foundation and diploma courses. All colleges can prepare students for entry to a  UK university or any university in the world. Bright World works with a number of state colleges in the UK which provide a multitude of vocational and academic courses. These courses can enable students to pursue their chosen career or to gain a place at a university of their choice.

The British school system also extends to BTEC courses which are designed for students who would like to develop practical knowledge and skills in a specific subject (Business, Psychology, Engineering, Sport, Art & Design) and find traditional exams challenging. Focussing on practical, skills-based learning, the BTEC students are assessed during the course. After each unit students are assessed through assignments, tasks or tests, and not at the end of the programme as it happens with GCSE or A-Level students.

university - foundation courses

From age 17, international students can opt to study one year foundation programmes, instead of A levels or IB. These courses lead to private examinations that are an alternative to A levels. Foundation courses at colleges are recognised by universities with whom they have partnerships.

Some universities also offer foundation courses that lead onto their own degree programmes.

Bright World has partnerships with a number of colleges and Pathway providers and can help place students into Foundation and Diploma courses in London and across the UK.

university - undergraduate study

In the UK, a British bachelors degree normally takes three years to complete and most are awarded at honours level. Examples of first degrees are: BA (Bachelor of Arts), BEng (Bachelor of Engineering), and BSc (Bachelor of Science).

State colleges offer some 2 year vocational diplomas that grant exemption from the first and sometimes second year of a degree programme. Some private tutorial colleges offer a one year diploma programme which is equivalent to year 1 of university. Students taking 1 year diplomas are awarded second year entry at some universities.

university - postgraduate study

Postgraduate courses in the UK education system are very intensive. This means that the courses are usually much shorter than in other countries. A master's degree typically takes 12 months to complete, for example an MA - Master of Arts and an MEng - Master of Engineering. An MBA (Master of Business Administration) is a high profile Masters course which can take 2 years. Applicants will usually be high achieving with at least 2 years managerial experience. A PhD research degree in the UK can take between 2 and 7 years.

boarding schools

Bright World works almost exclusively with privately funded schools and colleges. A boarding school is a residential school where pupils live and study during the school year. There are approximately 500 boarding schools across England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

UK boarding schools offer pupils an outstanding education, helping them to develop their skills and progress to university. All UK boarding schools have to meet strict government standards on the quality of their teaching, facilities and student care.

Many UK boarding schools combine beautiful, centuries-old buildings with a mix of modern classrooms and traditional architecture. The excellent facilities help make living and learning a great experience and pupils will will improve their  English skills while they study.

tutorial colleges

Tutorial Colleges start at age 15 and have a more flexible programme range, focussing on fast access to UK university.

Many of the independent private sixth form colleges in Oxford, Cambridge and London work on a 'tutorial system' and are often referred to as 'tutorial colleges'. The tutorial system originates from Oxford and Cambridge Universities and is a very highly regarded and much tested system. It it is still used today and is the cornerstone of an 'Oxbridge' education. A tutorial is a small class of only a few students, in which the tutor (a lecturer or other academic faculty member) gives individual attention to the students.

state boarding schools

A state boarding school is one where you pay for boarding and the education is free. The government pays for the education as it would at any other state school in England.

Admission to state boarding schools in the UK is limited to children who are nationals of the UK and are eligible to hold a full UK passport, or those who are nationals of other European Union countries or those who have the right of residence in the UK. Please note that the holding of a BN(O) passport does not make the child eligible for a state boarding school in the UK.

F E Colleges

An FE college is an institution that provides education for those above school age (age 16). There are many types of FE colleges including, sixth form colleges, specialist colleges and adult education institutes. FE Colleges are state run and as such those members of the EU joining can benefit from free education. There is also a competitive fee structure available for non-EU international students.

pathway courses at university

If you need to improve your English language or study skills before attending a UK university, pathway providers offer unique foundation courses which often lead to direct degree-level entry upon completion. There are several private companies who operate Foundation and Diploma programmes on the campuses of UK universities. Often these courses offer accelerated access to undergraduate degrees.

universities

The UK is one of the world's most popular destination for students from overseas. In fact, more than 400,000 international students enrol each year.International students considering an education in the UK have a choice of over 140 universities and higher education institutions, each offering a great range of tertiary qualifications that will be recognised the world over. Students join a 3 year undergraduate programme or a 1 year postgraduate course.

UK university placement

For expert advice on UK and US university entry, Bright World has teamed up with Education Advisers Ltd, whose experienced consultants offer a full range of Higher Education services for international students. These range from complimentary advice on the best University Foundation courses, to bespoke Oxbridge and Medical School coaching and mentorship programmes. You can visit their websites at www.universityadvice.co.uk or www.best-schools.co.uk or call +44 1622 813870 for further information.

guardianship and school placement advice

Boarding school guardianship.

If your child is attending a boarding school you will need to nominate a UK guardian. Bright World can help you with this service.

university guardianship

If you are under 18 when you start university you will need to nominate a UK-based adult or guardian. Bright World has a programme especially for you.

boarding school placement

If you are looking for a place at a UK boarding school Bright World can help you.

enquire today

Bright world uk schools placement service.

Enquire today and receive our free Guide to British Education

read our online brochures

Bright world guardianship programme.

Bright World boarding school placements

Education in the UK

Statistics report about UK schools and education

This report presents all the latest statistics and facts regarding the education system in the United Kingdom, including pass rates, education spending and pupil to teacher ratios.

Download your Report

Table of contents, schools and pupils.

• Basic Statistic Number of schools in the UK 2010-2023
• Premium Statistic Number of pupils attending schools in the UK 2010-2023
• Premium Statistic Number of secondary schools in the UK 2010-2023
• Premium Statistic Number of primary schools in the UK 2010-2023
• Basic Statistic Number of nursery schools in the UK 2010-2023
• Basic Statistic Number of private schools in the UK 2020-2023
• Premium Statistic Number of people employed in education UK 1997-2024
• Premium Statistic Number of people employed in education UK 1997-2024, by gender
• Premium Statistic Number of public sector employees in education UK 1999-2024
• Premium Statistic Number of full-time teachers in the UK 2015-2023
• Basic Statistic Number of head teachers in the UK 2021-2024
• Basic Statistic Pupil to teacher ratio in the United Kingdom 2000-2019
• Basic Statistic Proportion of GCSE entries that achieved a pass grade in the UK 1988-2024
• Basic Statistic Proportion of GCSE entries that achieved a pass grade in the UK 2000-2024, by gender
• Basic Statistic Proportion of GCSE entries that achieved a high pass grade in the UK 1988-2024
• Basic Statistic GCSE entries that achieved a high pass grade in the UK 2000-2024, by gender
• Basic Statistic GCSE grade levels in England in 2024
• Premium Statistic National 5 pass rates Scotland 2014-2024
• Basic Statistic A-level results in the United Kingdom 2000-2024, by grade

Economic indicators

• Premium Statistic GVA of the education sector UK 1990-2023
• Basic Statistic Government spending on education in the UK 2001-2024
• Basic Statistic Government spending on education as a share of GDP in the UK 2001-2024
• Premium Statistic Government spending on education in the UK 2024, by function
• Basic Statistic Government spending on primary education in the UK 2009-2024
• Basic Statistic Government spending on secondary education in the UK 2009-2024
• Premium Statistic CPI inflation rate for education in the UK 1989-2024
• Premium Statistic CPI for education in the UK 1988-2024

Opinions and views

• Basic Statistic Perception on how good or bad education is in Great Britain 2020-2024
• Premium Statistic Best political party for handling education poll UK 2022-2024
• Basic Statistic Decisive factors for parents choosing an education provider in England 2021
• Basic Statistic Opinion on what should change at schools in England in 2021
• Basic Statistic Opinion on if the education system prepares children for work in England in 2021
• Basic Statistic Opinion on if the school system in England is improving in 2021

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From preschool to PhD, learn how education works in the UK: your kids’ schooling or your own higher education journey – including language courses.

Children's Education

Learn about the education system in the UK: local public and private schools, international curriculum options, and the calendar of school holidays.

Higher Education

Navigate your higher education journey in the UK, from choosing the right program and university to transferring your international credits.

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Schools & education

Guide to schools, colleges and university.

• Schools & education

Quick links

State schools, private schools, colleges and university – an overview of education systems in England, Wales and Scotland.

Types of school

State schools all get money from the government in some way. Most state schools are funded and controlled by their local councils. They are called ‘maintained’ or ‘community’ schools.

Other types of state school are funded direct from government or partly by charities or grants. These schools can make some of their own rules.

All state schools have similar educational targets for the main subjects.

State schools usually have a 2-tier system:

• Primary school until age 11
• Secondary school until age 16 or 18 (or college from age 16-18)

In a few areas, there is a 3-tier system:

• Lower school until age 9
• Middle school until age 13
• Upper school until age 16 or 18 (or college from age 16-18)

Education is compulsory until 18 in England and Wales, or 16 in Scotland.

• Read our blog about the different types of state school .

A public school is a type of private school. Do not confuse public schools with state-funded schools, which are known as ‘state schools’.

• Read our blog about the difference between private schools and state schools. 

‘Independent school’ is the name usually given to a private school. This is because these schools are not funded by the state. Sometimes they are called ‘public schools’.

Independent schools can choose who is allowed at the school, what to teach, school hours, holiday times and exams. Many are boarding schools. Some are specialists in a subject, like sport, drama or a language.

The cost of independent school is on average between £14,000-£40,000 a year per child. There are usually a few paid scholarships available for parents on low incomes.

Independent schools often have 3 age groups, although some schools take all ages. Others only combine the pre-prep and prep stages.

Many people send their child to a state primary school, then choose a private school after age 8 or 11.

• Pre-prep (pre-preparatory): ages 4 to 7
• Prep (preparatory) or junior: (until 11 or 13)
• Senior (also known as secondary): until 18

Read our blog about private schools vs state schools .

Read more about the school system

How councils choose a school for your child

Guide to the different types of state school

Private schools vs state schools

Choosing schools.

There can be a lot of competition for the best schools, so it is not always possible to choose the school you want.

For state schools, it is usually a local council that will make the final decision – but you can choose which schools to apply for. Some types of school have an entrance exam. Maintained state schools must have teachers with Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). Other schools have more freedom about whom they employ.

For private schools, there might be a long waiting list and/or an entrance exam.

Most schools have special weeks when it is possible to visit the school. Ask the school for details.

• For general advice, try the Good Schools Guide website.

State schools

All English and Welsh state schools are inspected by Ofsted (the government inspection service). Scottish schools are inspected by Education Scotland. There are six grades: Excellent, Very Good, Good, Satisfactory, Weak and Unsatisfactory.

To compare schools, see these government websites. See the next question for more information about Ofsted ratings:

• England state school performance tables
• Scotland school inspection reports
• Wales school reports

Private schools

Inspection reports for private schools:

• England: Most private schools are inspected by the Independent Schools Inspectorate

All English and Welsh state schools are inspected by the government department  Ofsted . It also inspects some private schools.

Ofsted inspections make sure schools reach certain standards. If they reach them, the school is marked as ‘Good’. If they are better, the school would be marked as ‘Outstanding’.

A schools that is below the ‘Good’ standard is marked as ‘Requires Improvement’. If the school is failing, it is marked as ‘Inadequate’. These schools will be inspected regularly to make sure they are getting better.

Don’t judge a school only by its Ofsted rating. Some ‘Satisfactory’ schools can be well managed and fun places to learn, just weak in some subjects. Some ‘Outstanding’ schools might reach high standards, but feel unfriendly.

You usually need to apply to your local council for a place in state school. The system in England and Wales is different to the system in Scotland. Read more about it here:

• State schools in England and Wales
• State schools in Scotland

Read our blog about how your local council chooses a school for your child .

Private schools choose whom they accept, so you will need to contact the school. For some popular schools, you will need to apply when the child is very young – or even before it is born.

Entrance exams are common, even for very young children. For this reason, many parents hire tutors.

The number of children in a class varies from school to school and depends on how many children live nearby and how popular the school is.

In state schools, the maximum is usually 30. However, about 10% of schools in England have more than this. Many have fewer than 30.

In Scotland, the maximum is 33, but it varies depending on the age of the children and the type of lesson (practical lessons like art, cookery or science have smaller maximum class numbers).

In private schools, class sizes are usually smaller than those in state schools.

If you don’t want to send your child to school, you have the right to teach at home. Your local council can help. There are also many groups online. You must give 5-16 year olds a full-time education.

Your local council may make checks occasionally. If they do not feel the child is getting a good education, they can insist the child goes to school.

• Read more about home education on the main government website .

Read more about education systems

State schools england & wales.

How to apply, plus help and advice

State schools Scotland

Education after age 16.

Options for older children & adults

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What was education like in ancient Athens?

How does social class affect education attainment, when did education become compulsory, what are alternative forms of education, do school vouchers offer students access to better education.

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• World History Encyclopedia - Education in the Elizabethan Era
• Academia - Return on Education Using the Concept of Opportunity Cost
• National Geographic - Geography
• Table Of Contents

What does education mean?

Education refers to the discipline that is concerned with methods of teaching and learning in schools or school-like environments, as opposed to various nonformal and informal means of socialization .

Beginning approximately at the end of the 7th or during the 6th century, Athens became the first city-state in ancient Greece to renounce education that was oriented toward the future duties of soldiers. The evolution of Athenian education reflected that of the city itself, which was moving toward increasing democratization.

Research has found that education is the strongest determinant of individuals’ occupational status and chances of success in adult life. However, the correlation between family socioeconomic status and school success or failure appears to have increased worldwide. Long-term trends suggest that as societies industrialize and modernize, social class becomes increasingly important in determining educational outcomes and occupational attainment.

While education is not compulsory in practice everywhere in the world, the right of individuals to an educational program that respects their personality, talents, abilities, and cultural heritage has been upheld in various international agreements, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948; the Declaration of the Rights of the Child of 1959; and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966.

Alternative forms of education have developed since the late 20th century, such as distance learning , homeschooling , and many parallel or supplementary systems of education often designated as “nonformal” and “popular.” Religious institutions also instruct the young and old alike in sacred knowledge as well as in the values and skills required for participation in local, national, and transnational societies.

School vouchers have been a hotly debated topic in the United States. Some parents of voucher recipients reported high levels of satisfaction, and studies have found increased voucher student graduation rates. Some studies have found, however, that students using vouchers to attend private schools instead of public ones did not show significantly higher levels of academic achievement. Learn more at ProCon.org.

Should corporal punishment be used in elementary education settings?

Whether corporal punishment should be used in elementary education settings is widely debated. Some say it is the appropriate discipline for certain children when used in moderation because it sets clear boundaries and motivates children to behave in school. Others say can inflict long-lasting physical and mental harm on students while creating an unsafe and violent school environment. For more on the corporal punishment debate, visit ProCon.org .

Should dress codes be implemented and enforced in education settings?

Whether dress codes should be implemented and enforced in education settings is hotly debated. Some argue dress codes enforce decorum and a serious, professional atmosphere conducive to success, as well as promote safety. Others argue dress codes reinforce racist standards of beauty and dress and are are seldom uniformly mandated, often discriminating against women and marginalized groups. For more on the dress code debate, visit ProCon.org .

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education , discipline that is concerned with methods of teaching and learning in schools or school-like environments as opposed to various nonformal and informal means of socialization (e.g., rural development projects and education through parent-child relationships).

(Read Arne Duncan’s Britannica essay on “Education: The Great Equalizer.”)

Education can be thought of as the transmission of the values and accumulated knowledge of a society. In this sense, it is equivalent to what social scientists term socialization or enculturation. Children—whether conceived among New Guinea tribespeople, the Renaissance Florentines, or the middle classes of Manhattan—are born without culture . Education is designed to guide them in learning a culture , molding their behaviour in the ways of adulthood , and directing them toward their eventual role in society. In the most primitive cultures , there is often little formal learning—little of what one would ordinarily call school or classes or teachers . Instead, the entire environment and all activities are frequently viewed as school and classes, and many or all adults act as teachers. As societies grow more complex, however, the quantity of knowledge to be passed on from one generation to the next becomes more than any one person can know, and, hence, there must evolve more selective and efficient means of cultural transmission. The outcome is formal education—the school and the specialist called the teacher.

As society becomes ever more complex and schools become ever more institutionalized, educational experience becomes less directly related to daily life, less a matter of showing and learning in the context of the workaday world, and more abstracted from practice, more a matter of distilling, telling, and learning things out of context. This concentration of learning in a formal atmosphere allows children to learn far more of their culture than they are able to do by merely observing and imitating. As society gradually attaches more and more importance to education, it also tries to formulate the overall objectives, content, organization, and strategies of education. Literature becomes laden with advice on the rearing of the younger generation. In short, there develop philosophies and theories of education.

This article discusses the history of education, tracing the evolution of the formal teaching of knowledge and skills from prehistoric and ancient times to the present, and considering the various philosophies that have inspired the resulting systems. Other aspects of education are treated in a number of articles. For a treatment of education as a discipline, including educational organization, teaching methods, and the functions and training of teachers, see teaching ; pedagogy ; and teacher education . For a description of education in various specialized fields, see historiography ; legal education ; medical education ; science, history of . For an analysis of educational philosophy , see education, philosophy of . For an examination of some of the more important aids in education and the dissemination of knowledge, see dictionary ; encyclopaedia ; library ; museum ; printing ; publishing, history of . Some restrictions on educational freedom are discussed in censorship . For an analysis of pupil attributes, see intelligence, human ; learning theory ; psychological testing .

Education in primitive and early civilized cultures

The term education can be applied to primitive cultures only in the sense of enculturation , which is the process of cultural transmission. A primitive person, whose culture is the totality of his universe, has a relatively fixed sense of cultural continuity and timelessness. The model of life is relatively static and absolute, and it is transmitted from one generation to another with little deviation. As for prehistoric education, it can only be inferred from educational practices in surviving primitive cultures.

The purpose of primitive education is thus to guide children to becoming good members of their tribe or band. There is a marked emphasis upon training for citizenship , because primitive people are highly concerned with the growth of individuals as tribal members and the thorough comprehension of their way of life during passage from prepuberty to postpuberty.

Because of the variety in the countless thousands of primitive cultures, it is difficult to describe any standard and uniform characteristics of prepuberty education. Nevertheless, certain things are practiced commonly within cultures. Children actually participate in the social processes of adult activities, and their participatory learning is based upon what the American anthropologist Margaret Mead called empathy , identification, and imitation . Primitive children, before reaching puberty, learn by doing and observing basic technical practices. Their teachers are not strangers but rather their immediate community .

In contrast to the spontaneous and rather unregulated imitations in prepuberty education, postpuberty education in some cultures is strictly standardized and regulated. The teaching personnel may consist of fully initiated men, often unknown to the initiate though they are his relatives in other clans. The initiation may begin with the initiate being abruptly separated from his familial group and sent to a secluded camp where he joins other initiates. The purpose of this separation is to deflect the initiate’s deep attachment away from his family and to establish his emotional and social anchorage in the wider web of his culture.

The initiation “curriculum” does not usually include practical subjects. Instead, it consists of a whole set of cultural values, tribal religion, myths , philosophy, history, rituals, and other knowledge. Primitive people in some cultures regard the body of knowledge constituting the initiation curriculum as most essential to their tribal membership. Within this essential curriculum, religious instruction takes the most prominent place.

The World Bank Group is the largest financier of education in the developing world, working in 94 countries and committed to helping them reach SDG4: access to inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities for all by 2030.

Education is a human right, a powerful driver of development, and one of the strongest instruments for reducing poverty and improving health, gender equality, peace, and stability. It delivers large, consistent returns in terms of income, and is the most important factor to ensure equity and inclusion.

For individuals, education promotes employment, earnings, health, and poverty reduction. Globally, there is a  9% increase in hourly earnings for every extra year of schooling . For societies, it drives long-term economic growth, spurs innovation, strengthens institutions, and fosters social cohesion.  Education is further a powerful catalyst to climate action through widespread behavior change and skilling for green transitions.

Developing countries have made tremendous progress in getting children into the classroom and more children worldwide are now in school. But learning is not guaranteed, as the  2018 World Development Report  (WDR) stressed.

Making smart and effective investments in people’s education is critical for developing the human capital that will end extreme poverty. At the core of this strategy is the need to tackle the learning crisis, put an end to  Learning Poverty , and help youth acquire the advanced cognitive, socioemotional, technical and digital skills they need to succeed in today’s world. 

In low- and middle-income countries, the share of children living in  Learning Poverty  (that is, the proportion of 10-year-old children that are unable to read and understand a short age-appropriate text) increased from 57% before the pandemic to an estimated  70%  in 2022.

However, learning is in crisis. More than 70 million more people were pushed into poverty during the COVID pandemic, a billion children lost a year of school , and three years later the learning losses suffered have not been recouped .  If a child cannot read with comprehension by age 10, they are unlikely to become fluent readers. They will fail to thrive later in school and will be unable to power their careers and economies once they leave school.

The effects of the pandemic are expected to be long-lasting. Analysis has already revealed deep losses, with international reading scores declining from 2016 to 2021 by more than a year of schooling.  These losses may translate to a 0.68 percentage point in global GDP growth.  The staggering effects of school closures reach beyond learning. This generation of children could lose a combined total of  US$21 trillion in lifetime earnings  in present value or the equivalent of 17% of today’s global GDP – a sharp rise from the 2021 estimate of a US$17 trillion loss. 

Action is urgently needed now – business as usual will not suffice to heal the scars of the pandemic and will not accelerate progress enough to meet the ambitions of SDG 4. We are urging governments to implement ambitious and aggressive Learning Acceleration Programs to get children back to school, recover lost learning, and advance progress by building better, more equitable and resilient education systems.

Last Updated: Mar 25, 2024

The World Bank’s global education strategy is centered on ensuring learning happens – for everyone, everywhere. Our vision is to ensure that everyone can achieve her or his full potential with access to a quality education and lifelong learning. To reach this, we are helping countries build foundational skills like literacy, numeracy, and socioemotional skills – the building blocks for all other learning. From early childhood to tertiary education and beyond – we help children and youth acquire the skills they need to thrive in school, the labor market and throughout their lives.

Investing in the world’s most precious resource – people – is paramount to ending poverty on a livable planet.  Our experience across more than 100 countries bears out this robust connection between human capital, quality of life, and economic growth: when countries strategically invest in people and the systems designed to protect and build human capital at scale, they unlock the wealth of nations and the potential of everyone.

Building on this, the World Bank supports resilient, equitable, and inclusive education systems that ensure learning happens for everyone. We do this by generating and disseminating evidence, ensuring alignment with policymaking processes, and bridging the gap between research and practice.

The World Bank is the largest source of external financing for education in developing countries, with a portfolio of about $26 billion in 94 countries including IBRD, IDA and Recipient-Executed Trust Funds. IDA operations comprise 62% of the education portfolio.

The investment in FCV settings has increased dramatically and now accounts for 26% of our portfolio.

World Bank projects reach at least 425 million students -one-third of students in low- and middle-income countries.

The World Bank’s Approach to Education

Five interrelated pillars of a well-functioning education system underpin the World Bank’s education policy approach:

• Learners are prepared and motivated to learn;
• Teachers are prepared, skilled, and motivated to facilitate learning and skills acquisition;
• Learning resources (including education technology) are available, relevant, and used to improve teaching and learning;
• Schools are safe and inclusive; and
• Education Systems are well-managed, with good implementation capacity and adequate financing.

The Bank is already helping governments design and implement cost-effective programs and tools to build these pillars.

Our Principles:

• We pursue systemic reform supported by political commitment to learning for all children. 
• We focus on equity and inclusion through a progressive path toward achieving universal access to quality education, including children and young adults in fragile or conflict affected areas , those in marginalized and rural communities,  girls and women , displaced populations,  students with disabilities , and other vulnerable groups.
• We focus on results and use evidence to keep improving policy by using metrics to guide improvements.   
• We want to ensure financial commitment commensurate with what is needed to provide basic services to all. 
• We invest wisely in technology so that education systems embrace and learn to harness technology to support their learning objectives.   

Laying the groundwork for the future

Country challenges vary, but there is a menu of options to build forward better, more resilient, and equitable education systems.

Countries are facing an education crisis that requires a two-pronged approach: first, supporting actions to recover lost time through remedial and accelerated learning; and, second, building on these investments for a more equitable, resilient, and effective system.

Recovering from the learning crisis must be a political priority, backed with adequate financing and the resolve to implement needed reforms.  Domestic financing for education over the last two years has not kept pace with the need to recover and accelerate learning. Across low- and lower-middle-income countries, the  average share of education in government budgets fell during the pandemic , and in 2022 it remained below 2019 levels.

The best chance for a better future is to invest in education and make sure each dollar is put toward improving learning.  In a time of fiscal pressure, protecting spending that yields long-run gains – like spending on education – will maximize impact.  We still need more and better funding for education.  Closing the learning gap will require increasing the level, efficiency, and equity of education spending—spending smarter is an imperative.

• Education technology  can be a powerful tool to implement these actions by supporting teachers, children, principals, and parents; expanding accessible digital learning platforms, including radio/ TV / Online learning resources; and using data to identify and help at-risk children, personalize learning, and improve service delivery.

Looking ahead

We must seize this opportunity  to reimagine education in bold ways. Together, we can build forward better more equitable, effective, and resilient education systems for the world’s children and youth.

Accelerating Improvements

Supporting countries in establishing time-bound learning targets and a focused education investment plan, outlining actions and investments geared to achieve these goals.

Launched in 2020, the  Accelerator Program  works with a set of countries to channel investments in education and to learn from each other. The program coordinates efforts across partners to ensure that the countries in the program show improvements in foundational skills at scale over the next three to five years. These investment plans build on the collective work of multiple partners, and leverage the latest evidence on what works, and how best to plan for implementation.  Countries such as Brazil (the state of Ceará) and Kenya have achieved dramatic reductions in learning poverty over the past decade at scale, providing useful lessons, even as they seek to build on their successes and address remaining and new challenges.  

Universalizing Foundational Literacy

Readying children for the future by supporting acquisition of foundational skills – which are the gateway to other skills and subjects.

The  Literacy Policy Package (LPP)   consists of interventions focused specifically on promoting acquisition of reading proficiency in primary school. These include assuring political and technical commitment to making all children literate; ensuring effective literacy instruction by supporting teachers; providing quality, age-appropriate books; teaching children first in the language they speak and understand best; and fostering children’s oral language abilities and love of books and reading.

Advancing skills through TVET and Tertiary

Ensuring that individuals have access to quality education and training opportunities and supporting links to employment.

Tertiary education and skills systems are a driver of major development agendas, including human capital, climate change, youth and women’s empowerment, and jobs and economic transformation. A comprehensive skill set to succeed in the 21st century labor market consists of foundational and higher order skills, socio-emotional skills, specialized skills, and digital skills. Yet most countries continue to struggle in delivering on the promise of skills development. 

The World Bank is supporting countries through efforts that address key challenges including improving access and completion, adaptability, quality, relevance, and efficiency of skills development programs. Our approach is via multiple channels including projects, global goods, as well as the Tertiary Education and Skills Program . Our recent reports including Building Better Formal TVET Systems and STEERing Tertiary Education provide a way forward for how to improve these critical systems.

Addressing Climate Change

Mainstreaming climate education and investing in green skills, research and innovation, and green infrastructure to spur climate action and foster better preparedness and resilience to climate shocks.

Our approach recognizes that education is critical for achieving effective, sustained climate action. At the same time, climate change is adversely impacting education outcomes. Investments in education can play a huge role in building climate resilience and advancing climate mitigation and adaptation. Climate change education gives young people greater awareness of climate risks and more access to tools and solutions for addressing these risks and managing related shocks. Technical and vocational education and training can also accelerate a green economic transformation by fostering green skills and innovation. Greening education infrastructure can help mitigate the impact of heat, pollution, and extreme weather on learning, while helping address climate change. 

Examples of this work are projects in Nigeria (life skills training for adolescent girls), Vietnam (fostering relevant scientific research) , and Bangladesh (constructing and retrofitting schools to serve as cyclone shelters).

Strengthening Measurement Systems

Enabling countries to gather and evaluate information on learning and its drivers more efficiently and effectively.

The World Bank supports initiatives to help countries effectively build and strengthen their measurement systems to facilitate evidence-based decision-making. Examples of this work include:

(1) The  Global Education Policy Dashboard (GEPD) : This tool offers a strong basis for identifying priorities for investment and policy reforms that are suited to each country context by focusing on the three dimensions of practices, policies, and politics.

• Highlights gaps between what the evidence suggests is effective in promoting learning and what is happening in practice in each system; and
• Allows governments to track progress as they act to close the gaps.

The GEPD has been implemented in 13 education systems already – Peru, Rwanda, Jordan, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Islamabad, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sierra Leone, Niger, Gabon, Jordan and Chad – with more expected by the end of 2024.

(2)  Learning Assessment Platform (LeAP) : LeAP is a one-stop shop for knowledge, capacity-building tools, support for policy dialogue, and technical staff expertise to support student achievement measurement and national assessments for better learning.

Supporting Successful Teachers

Helping systems develop the right selection, incentives, and support to the professional development of teachers.

Currently, the World Bank Education Global Practice has over 160 active projects supporting over 18 million teachers worldwide, about a third of the teacher population in low- and middle-income countries. In 12 countries alone, these projects cover 16 million teachers, including all primary school teachers in Ethiopia and Turkey, and over 80% in Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Vietnam.

A World Bank-developed classroom observation tool, Teach, was designed to capture the quality of teaching in low- and middle-income countries. It is now 3.6 million students.

While Teach helps identify patterns in teacher performance, Coach leverages these insights to support teachers to improve their teaching practice through hands-on in-service teacher professional development (TPD).

Our recent report on Making Teacher Policy Work proposes a practical framework to uncover the black box of effective teacher policy and discusses the factors that enable their scalability and sustainability.

 Supporting Education Finance Systems

Strengthening country financing systems to mobilize resources for education and make better use of their investments in education.

Our approach is to bring together multi-sectoral expertise to engage with ministries of education and finance and other stakeholders to develop and implement effective and efficient public financial management systems; build capacity to monitor and evaluate education spending, identify financing bottlenecks, and develop interventions to strengthen financing systems; build the evidence base on global spending patterns and the magnitude and causes of spending inefficiencies; and develop diagnostic tools as public goods to support country efforts.

Working in Fragile, Conflict, and Violent (FCV) Contexts

The massive and growing global challenge of having so many children living in conflict and violent situations requires a response at the same scale and scope. Our education engagement in the Fragility, Conflict and Violence (FCV) context, which stands at US$5.35 billion, has grown rapidly in recent years, reflecting the ever-increasing importance of the FCV agenda in education. Indeed, these projects now account for more than 25% of the World Bank education portfolio.

Education is crucial to minimizing the effects of fragility and displacement on the welfare of youth and children in the short-term and preventing the emergence of violent conflict in the long-term. 

Support to Countries Throughout the Education Cycle

Our support to countries covers the entire learning cycle, to help shape resilient, equitable, and inclusive education systems that ensure learning happens for everyone. 

The ongoing  Supporting  Egypt  Education Reform project , 2018-2025, supports transformational reforms of the Egyptian education system, by improving teaching and learning conditions in public schools. The World Bank has invested $500 million in the project focused on increasing access to quality kindergarten, enhancing the capacity of teachers and education leaders, developing a reliable student assessment system, and introducing the use of modern technology for teaching and learning. Specifically, the share of Egyptian 10-year-old students, who could read and comprehend at the global minimum proficiency level, increased to 45 percent in 2021.

In  Nigeria , the $75 million  Edo  Basic Education Sector and Skills Transformation (EdoBESST)  project, running from 2020-2024, is focused on improving teaching and learning in basic education. Under the project, which covers 97 percent of schools in the state, there is a strong focus on incorporating digital technologies for teachers. They were equipped with handheld tablets with structured lesson plans for their classes. Their coaches use classroom observation tools to provide individualized feedback. Teacher absence has reduced drastically because of the initiative. Over 16,000 teachers were trained through the project, and the introduction of technology has also benefited students.

Through the $235 million  School Sector Development Program  in  Nepal  (2017-2022), the number of children staying in school until Grade 12 nearly tripled, and the number of out-of-school children fell by almost seven percent. During the pandemic, innovative approaches were needed to continue education. Mobile phone penetration is high in the country. More than four in five households in Nepal have mobile phones. The project supported an educational service that made it possible for children with phones to connect to local radio that broadcast learning programs.

From 2017-2023, the $50 million  Strengthening of State Universities  in  Chile  project has made strides to improve quality and equity at state universities. The project helped reduce dropout: the third-year dropout rate fell by almost 10 percent from 2018-2022, keeping more students in school.

The World Bank’s first  Program-for-Results financing in education  was through a $202 million project in  Tanzania , that ran from 2013-2021. The project linked funding to results and aimed to improve education quality. It helped build capacity, and enhanced effectiveness and efficiency in the education sector. Through the project, learning outcomes significantly improved alongside an unprecedented expansion of access to education for children in Tanzania. From 2013-2019, an additional 1.8 million students enrolled in primary schools. In 2019, the average reading speed for Grade 2 students rose to 22.3 words per minute, up from 17.3 in 2017. The project laid the foundation for the ongoing $500 million  BOOST project , which supports over 12 million children to enroll early, develop strong foundational skills, and complete a quality education.

The $40 million  Cambodia  Secondary Education Improvement project , which ran from 2017-2022, focused on strengthening school-based management, upgrading teacher qualifications, and building classrooms in Cambodia, to improve learning outcomes, and reduce student dropout at the secondary school level. The project has directly benefited almost 70,000 students in 100 target schools, and approximately 2,000 teachers and 600 school administrators received training.

The World Bank is co-financing the $152.80 million  Yemen  Restoring Education and Learning Emergency project , running from 2020-2024, which is implemented through UNICEF, WFP, and Save the Children. It is helping to maintain access to basic education for many students, improve learning conditions in schools, and is working to strengthen overall education sector capacity. In the time of crisis, the project is supporting teacher payments and teacher training, school meals, school infrastructure development, and the distribution of learning materials and school supplies. To date, almost 600,000 students have benefited from these interventions.

The $87 million  Providing an Education of Quality in  Haiti  project supported approximately 380 schools in the Southern region of Haiti from 2016-2023. Despite a highly challenging context of political instability and recurrent natural disasters, the project successfully supported access to education for students. The project provided textbooks, fresh meals, and teacher training support to 70,000 students, 3,000 teachers, and 300 school directors. It gave tuition waivers to 35,000 students in 118 non-public schools. The project also repaired 19 national schools damaged by the 2021 earthquake, which gave 5,500 students safe access to their schools again.

In 2013, just 5% of the poorest households in  Uzbekistan  had children enrolled in preschools. Thanks to the  Improving Pre-Primary and General Secondary Education Project , by July 2019, around 100,000 children will have benefitted from the half-day program in 2,420 rural kindergartens, comprising around 49% of all preschool educational institutions, or over 90% of rural kindergartens in the country.

In addition to working closely with governments in our client countries, the World Bank also works at the global, regional, and local levels with a range of technical partners, including foundations, non-profit organizations, bilaterals, and other multilateral organizations. Some examples of our most recent global partnerships include:

UNICEF, UNESCO, FCDO, USAID, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation:  Coalition for Foundational Learning

The World Bank is working closely with UNICEF, UNESCO, FCDO, USAID, and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation as the  Coalition for Foundational Learning  to advocate and provide technical support to ensure foundational learning.  The World Bank works with these partners to promote and endorse the  Commitment to Action on Foundational Learning , a global network of countries committed to halving the global share of children unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10 by 2030.

Australian Aid, Bernard van Leer Foundation, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Canada, Echida Giving, FCDO, German Cooperation, William & Flora Hewlett Foundation, Conrad Hilton Foundation, LEGO Foundation, Porticus, USAID: Early Learning Partnership

The Early Learning Partnership (ELP) is a multi-donor trust fund, housed at the World Bank.  ELP leverages World Bank strengths—a global presence, access to policymakers and strong technical analysis—to improve early learning opportunities and outcomes for young children around the world.

We help World Bank teams and countries get the information they need to make the case to invest in Early Childhood Development (ECD), design effective policies and deliver impactful programs. At the country level, ELP grants provide teams with resources for early seed investments that can generate large financial commitments through World Bank finance and government resources. At the global level, ELP research and special initiatives work to fill knowledge gaps, build capacity and generate public goods.

UNESCO, UNICEF:  Learning Data Compact

UNESCO, UNICEF, and the World Bank have joined forces to close the learning data gaps that still exist and that preclude many countries from monitoring the quality of their education systems and assessing if their students are learning. The three organizations have agreed to a  Learning Data Compact , a commitment to ensure that all countries, especially low-income countries, have at least one quality measure of learning by 2025, supporting coordinated efforts to strengthen national assessment systems.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS):   Learning Poverty Indicator

Aimed at measuring and urging attention to foundational literacy as a prerequisite to achieve SDG4, this partnership was launched in 2019 to help countries strengthen their learning assessment systems, better monitor what students are learning in internationally comparable ways and improve the breadth and quality of global data on education.

FCDO, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation:  EdTech Hub

Supported by the UK government’s Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO), in partnership with the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the EdTech Hub is aimed at improving the quality of ed-tech investments. The Hub launched a rapid response Helpdesk service to provide just-in-time advisory support to 70 low- and middle-income countries planning education technology and remote learning initiatives.

MasterCard Foundation

Our Tertiary Education and Skills  global program, launched with support from the Mastercard Foundation, aims to prepare youth and adults for the future of work and society by improving access to relevant, quality, equitable reskilling and post-secondary education opportunities.  It is designed to reframe, reform, and rebuild tertiary education and skills systems for the digital and green transformation.

Choosing our Future: Education for Climate Action

Bridging the AI divide: Breaking down barriers to ensure women’s leadership and participation in the Fifth Industrial Revolution

Common challenges and tailored solutions: How policymakers are strengthening early learning systems across the world

Compulsory education boosts learning outcomes and climate action

Areas of focus.

Data & Measurement

Early Childhood Development

Financing Education

Foundational Learning

Fragile, Conflict & Violent Contexts

Girls’ Education

Inclusive Education

Skills Development

Technology (EdTech)  

Tertiary Education

Initiatives

• Show More +
• Invest in Childcare
• Global Education Policy Dashboard
• Global Education Evidence Advisory Panel
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Collapse and Recovery: How the COVID-19 Pandemic Eroded Human Capital and What to Do About It

BROCHURES & FACT SHEETS

Flyer: Education Factsheet - May 2024

Publication: Realizing Education's Promise: A World Bank Retrospective – August 2023

Flyer: Education and Climate Change - November 2022

Brochure: Learning Losses - October 2022

STAY CONNECTED

Human Development Topics

Around the bank group.

Find out what the Bank Group's branches are doing in education

Global Education Newsletter - June 2024

What's happening in the World Bank Education Global Practice? Read to learn more.

Learning Can't Wait: A commitment to education in Latin America and the ...

A new IDB-World Bank report describes challenges and priorities to address the educational crisis.

Human Capital Project

The Human Capital Project is a global effort to accelerate more and better investments in people for greater equity and economic growth.

Impact Evaluations

Research that measures the impact of education policies to improve education in low and middle income countries.

Education Videos

Watch our latest videos featuring our projects across the world

Additional Resources

Skills & Workforce Development

Technology (EdTech)

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Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Dissertation, Thesis Or Research Project

I f you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

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If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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• Key stage 2 attainment

Introduction

This publication provides provisional attainment  statistics for key stage 2 national curriculum assessments in England. It extends the Key stage 2: National headlines statistics published on 9 July 2024. 

These statistics cover attainment in assessments taken by pupils at the end of year 6, when most are age 11. 

 It includes results for pupils in schools in England:

• at national level, broken down by the following pupil characteristics: gender, disadvantage, free school meal eligibility, ethnicity, special educational need status, first language and month of birth;
• at national level, broken down by the following school characteristics: school type, school phase, cohort size and school religious character;
• at regional and local authority level, broken down by pupil characteristics: gender, disadvantage, free school meal eligibility, ethnicity, special educational need status and first language;
• at local authority district level for school location and pupil residency, broken down by disadvantage, free school meal eligibility and school type. 

Some of these breakdowns are not discussed in the text but can be accessed via the table tool or by downloading the data files.

All gaps and percentage point differences are calculated from unrounded figures. 

Headline facts and figures - 2023/24

These statistics cover the attainment of year 6 pupils who took assessments in summer 2024. These pupils experienced disruption to their learning during the pandemic, particularly at the end of year 2 and in year 3. 

In individual subjects, attainment increased in reading, writing and science compared to 2023. Attainment remained the same in maths and grammar, punctuation and spelling.  

In reading , 74% of pupils met the expected standard, up from 73% in 2023.

In maths , 73% of pupils met the expected standard, unchanged since 2023.

In writing , 72% of pupils met the expected standard, up from 71% in 2023.

In grammar, punctuation and spelling , 72% of pupils met the expected standard, unchanged since 2023.

In science , 81% of pupils met the expected standard, up from 80% in 2023.

Attainment in all of reading, writing and maths (combined) increased compared to 2023.   

In all of reading, writing and maths (combined) , 61% of pupils met the expected standard, up from 60% in 2023.  

Girls continue to outperform boys at the expected standard in all subjects except maths, where boys outperformed girls by 1 percentage point.

The disadvantage gap index is down from 3.21 in 2023 to 3.12 in 2024. More detail is provided in the pupil characteristics section. 

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Download all data available in this release as a compressed ZIP file

Attainment in reading, writing and maths (combined)

In 2024, 61% of pupils reached the expected standard in all of reading, writing and maths (combined), up from 60% in 2023. This is below 2019 attainment, where 65% of pupils met the standard. 

The percentage of pupils meeting the higher standard in reading, writing, and maths (combined) remained at 8% in 2024, unchanged from 2023.

Attainment in all of reading, writing and maths (combined) is not directly comparable to some earlier years (2016 and 2017) because of changes to writing teacher assessment frameworks in 2018.

Data is not available for 2020 and 2021 as assessments were cancelled in these years due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Attainment in individual subjects

In reading , 74% of pupils reached the expected standard in 2024, up from 73% in 2023. This figure has fluctuated between 72% and 75% since 2017. 

In writing teacher assessment, 72% of pupils reached the expected standard in 2024, up from 71% in 2023. Before the pandemic, in both 2018 and 2019, this figure was 78%.  Attainment in writing is not directly comparable to some earlier years (2016 and 2017) because of changes to writing teacher assessment frameworks in 2018. 

In maths , 73% of pupils reached the expected standard, unchanged since 2023. Before the pandemic, this figure increased from 70% to 79% between 2016 and 2019. 

Attainment amongst reading, writing and maths was lowest in writing, as in 2023. Before the pandemic, with the exception of 2018 where it was the same as maths, attainment amongst these three subjects was lowest in reading. 

In grammar, punctuation and spelling , 72% of pupils reached the expected standard in 2024. This remains unchanged since 2022, where it was the lowest figure since new assessments were introduced in 2016.  

In science teacher assessment, 81% of pupils reached the expected standard in 2024, up from 80% in 2023. Before the pandemic in 2019, this figure was 83%.  Attainment in science is not directly comparable to some earlier years (2016, 2017 and 2018) because of changes to science teacher assessment frameworks in 2019. 

Attainment at the higher standard

In  reading , 28% of pupils met the higher standard, down from 29% in 2023. 

In  writing  teacher assessment, 13% of pupils achieved greater depth, unchanged since 2022. Before the pandemic, in both 2018 and 2019, this figure was 20%. Attainment in writing is not directly comparable to some earlier years (2016 and 2017) because of changes to writing teacher assessment frameworks in 2018. 

In  maths , 24% of pupils met the higher standard, unchanged since 2023. Before the pandemic, this figure had risen from 17% to 27% between 2016 and 2019. 

Among reading, writing and maths, attainment at the higher standard is highest in reading. From 2016 to 2018, reading was also highest. In 2019, reading and maths were highest at 27%. Attainment of the higher standard in these three subjects remains lowest in writing. 

In  grammar, punctuation and spelling , 32% of pupils met the higher standard, up from 30% in 2023. Before the pandemic, this figure had risen from 23% to 36% between 2016 and 2019. 

There is no higher standard for  science .

Average scaled scores in reading, maths and grammar, punctuation and spelling

We use scaled scores  (opens in a new tab) to report the results of tests so we can make accurate comparisons of performance over time. Scaled scores range from 80 to 120. The total number of marks a pupil achieves in each test subject (raw score) is converted into a scaled score to ensure accurate comparisons can be made over time, even if the difficulty of the test itself varies. 

The average scaled scores in reading, maths, and grammar, punctuation and spelling tests have remained the same as 2023. 

In reading , the average scaled score is 105, unchanged since 2022. 

In maths , the average scaled score is 104, unchanged since 2022.

In grammar, punctuation and spelling , the average scaled score is 105, unchanged since 2022. 

The average scaled score is the mean scaled score of all pupils awarded a scaled score. It only includes pupils who took the test and achieved a scaled score. It gives us a measure of the typical performance of a pupil taking the tests. It is affected by the performance of pupils at all points in the range of scores. By contrast, the percentage of pupils achieving the expected standard focuses on the proportion of pupils above or below one particular score (100). As a consequence, changes in one measure may not be matched by changes in the other measure of the same size and direction.

Attainment by pupil characteristics

This section looks at key stage 2 attainment by gender, disadvantage, special educational need (SEN) status, first language, ethnicity and month of birth. 

The figures for disadvantaged pupils in this publication are provisional and do not include pupils in the care of a local authority unless they were eligible for free school meals during the last 6 years or ceased to be looked-after in the last year.

Attainment by gender

Girls continue to outperform boys at the expected standard in all subjects in 2024, except for maths where boys performed slightly better (1 percentage point difference). In reading, 78% of girls and 71% of boys met the expected standard, up from 76% and 70% in 2023, respectively. 

The biggest attainment gap between boys and girls remains in the writing teacher assessment at 13 percentage points. 

In reading, writing and maths (combined) in 2024, 64% of girls met the expected standard compared to 57% of boys, a gap of 7 percentage points, unchanged since 2023.

Attainment at the higher standard 

Among individual subjects at the higher standard, the gender gap increased in reading from 6 percentage points in 2023 to 7 percentage points in 2024.

In maths, the gender gap decreased from 6 percentage points in 2023 to 5 percentage points in 2024. In writing, the attainment for both boys and girls decreased, however, the gender gap remained the same at 6 percentage points, since 2023.

In 2024, 9% of girls met the higher standard in reading, writing and maths (combined), unchanged since 2023 but down from 13% in 2019. Among boys, 6% met the higher standard, down from 7% in 2023 and down from 9% in 2019. Based on unrounded data, the gender gap at the higher standard remained at 2 percentage points in 2024, unchanged from 2023.

Disadvantage gap index 

Disadvantaged pupils are ordinarily defined as: those who were registered as eligible for free school meals at any point in the last six years, children looked after by a local authority or have left local authority care in England and Wales through adoption, a special guardianship order, a residence order or a child arrangements order.   The disadvantage gap index summarises the attainment gap between disadvantaged pupils and all other pupils. The gap index is more resilient to changes to assessment than attainment threshold measures and therefore offers greater comparability between years. The index ranks all pupils in the country and assesses the difference in the average position of disadvantaged pupils and others. A disadvantage gap of zero would indicate that there is no difference between the average performance of disadvantaged and non-disadvantaged pupils. We measure whether the disadvantage gap is getting larger or smaller over time. Note that changes to free school meal eligibility in place from April 2018 affect the disadvantaged cohort. See the methodology for further information. 

The disadvantage gap index has reduced from 3.21 in 2023 to 3.12 in 2024. 

The 2024 disadvantage statistics are provisional and do not include pupils in the care of a local authority unless they were eligible for free school meals during the last 6 years or ceased to be looked-after in the last year.

The disadvantage gap index had reduced between 2011 and 2018 - indicating that the attainment gap between disadvantaged pupils and their peers was becoming smaller - before remaining at a similar level between 2018 and 2019 and increasing in 2022 to the highest level since 2012. 

Attainment by disadvantage status

Disadvantaged pupils are ordinarily defined as: those who were registered as eligible for free school meals at any point in the last six years, children looked after by a local authority or have left local authority care in England and Wales through adoption, a special guardianship order, a residence order or a child arrangements order.  Note that changes to free school meal eligibility in place from April 2018 affect the disadvantaged cohort. See the methodology for further information. 

In 2024, 31% of pupils at the end of key stage 2 were considered disadvantaged.

In reading, writing and maths (combined), 45% of disadvantaged pupils met the expected standard in 2024 compared to 67% of other pupils, both increasing by 1 percentage point since 2023, keeping the gap at 22 percentage points.

In 2024, 3% of disadvantaged pupils met the higher standard in reading, writing and maths (combined), while 10% of other pupils met the higher standard. Both figures are unchanged since 2023.

Attainment in reading has increased compared to 2023 for both groups. Attainment in writing increased for non-disadvantaged pupils but remained at the same level as 2023 for disadvantaged pupils, whilst attainment in maths remained the same for both groups. Only in reading is attainment at or above levels seen before the pandemic (equal for disadvantaged pupils, with an increase of 1 percentage point for non-disadvantaged pupils)

The disadvantage gap in 2024 is similar across subjects, ranging from 17 percentage points in reading and science to 20 percentage points in maths and writing. 

Attainment by Special Educational Need (SEN) status

In 2024, 21% of pupils at the end of key stage 2 had a special educational need (SEN). Pupils with SEN either have an Education, Health and Care Plan (EHCP) or receive SEN support. In 2024, 5% of all pupils had an EHCP and 16% were on SEN support.

In 2024, 21% of pupils with SEN met the expected standard in reading, writing and maths (combined), up from 20% in 2023. Of those pupils on SEN support, 26% met the expected standard in reading, writing and maths (combined), up from 24% in 2023, whilst 9% of those pupils with an Education, Health and Care plan met the standard, up from 8% in 2023. 

Attainment by first language 

In 2024, 23% of pupils at the end of key stage 2 had a first language other than English.

In 2024, 62% of pupils with first language other than English met the expected standard in reading, writing and maths (combined), up from 60% in 2023 and down from 64% in 2019. Among pupils with English as their first language, 60% met the expected standard, unchanged since 2023 but below 2019 attainment (65%).

Attainment in reading has increased since 2023 for both groups with English and a language other than English as their first language at the expected standard. Attainment for pupils with English as their first language increased from 74% in 2023 to 75% in 2024. Before the pandemic in 2019, this figure was also 74%. For pupils with a first language other than English attainment increased from 70% in 2023 to 72% in 2024. This figure was 70% in 2019. The gap in reading attainment between pupils with English as a first language and a first language other than English is now at 3 percentage points. 

In writing, 72% of pupils with English as their first language met the expected standard, unchanged since 2023. Similarly, 72% of pupils with a first language other than English met the expected standard in writing, up from 71% in 2023. 

In maths, 72% of pupils with English as their first language met the expected standard, unchanged since 2023. Attainment since 2023 also remained the same among pupils with a first language other than English (77%). Attainment for both groups in writing and maths remains below pre-pandemic levels.

In 2024, 8% of pupils with a first language other than English met the higher standard in reading, writing and maths (combined), down from 9% in 2023 and down from 11% in 2019.  Among pupils with English as their first language, 7% achieved the higher standard in 2024, down from 8% in 2023 and 11% in 2019. 

Attainment by ethnicity

Attainment at the end of key stage 2 varies by ethnicity.

In 2024, Chinese pupils are the highest performing group in all of reading, writing and maths (74% of pupils met the expected standard). The second highest performing group is Indian pupils (73%), a change from 2023 when Indian pupils were the  highest performing group (73%). 

Gypsy/Roma pupils are the lowest performing group (18% met the expected standard in all of reading, writing and maths), followed by Traveller of Irish heritage pupils (20%).

Following feedback from users, the Office for National Statistics updated their guidelines on ethnic groups (opens in a new tab) . We have therefore included Chinese pupils in the Asian ethnic group in this publication since 2022. This was a change from previous years when Chinese pupils were reported separately. This change has been backdated to 2016 to allow comparisons over time. Figures for Chinese pupils only are still available via the table tool (within subject 'Key stage 2 attainment by pupil characteristics') and the data file ‘ks2_national_pupil_characteristics_2016_to_2024_provisional.csv.’

Attainment by month of birth

In 2024, pupils born in September were the highest achieving group in all of reading, writing and maths (combined), 67% of pupils met the expected standard, up from 66% in 2023.. 

Pupils born in August were the lowest achieving group, 54% of this group met the expected standard in reading, writing and maths (combined), up from 53% in 2023.

Among the individual subjects of reading, writing and maths, pupils born in September and October were also the highest achieving, whilst pupils born in July and August were the lowest achieving. 

Attainment by school characteristics

There were 15,368 state-funded mainstream primary schools with key stage 2 results in 2024. 

Since 2016, there have been substantial changes to the makeup of school types in England. The proportion of LA maintained schools decreased from 82% in 2016 to 57% in 2024. There have been corresponding increases in the proportion of sponsored and converter academies to 11% and 30% respectively in 2024. It should be noted that the conversion of schools from one type to another means that the headline figures capture not only change in performance but also change in school type. While the number of free schools has increased to 214, free schools make up a very small proportion of schools, therefore progress and attainment scores may fluctuate more each year compared to other school types.

See the accompanying methodology for details about different types of school. 

Attainment in academies and free schools as a group in 2024 is broadly similar to those in local authority maintained mainstream schools. Converter academies had broadly similar proportions of pupils achieving the expected standard compared to the averages for all state-funded mainstream schools, this was also seen in 2023. Sponsored academies as a group, however, are below the average for state-funded mainstream schools but were typically low performing before their conversion to academy status.

Regional and local authority attainment

Attainment by region.

Attainment at the expected standard in reading, writing and maths (combined) increased or remains the same in every region from 2023 to 2024.

London was the highest performing region in 2024, as in previous years, with 67% of pupils achieving the expected standard in reading, writing and maths (combined). In all other regions, attainment in reading, writing and maths (combined) at the expected standard ranged between 58% and 61%. 

The gap between the highest (London) and lowest (South West) performing regions in 2024 was 10 percentage points, unchanged since 2023.

Attainment at the  higher standard in reading, writing and maths (combined) was also higher in London than in all other regions, with 12% of pupils in London achieving the higher standard compared to between 6% and 8% in all other regions.

Attainment by local authority

The map below shows the percentage of pupils meeting the expected standard in reading, writing and maths (combined) by local authority. This map reveals a complex picture of attainment across England, with a range of high and low attainment in different regions.

Attainment at the expected standard in reading, writing and maths (combined) was highest in Richmond upon Thames (75%), Hammersmith and Fulham (74%) and Hackney (73%) and lowest in Portsmouth (51%) and Isle of Wight (51%). Similarly, attainment at  the higher standard (shown in the table below) was highest in Richmond upon Thames (17%) and Sutton (17%)  followed closely by Hammersmith and Fulham (16%) and Bromley (16%) and lowest in Portsmouth (2%). 

Local authorities with only 1 school are excluded from the above narrative.

About these statistics

This publication provides provisional attainment statistics for key stage 2 national curriculum assessments. It provides statistics on: 

Reading, writing and maths (combined) attainment

Pupils who meet the expected standard in reading, writing and maths (combined) are those who meet the expected standard in all three subjects. The expected standard in reading and maths is a scaled score of 100 or above. The expected standard in writing is a teacher assessment of 'working at the expected standard' (EXS) or 'working at greater depth' (GDS).

Pupils who reach the higher standard in reading, writing and maths (combined) are those who achieve a scaled score of 110 or more in reading and maths and are assessed as 'working at greater depth' (GDS) in writing TA.

Reading test attainment

Pupils who meet the expected standard in reading are those who achieve a scaled score of 100 or above. Pupils who meet the higher standard in reading are those who achieve a scaled score of 110 or more. 

Writing teacher assessment attainment

Pupils who meet the expected standard in writing are those who achieve a teacher assessment of 'working at the expected standard' (EXS) or 'working at greater depth' (GDS).

Pupils who reach the higher standard (referred to as greater depth) in writing are those who are assessed as 'working at greater depth' (GDS). 

Maths test attainment

Pupils who meet the expected standard in maths are those who achieve a scaled score of 100 or above. Pupils who meet the higher standard in maths are those who achieve a scaled score of 110 or more. 

Grammar, punctuation and spelling test attainment

Pupils who meet the expected standard in grammar, punctuation and spelling are those who achieve a scaled score of 100 or above. Pupils who meet the higher standard in grammar, punctuation and spelling are those who achieve a scaled score of 110 or more. 

Science teacher assessment attainment

Pupils who meet the expected standard in science are those who achieve a teacher assessment of 'working at the expected standard' (EXS) or 'working at greater depth' (GDS).

Further information will be available

Revised figures will be published in the 'Key stage 2 attainment (revised)’ publication in December 2024.

1. Progress measures

Progress measures will not be published for the 2023/24 and 2024/25 academic years as KS2 pupils in these years did not have KS1 assessments due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

2. School level figures

School level data will be published on the C ompare School and College Performance (opens in a new tab) website in December.

Help and support

Methodology.

Find out how and why we collect, process and publish these statistics.

Accredited official statistics

These accredited official statistics have been independently reviewed by the Office for Statistics Regulation (OSR). They comply with the standards of trustworthiness, quality and value in the Code of Practice for Statistics . Accredited official statistics are called National Statistics in the Statistics and Registration Service Act 2007 .

Accreditation signifies their compliance with the authority's Code of Practice for Statistics which broadly means these statistics are:

• managed impartially and objectively in the public interest
• meet identified user needs
• produced according to sound methods
• well explained and readily accessible

Our statistical practice is regulated by the Office for Statistics Regulation (OSR).

OSR sets the standards of trustworthiness, quality and value in the Code of Practice for Statistics that all producers of official statistics should adhere to.

You are welcome to contact us directly with any comments about how we meet these standards. Alternatively, you can contact OSR by emailing [email protected] or via the OSR website .

If you have a specific enquiry about Key stage 2 attainment statistics and data:

Primary Attainment Statistics

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Chemistry courses, departments face closure in the UK highlighting higher education’s financial woes

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Two UK universities are proposing to close their chemistry courses and senior academics are warning that department closures could become commonplace if the financial challenges facing the country’s higher education sector are not addressed. Significant redundancies already reported by other universities could point to future chemistry department closures. 

In July, the head of chemistry at the University of Hull, Tim Prior , shared on LinkedIn that the university has proposed closing its chemistry department and called on alumni to oppose the changes.

That news followed the announcement in February by Aston University that it plans to close its BSc chemistry and BSc applied chemistry courses from September 2025 due to ‘changes in educational focus and alignment’.

Stephen Worrall , a lecturer in chemistry at Aston, told Chemistry World that the main drivers behind the university’s planned course closures were money and efficiency. ‘It’s to try and create a non-UK style of university education, where the first year at university is quite general,’ he explains. ‘So, what is coming in in 2025 is shared first years across three or four programmes that are deemed to share sufficient content in the first year.’

Source: © Abraham Overvoorde/Shutterstock

The University of Hull has proposed closing its chemistry department to cut costs

Worrall notes that that accreditation requirements for chemistry degrees ‘require 100 lab hours per year, 300 hours across the programme [and] that’s very hard to fit into a combined framework’.

He adds that chemistry is also inherently expensive to teach. ‘Universities receive a top-up payment per chemistry student, far more than any other subject. But is that enough? It’s probably economies of scale – historically, we’re only a small chemistry group.’

According to Worrall, the department prepared a detailed response opposing the university’s proposals, but the plans to close the chemistry courses will now go ahead. ‘The initial documentation suggested that we could close undergraduate chemistry and then offer MScs in chemistry without an undergrad basis and we said no,’ he adds. ‘So small changes were made, but the thrust of it didn’t really go away.’

‘We tried, we talked to the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) about what was possible and we tried to do as much as we could, but in the end it was deemed not feasible.’

‘A shame on so many levels’

Alongside the proposals, Aston University simultaneously ran a voluntary severance scheme and three members of the chemistry programme decided to take the package on offer, including the head of department, Jiawei Wang and deputy head, Rob Evans.

‘From my own point of view, it’s a shame on so many levels that they’ve decided to close down chemistry courses at Aston,’ says Evans, who left at the end of August. ‘While there are strong and understandable reasons why the financial situations of departments and universities have to be under increasing scrutiny, the situation here feels like an opportunity missed and will cause a significant amount of damage to students, staff and chemical science in the UK.’

Evans says that several plans to improve recruitment had been suggested, with an MChem paused just 10 days after getting the final approval to start recruiting. ‘Aston’s chemistry and applied chemistry courses have maintained consistently excellent student satisfaction scores as reported by the National Student Survey,’ he adds. ‘The students we teach here in Aston are from a highly diverse background. In 2021–22, over three-quarters of our students were from a minority background, compared [with around] 25% for chemistry nationwide. With other chemistry departments in the West Midlands also at risk or already shut down, this is a group of students that may be lost to higher education.’

Source: © MrBobro/Shutterstock

Aston University has confirmed that its undergraduate chemistry programme will close in 2025

Stephen Garrett , pro-vice chancellor of the College of Engineering and Physical Sciences at Aston University, told Chemistry World the college was focused on preparing students for a ‘technologically advanced future’ and that, in order to offer the maximum value to students and beneficiaries, the decision was made to close the two courses.

‘Our focus is now on continuing to deliver an excellent experience for all current students until the end of their study period,’ he adds. ‘Moving forward we will be growing our chemical engineering programme, aligning to Aston University’s 2030 strategy to equip communities with the emerging and advanced skills needed for the future of work within a global knowledge-based economy.’

Aston University is still taking on new students this September and both chemistry courses are being put into clearing.

‘The plan is that any students who are here will be taught in a way that will keep their RSC accreditation intact,’ says Worrall. ‘We are shedding optional modules because [they’re] not part of the contract with students. It’s not ideal, we’re losing good content, they’re losing choice. But if you’re losing a third of the staff, something’s got to give.’

Hamstrung and ignored

A current member of staff in the chemistry department at Hull who did not want to be named says there were a variety of issues leading up to the proposed closure. ‘We’ve not done well with the student number cap being removed, that’s hit us really hard – other places have expanded and we haven’t,’ they note. ‘As a department of chemistry we lost our visibility on the University of Hull website for a long time – that was problematic. The name chemistry disappeared and we had people asking: “Does chemistry still exist in Hull?”’

In terms of timelines for the proposed closure, Hull chemistry department is currently in the consultation phase. However, the staff member that Chemistry World spoke with says that they ‘have little faith that anything we say will be listened to’.

Earlier in the year, the department was asked to prepare proposals for a reinvigorated set of programmes that would be more attractive to prospective students. However, the staff member says that these proposals were ‘ignored’ and soon after the university decided to cancel two MSc chemistry programmes that recruit significant overseas students.

‘Chemistry in Hull was number one for student satisfaction for chemistry in England in 2021 and we were top 10 and number one in Yorkshire in 2022 for student satisfaction,’ the staff member says. ‘But there does not seem to have been any great appetite to celebrate and reinvigorate chemistry from the management here in Hull.’

Students studying chemistry in the department have been told that their teaching is assured for one year only. ‘Within those proposals, teaching of undergraduate chemistry for all programmes will have to stop at the end of the academic year 24/25. This will leave some students unable to finish their degree courses,’ the staff member says.

They add that the university has been clear that while the closure is still only proposed there is no need to think about what will happen to students just yet. ‘I think that’s wrong – students should be involved in this discussion so they are aware of their futures,’ they say.

The staff member notes cuts are being proposed across the whole of the university, with around a third of staff in danger of losing their jobs. Given this situation, they note that chemistry faculty were not surprised at the proposals to close the department, but more detail about the reasons behind them would have been appreciated.

‘As educated people and people used to dealing with data, staff were looking for an open and transparent demonstration of why chemistry is no longer viable in Hull. I don’t think there has been that openness and transparency about numbers, about financial detail yet, which is disappointing,’ they say. ‘The real problem is our students are being screwed over – they’ve just had the rug pulled from under them … just to stop teaching and not to fulfil your commitment to these students to teach out is really unfortunate.’

A spokesperson for the university told Chemistry World that ‘in common with most universities’, Hull was ‘not exempt’ from the ‘significant challenges’ faced by the higher education sector.

‘These challenges include a significant reduction in international student applications and changes in UK student recruitment application patterns, which have led to a drop in income whilst other costs continue to rise,’ the university said. ‘We now need to make some difficult decisions, including reorganising parts of the university, to both maintain our financial sustainability and to grow and develop. We have spoken to colleagues and we are at the early stages of a change process, which we expect to complete towards the end of the year.’

Annette Doherty , president of the RSC, is ‘extremely concerned’ by the impact of funding challenges facing higher education in the UK and the potential long-term repercussions this could have on chemistry in the country.

Long-term repercussions

‘The impending department closure in Hull and course closures at Aston University only serve to highlight the severity of the financial sustainability problems affecting higher education institutions,’ Doherty says. ‘We believe there could be more to come so action must be taken quickly to safeguard the UK’s future science skills and science base, to enable sustained economic growth.’

Doherty says data from the RSC shows that the chemistry workforce is expected to grow at a faster rate than the economy as a whole over the next decade but that this will only be possible, if universities and further education colleges can develop high-quality talent to fill these roles.

‘We know that businesses need a workforce with practical skills, for laboratory-based jobs and to address many challenges, among them developing environmentally sustainable products. Failing to invest in chemistry now means we are failing to invest in our national future as scientific pioneers,’ she says. ‘Closing a chemistry department is like demolishing the middle house in a terrace, as the ripple effects will extend to other Stem departments and in turn undermine the UK’s long-term scientific ambitions.’

Other departments that have been facing significant challenges include the chemistry and chemical engineering division at Huddersfield, which lost around a third of its academic staff over the summer of 2023 with many made redundant or taking voluntary redundancy.

‘Within chemistry itself, we have seen a significant drop-off in enrolled student numbers at undergraduate level over the last 10 years,’ says head of Huddersfield’s chemistry department Karl Hemming . ‘The undergraduate home student fee has remained static whilst staffing costs (pay, pensions), non-staffing costs (energy bills, equipment) have all increased. Given that costs for laboratory-based subjects are high anyway, the fee freeze, increasing costs and falling student numbers have together resulted in a deficit in the School of Applied Sciences, which the school addressed with cuts to staffing in chemistry, forensic science and chemical engineering last summer,’ Hemming notes. ‘As you can imagine, the atmosphere created by the wider restructure and associated staff losses is not good and staff are expecting more changes to come.’

Wendy Brown , a chemist from the University of Sussex who chairs the Heads of Chemistry UK group (HCUK), says that more departments will be at risk of closure if action is not taken. ‘I would say that if university finances don’t change in a relatively short length of time there will be others – it’s pretty much a guarantee,’ she says. ‘A lot of the Russell Group universities are really going to be hit if there is a further clampdown on student visas and overseas students. Either the fees need to increase or accompanying funding from the government needs to happen.’

Brown says that HCUK is ‘hopeful’ that the new government will start to look at the issue. ‘A change of government is always a time when there’s possibilities for changes of policy in various areas,’ she adds. ‘We’ve been talking about the financial health of chemistry departments in HCUK now for a while and we’re going to carry on talking about this. I don’t think you’d talk to any other university who wouldn’t say the same.’

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Quality of history education continues to improve but inconsistency between schools remains

Ofsted has today published a subject report looking at how history is being taught in England’s schools.

The report draws on evidence from subject visits to a sample of primary and secondary schools.

Inspectors found that the position of history in schools is much more secure than it was 12 years ago when we last published a report on history education . The trend towards erosion of history as a distinct subject appears to have been reversed. Most schools have worked to develop a broad and ambitious curriculum in history, and the gaps in the quality of provision between primary and secondary schools have closed. In the schools providing a high-quality history education, leaders understand how curriculum, teaching and assessment could help pupils develop depth and breadth of historical knowledge.

Read the ‘Rich encounters with the past: history subject report’ .

However, the report notes that there are significant differences in the quality of history education between schools. In the best schools, pupils’ knowledge of the past is wide-ranging and connected as teachers go beyond the most well-known aspects of historical periods to explore how people lived in the past in more detail. In other schools, pupils’ knowledge is less secure because they are not taught to make these connections between different historical periods or events. The report also highlights areas for improvement, including the need for more ambitious curriculum plans when teaching pupils about how historians study the past.

His Majesty’s Chief Inspector, Amanda Spielman, said:

A good history education is fundamental to children’s understanding of the world. The study of history immerses pupils in unfamiliar worlds and, at the same time, helps them to make sense of their own experiences. It is great to see that history remains a core part of the school curriculum as the quality of history education continues to improve. I hope our report helps schools provide an excellent history education for all pupils.

The report makes a number of recommendations for how schools can ensure that all pupils receive a high-quality history education, including:

• Ensuring teachers understand how pupils’ knowledge of past societies and recurring themes can help them to learn about other topics more easily.
• Making sure that teaching builds on the historical knowledge that pupils already have, helping pupils to connect information about past societies.
• Using assessment to identify any gaps or misconceptions in pupils’ historical knowledge, and make sure these are addressed.
• Focusing support for pupils with SEND on pupils’ ability to access the full breadth and depth of the intended history curriculum, rather than their ability to complete the immediate task.
• Providing a curriculum that gives pupils a broad and complex understanding of the past, enabling pupils to develop knowledge about how historians study the past.
• Carefully assessing the quality of what pupils learn and remember over time. This should include the connectedness and complexity of pupils’ knowledge of the past, and their knowledge of how historians study the past.

All subject visits were carried out between July 2022 and April 2023.

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Consent education: something has to change.

The pressing need for consent education in schools has never been more evident. Evidence of on-going societal misogyny and rising numbers of sexual offences, including rape offences, in England and Wales (ONS, 2023) underscore the urgency of addressing these issues head-on.

Effective consent education can play a pivotal role in changing the narrative, fostering respect, and reducing sexual violence.

In this article, I would like to delve into the necessity of consent education, highlighting findings from recent reports, and outlining strategies for integrating this critical topic into your school curriculum.

A crisis in consent education

In recent years, media narratives and societal attitudes have significantly affected the implementation of effective sex education, particularly concerning consent.

Opinion pieces in national media too often dismiss sex education as irrelevant, conflating it with contentious issues such as gender identity. This negative portrayal has tangible consequences.

A 2023 report by the children’s commissioner for England highlighted that the challenges schools face in delivering effective sex education have led many students to turn to social media platforms like TikTok for information. The Sex Education Forum found something similar in its annual report earlier this year – namely that a fifth of young people said that their main source of information about pornography was social media and other websites, while 14% said the same when it came to consent (SEF, 2024).

At the same time, the children’s commissioner’s report points out the alarming increase in young people normalising sexual violence, influenced by the prevalence of online pornography.

Pornography and misogyny

The influence of online pornography on young people's attitudes towards sex and consent cannot be overstated. The children’s commissioner’s report emphasised that platforms aiming to maximise user engagement often push increasingly extreme content. This exposure leads to distorted perceptions of sexual relationships and consent.

A particularly disturbing finding from the children’s commissioner report reveals that almost half of young people aged 16 to 21 believe that girls expect sex to involve physical aggression, with 42% stating that girls enjoy such acts. These statistics illustrate the critical need for comprehensive consent education that counters these harmful beliefs and promotes healthy, respectful relationships.

Sexual violence and gender

No matter how uncomfortable it is for people to hear, it is factually accurate to say that sexual violence is predominantly a male problem. The children’s commissioner notes that 97% of children referred to harmful sexual behaviour support services in the UK were male. What’s more, 92% of children accused of child sexual abuse were male.

This highlights the importance of addressing the normalisation of male power and sexual aggression in preventing harmful sexual behaviour.

Despite the sensitive nature of these discussions, it is crucial not to generalise or treat all males as potential predators. Instead, education should focus on fostering respect and understanding, emphasising the unacceptability of violence and coercion in any form.

Schools and consent education

Schools play a vital role in addressing these issues. The children’s commissioner report recommends high-quality relationships, sex, and health education (RSHE) as essential. This includes training teachers through programmes such as an NVQ in RSHE to ensure they are well prepared to handle sensitive topics. Additionally, schools should have comprehensive policies to prevent sexual harassment and violence, including online abuse.

The now infamous Ofsted report of 2021 underlined the endemic nature of sexual harassment and violence in schools, emphasising the need for educational institutions to take proactive measures.

Schools must create a culture where sexual harassment and online abuse are not tolerated, and issues are identified and addressed early.

Moving forward

First, implementing robust policies to prevent and address sexual harassment and violence in schools is critical for creating a safe learning environment. These policies should be clear, comprehensive, and consistently enforced.

Schools must establish procedures for reporting and responding to incidents, ensuring that all reports are taken seriously and handled with sensitivity and confidentiality. Prevention strategies, such as awareness campaigns and peer education programmes, can help change attitudes and reduce incidents.

Regularly reviewing and updating policies ensures they reflect new insights and best practices.

Second, embedding comprehensive consent education into the school curriculum is crucial for fostering a culture of respect and understanding from an early age. This education should cover the basics of consent and delve into healthy relationships, personal boundaries, and mutual respect.

The curriculum should be age-appropriate, starting with simple concepts in early years and incorporating more complex discussions as students mature. Integrating consent education across various subjects can reinforce these principles, making them a natural part of students' everyday thinking.

Today, the need for effective consent education is critical and schools play a crucial role in this effort. By addressing these issues head-on, we can work towards a society where respect and consent are foundational values, ultimately reducing sexual violence and equipping young people to live happy, healthy and respectful relationships.

• Luke Ramsden is senior deputy head of St Benedict's School and chair of trustees for The Schools Consent Project, a charity which works to normalise conversations about consent in order to encourage safe, healthy interactions and reduce the likelihood of young people experiencing – or perpetrating – sexual harm. For more information about the charity’s work, visit www.schoolsconsentproject.com  

Further information & resources

• Children’s commissioner for England: Evidence on pornography's influence on harmful sexual behaviour among children, 2023: www.childrenscommissioner.gov.uk/resource/pornography-and-harmful-sexual-behaviour
• Ofsted: Review of sexual abuse in schools and colleges, 2021: www.gov.uk/government/publications/review-of-sexual-abuse-in-schools-and-colleges
• ONS: Sexual offences in England and Wales overview, 2023: www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/sexualoffencesinenglandandwalesoverview/march2022
• SEF: Young people’s RSE poll, 2024: www.sexeducationforum.org.uk/resources/evidence/young-peoples-rse-poll-2024  

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Rshe: teaching consent effectively, andrew tate: responding to misogyny in schools, ‘sex without consent, i suppose that is rape...’.