critical thinking questions for cells

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Critical Thinking Questions

28 . Compare and contrast a human somatic cell to a human gamete.

29 . What is the relationship between a genome, chromosomes, and genes?

30 . Eukaryotic chromosomes are thousands of times longer than a typical cell. Explain how chromosomes can fit inside a eukaryotic nucleus.

31 . Briefly describe the events that occur in each phase of interphase.

32 . Chemotherapy drugs such as vincristine (derived from Madagascar periwinkle plants) and colchicine (derived from autumn crocus plants) disrupt mitosis by binding to tubulin (the subunit of microtubules) and interfering with microtubule assembly and disassembly. Exactly what mitotic structure is targeted by these drugs and what effect would that have on cell division?

33 . Describe the similarities and differences between the cytokinesis mechanisms found in animal cells versus those in plant cells.

34 . List some reasons why a cell that has just completed cytokinesis might enter the G 0 phase instead of the G 1 phase.

35 . What cell-cycle events will be affected in a cell that produces mutated (non-functional) cohesin protein?

36 . Describe the general conditions that must be met at each of the three main cell-cycle checkpoints.

37 . Compare and contrast the roles of the positive cell-cycle regulators negative regulators.

38 . What steps are necessary for Cdk to become fully active?

39 . Rb is a negative regulator that blocks the cell cycle at the G 1 checkpoint until the cell achieves a requisite size. What molecular mechanism does Rb employ to halt the cell cycle?

40 . Outline the steps that lead to a cell becoming cancerous.

41 . Explain the difference between a proto-oncogene and a tumor-suppressor gene.

42 . List the regulatory mechanisms that might be lost in a cell producing faulty p53.

43 . p53 can trigger apoptosis if certain cell-cycle events fail. How does this regulatory outcome benefit a multicellular organism?

44 . Name the common components of eukaryotic cell division and binary fission.

45 . Describe how the duplicated bacterial chromosomes are distributed into new daughter cells without the direction of the mitotic spindle.

Biology 2e for Biol 111 and Biol 112 Copyright © by Mary Ann Clark; Jung Choi; and Matthew Douglas is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Critical Thinking in Science

• Part 1: Introduction to Experimental Design
• Part 2: The Story of Pi
• Part 3: Experimenting with pH
• Part 4: Water Quality
• Part 5: Change Over Time

Part 6: Cells

• Part 7: Microbiology and Infectious Disease
• About the Author

Introduction:

This lesson introduces students to organelles, cells, and characteristics of the kingdoms. Students will begin their investigation at the organelle level and work up to the kingdom level. After students have created a study guide to cells, they will plan and complete an experiment to increase their knowledge and experience.

Learning Outcomes:

• Students will define the structure and function of each cell organelle.
• Students will identify organelles in cell samples.
• Students will use cell samples to identify major characteristics of the kingdoms.
• Students will organize observations to create a study guide.
• Students will increase their inquiry skills.
• Students will use experimental data to make conclusions.
• Students will present their finding to the class.

Curriculum Alignment:


1.01 Identify and create questions and hypotheses that can be answered through scientific investigations.

1.02 Develop appropriate experimental procedures for:

• Given questions.
• Student generated questions.

1.04 Analyze variables in scientific investigations:

• Identify dependent and independent.
• Use of a control.
• Manipulate.
• Describe relationships between.
• Define operationally.

1.05 Analyze evidence to:

• Explain observations.
• Make inferences and predictions.
• Develop the relationship between evidence and explanation.

1.06 Use mathematics to gather, organize, and present quantitative data resulting from scientific investigations:

• Measurement.
• Analysis of data.
• Prediction models.

1.08 Use oral and written language to:

• Communicate findings.
• Defend conclusions of scientific investigations.
• Describe strengths and weaknesses of claims, arguments, and/or data

6.02 Analyze structures, functions, and processes within animal cells for:

• Capture and release of energy.
• Feedback information.
• Dispose of wastes.
• Reproduction.
• Specialized needs.

6.04 Conclude that animal cells carry on complex chemical processes to balance the needs of the organism.

• Cells grow and divide to produce more cells.
• Cells take in nutrients to make the energy for the work cells do.
• Cells take in materials that a cell or an organism needs.

Classroom Time Required:

Approximately 280 minutes, divided as describes below. Students can also complete some of the research on their own to decrease the required time.

Materials Needed:

• Microscopes (1 microscope for every two students is best)
• Various slides from the Animal, Plant, Fungi, Bacteria, and Protista Kingdoms.
• Electron Microscope images of cell organelles
• Copies of Organelle chart, Organelle Function Checklist, Cell chart, and Kingdom Chart

Research materials:

• internet, books, encyclopedias, articles, text book, etc.
• Grids for cell counting- print small grids on overheads and cut into small sections for the students
• Green Algae- from outdoor water sample or aquarium store
• Petri dishes for algae growth- determine how many each group needs
• Substances to adjust pH for students
• pH paper to determine pH and monitor
• slides and cover-slips for wet mounts
• Graph paper, large paper for posters (if necessary)

Technology Resources:

Computer, Projector, student computers with internet access if possible

Pre-Activities/ Activities:

Pre-activity:.

Students should be introduced to proper microscope use and techniques. They should also understand the importance of scientific drawings and their accuracy.

• What are cells? (Time: 20 minutes)
• Assess prior knowledge: Ask the students to describe cells, give examples of cells, and draw a picture of a cell.
• Students should then pair up with their neighbors and compare their answers to the above questions.
• As a class, share student ideas on cells.
• Cells have Organelles (Time: 50 minutes)
• The students will begin by looking at the cell organelles.
• Find Electron Microscope images of the following organelles: Nucleus, Mitochondria, Chloroplast, Golgi Body/Apparatus, Cell Wall, Cell Membrane, Lysosome, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Ribosome, Vacuole, Vesicle, Cytoplasm
• Print these images for each student. Make sure they are small enough to fit in the square on the paper.
• Give each student 6 copies of the Organelle Chart Worksheet (See Worksheet 1). (Or 3 pages front to back) Each student should also receive a small, printed electron microscope image for each organelle.
• Discuss what an electron microscope is and why it is important to use this tool when studying the structure of an organelle.
• Students should complete each organelle chart by:
• Writing the name of the organelle at the top of the paper
• Describe the function of the organelle in the provided space
• Paste the organelle image in the electron microscope image square
• Create a drawing of the organelle- this should look like the “cartoon” images students often see
• In order for students to accurately complete the organelle pages you can either:
• Create a Power point of the cell organelle functions, electron microscope images, and “cartoon” drawing to use with the class.
• Provide the students access to computers to research these things on their own.
• Provide the students with appropriate research materials (books, articles, etc.) to find the answers.
• The students will complete the charts after viewing cell samples and determining the characteristics of the Kingdoms.
• Organelle Function Overview (Time: 20 minutes)
• Students will complete the Organelle job checklist to more clearly define the role of these organelles in the cell (See Worksheet 2).
• Organelles in Cells (Time: 2-50 minutes class periods)
• The students will use the microscope to view various cell samples and identify the visible organelles.
• Each sample will be drawn under low power (for cell to cell structure) and high power (cell detail/organelles) (See Worksheet 3).
• Students should color their drawings and label the important details.
• Students will identify the organelles that were visible.
• You will need to help the students identify the organelles that were present but NOT visible with the microscope.
• Students should be provided with 2 samples from each of the following kingdoms: Animal, Plant, Fungi, and Bacteria. Tell students which samples belong to which kingdom.
• Using Cells Samples to define Kingdom Characteristics (Time: 30 minutes)
• Students will use their cell worksheets to characterize the Animal, Plant, Fungi, and Bacteria kingdoms.
• Students will complete the Kingdom Chart for these four kingdoms (See Worksheet 4).
• Option 2: Why are Archaebacteria in a separate kingdom? (Time: 20 minutes)
• Ask students to research the defining characteristics of this kingdom and determine why it is its own kingdom.
• Option 3: What is the Protista kingdom? (Time: 40 minutes)
• Give students several examples of members of the Protista kingdom:
• Animal-like: Paramecium, amoeba
• Fungi-like: mildew, molds
• Plant-like: Euglena, diatoms, Green Algae, Red Algae, Brown Algae
• Ask students to define the major characteristics of this kingdom using these examples.
• Students should determine that this kingdom is the “left over” kingdom. Its members are similar to the other kingdoms, but don’t fit all of the characteristics.
• (Time: 2 days to plan and gather materials, 30 minutes/day for 5 days to complete experiment, 1 day to organize results)
• Students will design and complete their own experiment to determine the effect of pH on algae growth. First, you must review the Algae Growth Experiment Directions (See Worksheet 5) with the students. Explain how cell counts are completed and even demonstrate it for the class (See Worksheet 6).
• When students are designing their experiment it is good to give them several good ideas of household chemicals that could be used to make various pH solutions for the experiment. Some groups may use acids and bases and some may focus on a small range in either the acids or bases.
• Students will use the experimental design graphic organizer (See Worksheet 7) to plan their experiment.
• Ask students to show you their experimental plan, procedure, and materials list before they begin.
• You may need to adjust time for this depending on the class.
• (Time: 1 to 2 class periods)
• After students have completed their experiments, organized their data, and graphed their results, students will create a poster display to explain their experiment and results. These can be displayed and presented to the class if desired. A rubric is provided, but should be adjusted according to your requirements.

Assessment:

See evaluation section.

Modifications:

• EDGO can be edited for any motor skill deficiencies by making it larger, or making it available to be typed on.
• All basic modifications can be used for these activities.
• The experiment can be adjusted as necessary.

Critical Vocabulary:

• Prokaryotic
• Multi-cellular
• Unicellular
• Cell Organelles (nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, vacuole, vesicle, lysosome, golgi body, mitochondria, chloroplast, cell wall, and cell membrane)
• Kingdoms (Animal, Plant, Fungi, Protista, Bacteria, and Archaebacteria)

This lesson is part of the Critical Thinking in Science Unit. This lesson should be used while teaching Goal 6 of the North Carolina Standards of Learning (cells). Students are observing a variety of samples using the microscope so it is important to have several slide examples for each kingdom. This lesson focuses on the student’s ability to research and gather observations to create their own study guide of information on organelles, cells, and kingdoms. The ability to use scientific observations and research is important for students. It helps them to organize and apply knowledge. Students also have a chance to experiment with the needs of living things. The students will gain considerable knowledge by planning, performing, analyzing, and presenting their experiment.

Supplemental Files: 

Address: Campus Box 7006. Raleigh, NC 27695 Telephone: 919.515.5118 Fax: 919.515.5831 E-Mail: [email protected]

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons

Margin Size

• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

2.3.11: Critical Thinking Questions

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 98069

\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

Does physical exercise involve anabolic and/or catabolic processes? Give evidence for your answer.

Name two different cellular functions that require energy that parallel human energy-requiring functions.

Explain in your own words the difference between a spontaneous reaction and one that occurs instantaneously, and what causes this difference.

Describe the position of the transition state on a vertical energy scale, from low to high, relative to the position of the reactants and products, for both endergonic and exergonic reactions.

Imagine an elaborate ant farm with tunnels and passageways through the sand where ants live in a large community. Now imagine that an earthquake shook the ground and demolished the ant farm. In which of these two scenarios, before or after the earthquake, was the ant farm system in a state of higher or lower entropy?

Energy transfers take place constantly in everyday activities. Think of two scenarios: cooking on a stove and driving. Explain how the second law of thermodynamics applies to these two scenarios.

Do you think that the E A for ATP hydrolysis is relatively low or high? Explain your reasoning.

With regard to enzymes, why are vitamins necessary for good health? Give examples.

Explain in your own words how enzyme feedback inhibition benefits a cell.

Critical Thinking Questions

Explain the reason why the imprudent and excessive use of antibiotics has resulted in a major global problem.

Your friend believes that prokaryotes are always detrimental and pathogenic. How would you explain to them that they are wrong?

Describe the hypothesized steps in the origin of eukaryote cells.

How does killing Anopheles mosquitoes affect the Plasmodium protists?

Without treatment, why does African sleeping sickness invariably lead to death?

Why can superficial mycoses in humans lead to bacterial infections?

As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction

• Authors: Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: Concepts of Biology
• Publication date: Apr 25, 2013
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/13-critical-thinking-questions

© Apr 26, 2024 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.

If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website.

If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked.

To log in and use all the features of Khan Academy, please enable JavaScript in your browser.

High school biology

Course: high school biology   >   unit 2.

• Overview of animal and plant cells
• Plant vs animal cells review

Plant vs animal cells

• (Choice A)   Plant cell A Plant cell
• (Choice B)   Bacteria B Bacteria
• (Choice C)   Animal cell C Animal cell
• (Choice D)   Fungal cell D Fungal cell

Change Password

Your password must have 8 characters or more and contain 3 of the following:.

• a lower case character, 
• an upper case character, 
• a special character 

Password Changed Successfully

Your password has been changed

• Sign in / Register

Request Username

Can't sign in? Forgot your username?

Enter your email address below and we will send you your username

If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username

Approaches to Cell Biology Teaching: Questions about Questions

• Deborah Allen
• Kimberly Tanner

Search for more papers by this author

Questions! Questions! Questions! When a teacher is teaching students of any age, on any topic, questions are the teacher's best friend. As a teacher, do you ask questions of your students? When do you ask questions? Are they oral questions or written questions? For what purposes do you ask questions? Do you write out in advance the questions you ask? What kinds of questions do you tend to ask? What kinds of answers do you tend to get? What do you predict would happen in your classroom if you changed the kinds of questions that you ask? How could you collect data on and analyze your questioning patterns and the impact of different kinds of questions on your students' learning? What criteria could you use to assess the effectiveness of your questions?

There are many questions to be asked about the pedagogical practice of questioning. Questions provide insight into what students at any age or grade level already know about a topic, which provides a beginning point for teaching. Questions reveal misconceptions and misunderstandings that must be addressed for teachers to move student thinking forward. In a classroom discussion or debate, questions can influence behaviors, attitudes, and appreciations. They can be used to curb talkative students or draw reserved students into the discussion, to move ideas from the abstract to the concrete, to acknowledge good points made previously, or to elicit a summary or provide closure. Questions challenge students' thinking, which leads them to insights and discoveries of their own. Most important, questions are a key tool in assessing student learning. When practiced artfully, questioning can play a central role in the development of students' intellectual abilities; questions can guide thinking as well as test for it.

Although many teachers carefully plan test questions used as final assessments of students' degree of experience with the course material, much less time is invested in oral questions that are interwoven in our teaching. Analysis of the kinds of questions we ask, whether they are oral or written, and the nature of the answers they elicit is even rarer. Given the important role of questions in teaching and learning, a method for collecting evidence about our own questioning strategies and a framework within which to analyze them has the potential to transform our teaching. Such a framework can be found in Bloom's (1956) Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain, a classification system for cognitive abilities and educational objectives developed by educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom and his four colleagues (M. Englehart, E. Furst, W. Hill, and D. Krathwohl). Since its inception, Bloom's Taxonomy has influenced curriculum development, the construction of test questions, and our understanding of learning outcomes ( Kunen et al. , 1981 ; Kottke and Schuster, 1990 ). It has helped educators to match the questions they ask with the type of thinking skills they are trying to develop, and to otherwise formulate or clarify their instructional objectives.

Bloom's Taxonomy is based on the premise that there are distinct thinking behaviors that we engage in that are important in the process of learning. Bloom and colleagues grouped these behaviors into six categories that ascend in their level of complexity: from knowledge, comprehension, and application at the lower levels to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation at the higher levels. This scheme orders the six categories into a hierarchy such that cognition at each level encompasses, builds on, and is more difficult than that at the levels below it. In turn, these categories provide a framework for classifying questions that prompt students to engage in these different thinking behaviors, and thus a tool for reflecting on our own questioning strategies used in teaching.

The utility of Bloom's Taxonomy in helping to distinguish the cognitive level needed to answer a given question becomes clearer when the categories in the hierarchy are more fully described. These descriptions (a composite of descriptions found in Bloom et al. , 1956 ; Uno, 1998 ; and Granello, 2000 ) are provided next in their ascending order in the hierarchy. 1

Knowledge : Recalling or recognizing previously learned ideas or phenonema (including definitions, principles, criteria, conventions, trends, generalizations, sequences, classifications and categories, and structures) in the approximate form in which they were learned. Questions asked to prompt or assess a student's thinking behavior at this lowest level in the hierarchy require only factual recall (“regurgitation”), are easy to formulate, and typically incorporate verbs or phrases such as Define, Describe, State, Name, How much is, How did , or What is .

Comprehension : Understanding the literal meaning of a communication, usually demonstrated by the ability to paraphrase or summarize, to predict consequences or effects, or to translate from one form to another. Questions linked to this level of Bloom's Taxonomy require students to show more in-depth understanding and typically use the verbs or phrases Explain, Summarize, Translate, Extrapolate, What is the main idea of , or Give an example of .

Application : Selecting and using information (such as rules, methods such as experimental approaches, and theories) in a new and concrete context (including solving problems and performing tasks). At this level, questions ask students to use what they know without telling them how to use it, and, in addition to Apply , use verbs such as Use, Demonstrate, Compute, Solve , or Predict.

Analysis : Breaking a concept, statement, or question into its components (e.g., assumptions, hypotheses, and evidence) and explaining the relationships between the components and the organizational structures and principles involved. Analysis includes the ability to distinguish relevant information from irrelevant information and facts from inferences, and to recognize fallacies in reasoning. Questions that assess students at this level ask them to Compare, Contrast, Categorize, Discriminate, Question ,or Relate . Such questions could ask either for discrimination of the key elements in a written communication and their interrelationships or for reconstruction of the process by which something was done. Analysis of experimental data requires functioning at this level.

Synthesis : Integrating and combining ideas to form a new product, pattern, plan, communication, or structure (including those for abstract relationships, such as classification schemes); solving problems involving creativity or originality. Questions that ask students to function at this cognitive level typically use the verbs Design, Develop , or Propose .

Evaluation : Using a specific set of internal or external criteria or standards to arrive at a reasoned judgment (decision, appraisal, or critique) about the value of material for a given purpose. Questions used to assess an individual's level of competency in this category are typically open ended, with more than one correct answer or more than one path to an answer. They use verbs such as Judge, Appraise, Rate, Defend, Revise , or Assess . Critical appraisal of research papers, particularly when the findings are controversial or inconsistent with previous findings, falls under this category.

1If you want to assess your understanding of Bloom's Taxonomy after reading theseinitial descriptions, the first paragraph of this article may be used as part of a practice quiz. Referring to each question aboutquestioning in the first paragraph of this article, can you identify the level of Bloom's Taxonomy at which the answerer would need to becompetent to answer the question? For answers to this practice quiz, see Appendix A .

For a more in-depth assessment of your understanding of Bloom's Taxonomy, you may want to take the Bloom's Quiz in Appendix B.

For further clarification of these categories, Table 1 provides not only a synopsis of words and phrases that often begin questions within each category, but also concrete example questions in each category that can be used to prompt thinking behaviors in students at each level of the hierarchy. Three topical areas in the life sciences—neurobiology, virology, and biological taxonomy—are used to demonstrate not only the distinctions in Bloom's categories, but also the hierarchical nature of the classification scheme.

a First column is a list of words that often begin questions at that level. Second column gives three questions, one for each topical area in the life sciences–neurobiology, virology, and biological taxonomy. These questions are used to demonstrate not only distinctions in Bloom's categories, but also the hierarchical nature of the classification scheme. We assume for these questions that, for the application level and above, the context is new to individuals answering the question

Although Bloom's Taxonomy is a widely accepted classification system, it has its full share of critics. Some critics have questioned its validity because of its behaviorally specified goals—that is, because it requires individuals to demonstrate mental processes in observable ways, including task performance ( Pring, 1971 ). Many critics have suggested that although research supports the basic hierarchical structure of the classification system, the hierarchy falls down at the synthesis and evaluation levels, that these are instead two divergent processes that operate at the same level of complexity ( Seddon, 1978 ). Other critics have pointed out that Bloom's Taxonomy fails to acknowledge past history or context. For example, if a sophisticated appraisal of a research paper emerges from a student discussion, an exam question that then asks students to evaluate these same research findings will require them to function at the lower knowledge or comprehension level, to simply recall and restate the outcomes of an evaluative discussion. Finally, as Nordvall and Braxton ( 1996 ) have pointed out, the knowledge and comprehension levels of Bloom's Taxonomy do not acknowledge that some types of information are more difficult to remember and understand. For example, most students find it easier to briefly describe three major functional types of RNA than to explain the details of how RNA is transcribed or translated. However, most educators agree that although the research on the validity of Bloom's Taxonomy is not necessarily conclusive, this taxonomy is a useful tool for making a distinction between lower-level and higher-order knowing and thinking (commonly referred to as critical thinking) and for improving our teaching.

Bloom's Taxonomy has provided a particularly useful way to investigate the congruence between course and curricular objectives and the content that is actually taught and assessed. Bloom and colleagues pointed out the utility of their model in this regard when they introduced it in the 1950s. Along with the classification system, they presented a content analysis of the types of questions that college faculty were typically asking on their course exams. They found that 70-95% of the questions that students encountered on these undergraduate exams required them to think only at the lower levels of knowledge and comprehension. Many researchers subsequently found that even 40 yr after the original publication of Bloom's Taxonomy, the typical college-level objective test question continued to assess predominantly the lower-order thinking levels ( Gage and Berliner, 1992 ; Evans, 1999 ). With the advent of the National Education Standards and Project 2061 ( American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993 ; National Research Council, 1996 ) and the host of reform proposals in science education (e.g., National Science Foundation 1996 ), we are all striving to develop critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills in students of all ages. To do so, we should ensure that our pedagogy in general and our questioning strategies in particular extend to the analytic, synthetic, and evaluation levels of Bloom's Taxonomy. Laboratory experiences clearly have the potential to foster intellectual development (problem solving, analysis, and evaluation); however, a content analysis of 10 manuals commonly used in undergraduate chemistry laboratory courses revealed that 8 of the 10 manuals focused on questions that challenged learners to think predominantly at the three lower levels of Bloom's Taxonomy ( Domin, 1999 ). Clearly, we have a long way to go to achieve our goal.

The point of raising these findings is not to chastise the authors of these exams and manuals. Questions at the lower levels have appropriate and legitimate uses (remember that Bloom and colleagues considered knowledge and comprehension to be foundational to more complex cognitive processes). At the very least, such questions can verify student preparation and comprehension before teachers move on to materials and strategies that promote development of the higher-order thinking skills. Rather, the point is that the assessments and questions that we use in our teaching not only drive what we teach and how we teach it, but also what students learn (this concept is informally described as “what you measure is what you get,” or WYMIWYG; Hummel and Huitt, 1994 ). If our course assessments require predominantly lower-level thinking, such thinking is likely to be all that we will get from our students. In other words, asking a predominance of lower-level questions on exams or as part of classroom question-answer dialogues may fixate student thinking at this level and waste opportunities for us to develop students' more complex intellectual capabilities ( Napell, 1976 ). Conversely, if we make more forays into developing effective and appropriate questions and assessments aimed at the higher-order thinking levels in Bloom's Taxonomy, there is at least a chance that we will also be teaching more at these levels and that students will have the opportunity to develop thinking behaviors at these levels. Using Bloom's Taxonomy (or some other validated taxonomy) to perform a careful content analysis of our instructional objectives—and of questions embedded in activities, assessments, and other student experiences—can therefore help to make us conscious of the potential misalignment between what we think our objectives are and the messages we send to students through our questions. Bloom's Taxonomy, not unlike assays routinely used in the laboratory to assess the quality and quantity of proteins, cells, or nucleic acids, can serve as a tool to measure the quantity and quality of the questions we ask in our teaching.

That said, in thinking about your own teaching, we hope you will consider again, deeply, the questions that we began with: As a teacher, do you ask questions of your students? When do you ask questions? For what purposes do you ask questions? What kinds of questions do you tend to ask? What kinds of answers do you tend to get? What do you predict would happen in your classroom if you changed the kinds of questions that you ask? And perhaps most important, how could you begin to collect data on and analyze your questioning patterns? We encourage you to share your experiences with and insights on answering these questions about questions.

APPENDIX B Understanding Bloom's Taxonomy: Quiz

As you develop familiarity with the categories in Bloom's Taxonomy, it can be useful to analyze questions, decide where you might place them in the categories, and explain why. As such, we have provided this Bloom's Quiz, a collection of questions to use in probing your understanding of and insights into Bloom's Taxonomy. As described in this article, all questions used in teaching occur in a context, including the pedagogical structure in which they are presented and their relationship to the discussion of other concepts and topics. That said, these questions are relatively free of contextual information. We challenge you to think about which category or categories they most often fit into and why you place them there. We have provided answers that represent the category in which we think the question would most often fit, and in some cases we have described gray areas where the question may fit well into more than one category. We hope that in your analysis of the questions you clarify your thinking about the taxonomy and perhaps find more gray areas yourself. That said, enjoy thinking about the questions and consider doing a similar analysis on questions that you ask in your classrooms and laboratories.

BLOOM'S QUIZ

Suggested answers follow the questions.

Design an experiment to test the hypothesis that some prostate cancer cells thrive after elimination of the influence of androgens because estrogen activates genes normally controlled by an androgen receptor.

What factors might influence the contribution that industrial carbon dioxide emissions make to global temperature levels?

How are proteins destined for export from a cell typically modified prior to secretion?

Which of the following is not an event that occurs during the first division of meiosis: replication of DNA, pairing of homologous chromosomes, formation of haploid chromosome complements, crossing over, or separation of sister chromatids?

Do the authors' data support their hypotheses and conclusions? Why or why not?

Should embryos “left over” from in vitro fertilization procedures be used as sources of stem cells for biomedical research?

Construct a concept map with the following title: Regulation of the Cell Cycle.

How does the generalized life cycle of an animal differ from that of a plant?

Suggested Answers

Analysis : However, if these factors were previously discussed in class or presented in a reading assigned to students, this question involves only comprehension.

Comprehension

This question intentionally brings out gray areas in trying to fit short questions to Bloom's categories without awareness of the context. According to the explanations provided in the text, the question could be at the analysis level; it requires the answerer to break down a communication about experimental findings into its components and explain their interrelationships. However, the question can take another context if, for example, it is asked in the context of peer review of a manuscript or of a student lab report. In this context, the methodology of the experiment may be open to question, or the authors may have taken an overly optimistic or confident viewpoint in interpreting their data. The answer would then require some critical appraisal ( evaluation ) and a knowledge of the standards used in communicating about experimental findings in a particular discipline.

Evaluation : The answerer could find many written opinions on this issue through a quick search on the Internet. If other opinions were discussed or read previously and the answerer merely recapitulates another person's opinion, this question involves only comprehension .

Synthesis , if the person constructing the map has not seen one before on this topic. A concept map is a collection of boxes, lines, and words used to represent understanding of major themes and ideas on a subject and how these ideas are interrelated. Maps are typically put together by placing key concepts related to the subject in the boxes, then arranging the boxes in a scheme that indicates hierarchies of importance or specificity (for example, with the “bigger ideas” at the top and a progression toward increasingly more specific concepts toward the bottom of the map). Lines drawn between boxes (propositional linkages) are used to indicate relatedness of concepts. A word or phrase above the linkage (usually a verb or an adverb) is used to indicate the nature of the relationship.

Comprehension : Some people might argue that the level for this question is analysis if the answerer has not previously been told what the differences are (or read the typical introductory biology textbook treatment of animal versus plant cell cycles). Our opinion is that the cycles do not have to be broken into their components for the major differences to be evident.

• American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). ( 1993 ). Benchmarks for Science Literacy , Washington, DC: AAAS. Available online at http://www.project2061.org/tools/benchol/bolframe.htm (Project 2061 web site). Google Scholar
• Bloom, B.S., Englehart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H., and Krathwohl, D.R. ( 1956 ). A Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain . New York: McKay. Google Scholar
• Domin, D.S. ( 1999 ). A content analysis of general chemistry laboratory manuals for evidence of higher order cognitive tasks. J. Chem. Ed. 76 ,109 -111. Google Scholar
• Evans, C. ( 1999 ). Improving test practices to require and evaluate higher levels of thinking. Education 119 ,616 -618. Google Scholar
• Gage, N.L., and Berliner, D.C. ( 1992 ). Educational Psychology , Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Google Scholar
• Granello, D.H. ( 2000 ). Encouraging the cognitive development of supervisees: using Bloom's Taxonomy in supervision. Counselor Ed. Supervision 40 ,31 -46. Google Scholar
• Hummel, J., and Huitt, W. ( 1994 , Feb.). What you measure is what you get . GaASCD Newsletter: The Reporter,10 -11. Available online at http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/files/wymiwyg.html (last accessed June 24 2002). Google Scholar
• Kottke, J.L., and Schuster, D.H. ( 1990 ). Developing tests for measuring Bloom's learning outcomes. Psychol. Rep. 66 ,27 -32. Google Scholar
• Kunen, S., Cohen, R., and Solman, R. ( 1981 ). A levels-of-processing analysis of Bloom's Taxonomy. J. Ed. Psychol. 73 ,202 -211. Google Scholar
• Napell, S.M. ( 1976 , Winter). Six common non-facilitating teaching behaviors. Contemp. Ed. 47 (2),79 -82. Google Scholar
• National Research Council. ( 1996 ). National Science Education Standards , Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Google Scholar
• National Science Foundation (NSF). ( 1996 ). Shaping the Future: New Expectations for Undergraduate Education in Science, Mathematics, Engineering, and Technology (NSF 96-139) , Arlington, VA: NSF. Google Scholar
• Nordvall, R.C., and Braxton, J.R. ( 1996 ). An alternative definition of quality of undergraduate education: towards usable knowledge for improvement. J. Higher Ed. 67 ,483 -497. Google Scholar
• Pring, R. ( 1971 ). Bloom's Taxonomy: a philosophical critique. Camb. J. Ed. 1 ,83 -91. Google Scholar
• Seddon, G.M. ( 1978 ). The properties of Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives for the cognitive domain. Rev. Ed. Res. 48 ,303 -323. Google Scholar
• Uno, G.E. ( 1998 ). Handbook on Teaching Undergraduate Science Courses: A Survival Training Manual , Philadelphia: Saunders. Google Scholar

LINKS TO WEB SITES ON BLOOM'S TAXONOMY

• Division of Instructional Development, Office of Instructional Resources, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Levels and Types of Questions . http://www.oir.uiuc.edu/did/booklets/question/quest1.html Google Scholar
• Krumme, G. University of Washington. Major Categories in the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives . http://faculty.washington.edu/krumme/guides/bloom.html Google Scholar
• Learning Skills Program, Counselling Services, University of Victoria. Bloom's Taxonomy . http://www.coun.uvic.ca/learn/program/hndouts/bloom.html Google Scholar
• Crystal Uminski ,
• Sara M. Burbach , and
• Brian A. Couch
• Tammy Long, Monitoring Editor
• Tab-Meta Key: A Model for Exam Review 30 January 2024 | Journal of College Science Teaching, Vol. 53, No. 1
• A validation study of the Self-Efficacy for Strategic Learning in Biology Scales (SESLBS) 1 Dec 2023 | International Journal of Educational Research Open, Vol. 5
• How to make the engage really engaging: A framework for an instructional approach for the pre-service teachers 1 Jan 2023 | Eurasian Journal of Science and Environmental Education, Vol. 3, No. 1
• Enhancing Student Learning Capacity in a Biotechnology Course by Employing Interteaching Strategy Compared to Instructor-Centered Approach 23 July 2023
• İlkokul 3. ve 4. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Yenilenmiş Bloom Taksonomisine Göre Soru Sorma Becerilerinin Karşılaştırılması 29 December 2022 | Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, Vol. 20, No. 3
• Yabancı Dil Türkçe Ders Kitaplarında Etkinlik Türleri 28 December 2022 | Batı Anadolu Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, Vol. 13, No. 2
• Tori M. Larsen ,
• Bianca H. Endo ,
• Alexander T. Yee ,
• Tony Do , and
• Stanley M. Lo
• Erika Offerdahl, Monitoring Editor
• ORTAOKUL MATEMATİK ÖĞRETMENLERİNİN VERİ İŞLEME ÖĞRENME ALANINA DAİR YAZILI SINAV SORULARI ÜZERİNE İNCELEME 14 April 2022 | e-International Journal of Educational Research
• 2022 | Journal of Biological Education
• Navigating Complex, Ethical Problems in Professional Life: a Guide to Teaching SMART Strategies for Decision-Making 23 April 2020 | Journal of Academic Ethics, Vol. 19, No. 2
• Evaluating the efficacy of a student-centered active learning environment for undergraduate programs (SCALE-UP) classroom for major and non-major biology students 1 April 2018 | Journal of Biological Education, Vol. 53, No. 1
• Role of comprehension on performance at higher levels of Bloom's taxonomy: Findings from assessments of healthcare professional students 18 January 2018 | Anatomical Sciences Education, Vol. 11, No. 5
• Jessie B. Arneson and
• Erika G. Offerdahl
• Hannah Sevian, Monitoring Editor
• Student profile in completing questions based on cognitive level of bloom’s taxonomy by Anderson and Krathwohl 1 Jan 2018
• Student Buy-In Toward Formative Assessments: The Influence of Student Factors and Importance for Course Success 1 Apr 2017 | Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education, Vol. 18, No. 1
• Bloom’s dichotomous key: a new tool for evaluating the cognitive difficulty of assessments 1 Mar 2017 | Advances in Physiology Education, Vol. 41, No. 1
• Louise Ainscough ,
• Eden Foulis ,
• Kay Colthorpe ,
• Kirsten Zimbardi ,
• Melanie Robertson-Dean ,
• Prasad Chunduri , and
• Lesley Lluka
• Erin Dolan, Monitoring Editor
• Design and testing of an assessment instrument to measure understanding of protein structure and enzyme inhibition in a new context 14 November 2015 | Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, Vol. 44, No. 2
• The Analysis of Turkish Course Exam Questions According to Re-constructed Bloom’s taxonomy 1 December 2015 | Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 14, No. 24223
• Questionamento em manuais escolares: um estudo no âmbito das Ciências Naturais 1 Sep 2015 | Ciência & Educação (Bauru), Vol. 21, No. 3
• Sarah Miller , and
• Kimberly D. Tanner
• , Monitoring Editor
• A Pilot Study on the Use of Lecture Tools to Enhance the Teaching of Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics 9 November 2014 | Journal of Medical Education and Curricular Development, Vol. 1
• Questionamento em manuais escolares de Ciências: desenvolvimento e validação de uma grelha de análise 1 Jun 2012 | Educar em Revista, Vol. 1, No. 44
• David J. Baumler ,
• Lois M. Banta ,
• Kai F. Hung ,
• Jodi A. Schwarz ,
• Eric L. Cabot ,
• Jeremy D. Glasner , and
• Nicole T. Perna
• Erin L. Dolan, Monitoring Editor
• Antiviral Drug Research Proposal Activity 1 Jan 2011 | Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education, Vol. 12, No. 1
• What's on the news? The use of media texts in exams of clinical biochemistry for medical and nutrition students 12 March 2010 | Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, Vol. 38, No. 2
• Biological Information and Its Users 7 December 2009
• Innovations in Teaching Undergraduate Biology and Why We Need Them 1 Nov 2009 | Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vol. 25, No. 1
• Alison Crowe ,
• Clarissa Dirks , and
• Mary Pat Wenderoth
• Marshall Sundberg, Monitoring Editor
• William B. Wood
• Bridging the educational research‐teaching practice gap 24 July 2008 | Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, Vol. 36, No. 4
• Kathleen M. Gehring , and
• Deborah A. Eastman
• Jeffrey Hardin, Monitoring Editor
• The use of multiple tools for teaching medical biochemistry 1 Mar 2008 | Advances in Physiology Education, Vol. 32, No. 1
• Deborah Allen , and
• Pizza and pasta help students learn metabolism 1 Jun 2006 | Advances in Physiology Education, Vol. 30, No. 2
• Kimberly D. Tanner ,
• Liesl Chatman , and
• A. Malcolm Campbell

Submitted: 19 July 2002 Revised: 30 July 2002 Accepted: 6 August 2002

© 2002 by The American Society for Cell Biology

Critical Thinking Questions

• All cells come from pre-existing cells.
• All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
• A cell is the basic unit of life.
• A nucleus and organelles are found in prokaryotic cells.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of light microscopes? What are the advantages and disadvantages of electron microscopes?

• Advantage: In light microscopes, the light beam does not kill the cell. Electron microscopes are helpful in viewing intricate details of a specimen and have high resolution. Disadvantage: Light microscopes have low resolving power. Electron microscopes are costly and require killing the specimen.
• Advantage: Light microscopes have high resolution. Electron microscopes are helpful in viewing surface details of a specimen. Disadvantage: Light microscopes kill the cell. Electron microscopes are costly and low resolution.
• Advantage: Light microscopes have high resolution. Electron microscopes are helpful in viewing surface details of a specimen. Disadvantage: Light microscopes can be used only in the presence of light and are costly. Electron microscopes uses short wavelength of electrons and hence have lower magnification.
• Advantage: Light microscopes have high magnification. Electron microscopes are helpful in viewing surface details of a specimen. Disadvantage: Light microscopes can be used only in the presence of light and have lower resolution. Electron microscopes can be used only for viewing ultra-thin specimens.

Mitochondria are observed in plant cells that contain chloroplasts. Why do you find mitochondria in photosynthetic tissue?

• Mitochondria are not needed but are an evolutionary relic.
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts work together to use light energy to make sugars.
• Mitochondria participate in the Calvin cycle/light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.
• Mitochondria are required to break down sugars and other materials for energy.

In what situation(s), would the use of a light microscope be ideal? Why?

• A light microscope is used to view the details of the surface of a cell, as it cannot be viewed in detail by the transmission microscope.
• A light microscope allows visualization of small cells that have been stained.
• A standard light microscope is used to view living organisms with little contrast to distinguish them from the background, which would be harder to see with the electron microscope.
• A light microscope reveals the internal structures of a cell, which cannot be viewed by transmission electron microscopy.

The major role of the cell wall in bacteria is protecting the cell against changes in osmotic pressure: pressure caused by different solute concentrations in the environment. Bacterial cells swell, but do not burst, in low solute concentrations. What happens to bacterial cells if a compound that interferes with the synthesis of the cell wall is added to an environment with low solute concentrations?

• Bacterial cells will shrink due to the lack of cell wall material.
• Bacterial cells will shrink in size.
• Bacterial cells may burst due to the influx of water.
• Bacterial cells remain normal; they have alternative pathways to synthesize cell walls.

There is a lower limit to cell size. What determines how small a cell can be?

• The cell should be large enough to escape detection.
• The cell should be able to accommodate all the structures and metabolic activities necessary to survival.
• The size of the cell should be large enough to reproduce itself.
• The cell should be large enough to adapt to the changing environmental conditions.
• Plants remain exposed to changes in temperature and thus require rigid cell walls to protect themselves.
• Plants are subjected to variations in osmotic pressure, and a cell wall helps them against bursting or shrinking.
• Plant cells have a rigid cell wall to protect themselves from grazing animals.
• Plant cells have a rigid cell wall to prevent the influx of waste material.

Bacteria do not have organelles, yet the same reactions that take place on the mitochondria inner membrane, the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP, and chloroplasts, photosynthesis, take place in bacteria. Where do these reactions take place?

• These reactions take place in the nucleoid of the bacteria.
• These reactions occur in the cytoplasm present in the bacteria.
• These reactions occur on the plasma membrane of bacteria.
• These reactions take place in the mesosomes.

What are the structural and functional similarities and differences between mitochondria and chloroplasts?

• Similarities: double membrane, inter-membrane space, ATP production, contain DNA. Differences: Mitochondria have inner folds called cristae; chloroplast contains accessory pigments in thylakoids, which form grana and a stroma.
• Similarities: DNA, inter-membrane space, ATP production, and chlorophyll. Differences: Mitochondria have a matrix and inner folds called cristae; chloroplast contains accessory pigments in thylakoids, which form grana and a stroma.
• Similarities: double membrane and ATP production. Differences: Mitochondria have inter-membrane space and inner folds called cristae; chloroplast contains accessory pigments in thylakoids, which form grana and a stroma.
• Similarities: double membrane and ATP production. Differences: Mitochondria have inter-membrane space, inner folds called cristae, ATP synthase for ATP synthesis, and DNA; chloroplast contains accessory pigments in thylakoids, which form grana and a stroma.

Is the nuclear membrane part of the endomembrane system? Why or why not? 

• The nuclear membrane is not a part of the endomembrane system, as the endoplasmic reticulum is a separate organelle of the cell.
• The nuclear membrane is considered a part of the endomembrane system, as it is continuous with the Golgi body.
• The nuclear membrane is part of the endomembrane system, as it is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
• The nuclear membrane is not considered a part of the endomembrane system, as the nucleus is a separate organelle.
• These proteins move through the Golgi apparatus and enter in the nucleus.
• These proteins go through the Golgi apparatus and remain in the cytosol.
• The proteins do not go through the Golgi apparatus and move into the nucleus for processing.
• The proteins do not go through the Golgi apparatus and remain free in the cytosol.

What are the similarities and differences between the structures of centrioles and flagella?

• Centrioles and flagella are made of microtubules but show different arrangements.
• Centrioles are made of microtubules but flagella are made of microfilaments, and both show the same arrangement.
• Centrioles and flagella are made of microfilaments. Centrioles have a 9 + 2 arrangement.
• Centrioles are made of microtubules and flagella are made of microfilaments, and both have different structures.

Inhibitors of microtubule assembly, vinblastine for example, are used for cancer chemotherapy. How does an inhibitor of microtubule assembly affect cancerous cells?

• The inhibitors restrict the separation of chromosomes by the mitotic spindle.
• The inhibition of microtubules interferes with the synthesis of proteins.
• The inhibitors bind the microtubule to the nuclear membrane.
• The inhibitors interfere with energy production.
• Cilia are made of microfilaments and flagella of microtubules.
• Cilia are helpful in the process of engulfing food. Flagella are involved in the movement of the organism.
• Cilia are short and found in large numbers on the cell surface whereas flagella are long and fewer in number.
• Cilia are found in prokaryotic cells and flagella in eukaryotic cells.
• bone cells and cartilage cells
• muscle cells and skin cells
• nerve cells and muscle cells
• secretory cells and muscle cells

If there is a mutation in the gene for collagen, such as the one involved in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and the individual produces defective collagen, how would it affect coagulation?

• The syndrome affects the clotting factors and platelet aggregation.
• The syndrome leads to hyper-coagulation of blood.
• Coagulation is not affected because collagen is not required for coagulation.
• The syndrome occurs due to the breakdown of platelets.

How does the structure of a plasmodesma differ from that of a gap junction?

• Gap junctions are essential for transportation in animal cells, and plasmodesmata are essential for the movement of substances in plant cells.
• Gap junctions are found to provide attachment in animal cells, and plasmodesmata are essential for attachment of plant cells.
• Plasmodesmata are essential for communication between animal cells, and gap junctions are necessary for attachment of cells in plant cells.
• Plasmodesmata help in transportation and gap junctions help in attachment, in plant cells.

Copy and paste the link code above.

Related Items

40 Critical Thinking Questions

25. In your everyday life, you have probably noticed that certain instruments are ideal for certain situations. For example, you would use a spoon rather than a fork to eat soup because a spoon is shaped for scooping, while soup would slip between the tines of a fork. The use of ideal instruments also applies in science. In what situation(s) would the use of a light microscope be ideal, and why?

26. In what situation(s) would the use of a scanning electron microscope be ideal, and why?

27. In what situation(s) would a transmission electron microscope be ideal, and why?

28. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each of these types of microscopes?

29. Explain how the formation of an adult human follows the cell theory.

30. Antibiotics are medicines that are used to fight bacterial infections. These medicines kill prokaryotic cells without harming human cells. What part or parts of the bacterial cell do you think antibiotics target? Why?

31. Explain why not all microbes are harmful.

32. You already know that ribosomes are abundant in red blood cells. In what other cells of the body would you find them in great abundance? Why?

33. What are the structural and functional similarities and differences between mitochondria and chloroplasts?

34. Why are plasma membranes arranged as a bilayer rather than a monolayer?

35. In the context of cell biology, what do we mean by form follows function? What are at least two examples of this concept?

36. In your opinion, is the nuclear membrane part of the endomembrane system? Why or why not? Defend your answer.

37. What are the similarities and differences between the structures of centrioles and flagella?

38. How do cilia and flagella differ?

39. Describe how microfilaments and microtubules are involved in the phagocytosis and destruction of a pathogen by a macrophage.

40. Compare and contrast the boundaries that plant, animal, and bacteria cells use to separate themselves from their surrounding environment.

41. How does the structure of a plasmodesma differ from that of a gap junction?

42. Explain how the extracellular matrix functions.

43. Pathogenic E. coli have recently been shown to degrade tight junction proteins during infection. How would this provide an advantage to the bacteria?

Biology Part I Copyright © 2022 by LOUIS: The Louisiana Library Network is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book