what is baumrind's research on parenting styles

Baumrind’s Parenting Styles

Joel A Muraco; Wendy Ruiz; Rebecca Laff; Ross Thompson; and Diana Lang

Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles

The parenting style used to rear a child will likely impact that child’s future success in romantic, peer and parenting relationships.  Diana Baumrind, a clinical and developmental psychologist, coined the following parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive/indulgent, Later, Maccoby and Martin added the uninvolved/neglectful style. [1]

It is beneficial to evaluate the support and demandingness of a caregiver in order to determine which style is being used and how to effectively use it.  Support refers to the amount of affection, acceptance, and warmth a parent provides to a child.  Demandingness refers to the degree a parent controls a child’s behavior.

Authoritative Parenting

In general, children tend to develop greater competence and self-confidence when parents have high-but reasonable and consistent- expectations for children’s behavior, communicate well with them, are warm and responsive, and use reasoning rather than coercion to guide children’s behaviors.  This kind of parenting style has been described as authoritative . [2]   Parents who use this style are supportive and show interest in their kids’ activities but are not overbearing and allow children to make constructive mistakes.  This “tender teacher” approach deemed the most optimal parenting style to use in western cultures.  Children whose parents use the authoritative style are generally happy, capable, and successful. [3]

Authoritarian Parenting

Parents using the authoritarian (“rigid ruler”) approach are low in support and high in demandingness.  These parents expect and demand obedience because they are “in charge” and they do not provide any explanations for their orders. [4]   Parents also provide well-ordered and structured environments with clearly stated rules.

Many would conclude that this is the parenting style used by Harry Potter’s harsh aunt and uncle, and Cinderella’s vindictive stepmother.  Children reared in environments using the authoritarian approach are more likely to be obedient and proficient, but score lower in happiness, social competence, and self-esteem.

Permissive Parenting

Parents who are high in support and low in demandingness are likely using the permissive- also called the indulgent-style.  Their children tend to rank low in happiness and self-regulation, and are more likely to have problems with authority.  Parents using this approach are lenient, do not expect their children to adhere to boundaries or rules, and avoid confrontation. [5]

Uninvolved Parenting

Children reared by parents who are low in both support and demandingness tend to rank lowest across all life domains, lack self-control, have low self-esteem, and are less competent than their peers.  Parents using the uninvolved (or sometimes referred to as indifferent or neglectful) approach are neglectful or rejecting of their children and do not provide most, if any, necessary parenting responsibilities.

Video Example

Watch this video about Baumrind’s parenting styles.

Parenting Styles and Outcomes for Children

Parenting style has been found to predict child well-being in the domains of social competence, academic performance, psychosocial development, and problem behavior.  Research in the United States, based on parent interviews, child reports, and parent observations consistently finds:

• Children and adolescents whose parents use the authoritative style typically rate themselves and are rated by objective measures as more socially and instrumentally competent than those whose parents do not use the authoritative style. [6] [7] [8]
• Children and adolescents whose parents are uninvolved typically perform most poorly in all domains.

In general, parental responsiveness tends to predict social competence and psychosocial functioning, while parental demandingness is typically associated with instrumental competence and behavioral control (e.g., academic performance and deviance). These findings indicate:

• Children and adolescents reared in households using the authoritarian style (high in demandingness, but low in responsiveness) tend to perform moderately well in school and be uninvolved in problem behavior, but tend to have poorer social skills, lower self-esteem, and higher levels of depression when compared to their peers who are reared in households using the authoritative approach.
• Children and adolescents reared in homes using the indulgent style (high in responsiveness, low in demandingness) tend to be more involved in problem behavior and perform less well in school, but they have been shown to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and lower levels of depression when compared to their peers who are not reared using the indulgent style. [9]

In reviewing the literature on parenting styles, it is apparent that using the authoritative parenting style is associated with both instrumental and social competence and lower levels of problem behavior at all developmental stages for youth in the United States.  The benefits of using the authoritative parenting style and the detrimental effects of the uninvolved parenting style are evident as early as the preschool years and continue throughout adolescence and into early adulthood.

Support for Baumrind’s Authoritative Parenting

Support for the benefits of authoritative parenting has been found in countries as diverse as the Czech Republic, [10] India, [11] China, [12] Israel, [13] and Palestine. [14] In fact, authoritative parenting appears to be superior in Western, individualistic societies—so much so that some people have argued that there is no longer a need to study it. [15]

Other researchers are less certain about authoritative parenting and point to differences in cultural values and beliefs.  For example, while many children reared in European-American cultures fare poorly with too much strictness (authoritarian parenting), children reared in Chinese cultures often perform well, especially academically.  The reason for this likely stems from Chinese culture viewing strictness in parenting as related to training, which is not central to American parenting beliefs. [16]

As children mature, parent-child relationships should naturally adapt to accommodate developmental changes.  Parent-child relationships that do not adapt to a child’s abilities can lead to high parent-child conflict and ultimately a reduced parent-child relationship quality. [17]

Key Takeaways

• The authoritative (the “tender teacher”) approach is the most optimal style for use in the U.S.
• The ways in which parents rear children can have lifelong impacts on children’s development.
• Baumrind's Parenting Styles is an adaptation of Child, Family, and Community ( Chapter 6: A Closer Look at Parenting ) by Laff & Ruiz (2019), licensed CC BY 4.0 and Social and Personality Development in Childhood by Ross Thompson, licensed CC BY NC SA . ↵
• Baumrind, D. (2013). Authoritative parenting revisited: History and current status. In R. E. Larzelere, A. Sheffield, & A. W. Harrist (Eds.), Authoritative parenting: Synthesizing nurturance and discipline for optimal child development . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ↵
• Maccoby, E. E. (1992). The role of parents in the socialization of children: An historical overview. Developmental Psychology, 28 (6), 1006–1017. ↵
• Baumrind, D. (1991). Parenting styles and adolescent development. In J. Brooks-Gunn, R. M. Lerner, & A. C. Petersen (Eds.), The encyclopedia on adolescence (pp. 746-758). New York: Garland Publishing. ↵
• Baumrind, D. (1991). Parenting styles and adolescent development. In J. Brooks-Gunn, R. M. Lerner, & A. C. Petersen (Eds.), The Encyclopedia on Adolescence (pp. 746-758). New York: Garland Publishing. ↵
• Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11 (1), 56-95. ↵
• Weiss, L. H., & Schwarz, J. C. (1996). The relationship between parenting types and older adolescents' personality, academic achievement, adjustment, and substance use. Child Development, 67 (5), 2101-2114. EJ 539 840. ↵
• Miller, N. B., Cowan, P. A., Cowan, C. P., & Hetherington, E. M. (1993). Externalizing in preschoolers and early adolescents: A cross-study replication of a family model. Developmental Psychology, 29 (1), 3-18. EJ 461 700. ↵
• Darling, N. (1999). Parenting style and its correlates. ERIC digest. Retrieved from https://www.ericdigests.org/1999-4/parenting.htm ↵
• Dmitrieva, J., Chen, C., Greenberger, E., & Gil-Rivas, V. (2004). Family relationships and adolescent psychosocial outcomes: Converging findings from Eastern and Western cultures. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 14 , 425-447. ↵
• Carson, D., Chowdhurry, A., Perry, C., & Pati, C. (1999). Family characteristics and adolescent competence in India: Investigation of youth in southern Orissa. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28, 211-233. ↵
• Pilgrim, C., Luo, Q., Urberg, K.A., & Fang, X. (1999). Influence of peers, parents, and individual characteristics on adolescent drug use in two cultures. Merril-Palmer Quarterly, 45 , 85-107. ↵
• Mayseless, O., Scharf, M., & Sholt, M. (2003). From authoritative parenting practices to an authoritarian context: Exploring the person-environment fit. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17 , 23-50. ↵
• Punamaki, R., Qouta, S., & Sarraj, E. (1997). Models of traumatic experiences and children’s psychological adjustment: The roles of perceived parenting and the children’s own resources and activity. Child Development, 68 , 718-728. ↵
• Steinberg, L. (2001). We know some things: Adolescent-parent relationships in retrospect and prospect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11 , 1-19. ↵
• Chao, R. K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65 , 1111-1119. ↵
• Support for Baumrind's Authoritative Parenting is taken from The Family by Joel A Muraco, licensed CC BY NC SA . ↵

Baumrind's Parenting Styles Copyright © 2020 by Joel A Muraco; Wendy Ruiz; Rebecca Laff; Ross Thompson; and Diana Lang is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Baumrind’s Parenting Styles

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• Elizabeth Levin 3  

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Child-rearing ; Discipline ; Family structure ; Parenting styles

Parenting styles refer to the typical ways parents think, feel and behave in terms of child-rearing.

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The most widely known categories of parenting styles are based on the work of Diana Baumrind [ 1 , 2 ]. Most of her research has focused on two dimensions of parenting style: authority and affection [ 1 , 2 ]. Authority or demandingness refers to the degree to which parents try to control their children’s behavior by setting rational standards for behavior. Affection or responsiveness refers to the amount and way love is expressed to the child and acceptance of the child’s points of view. Based on these dimensions, Baumrind identified three categories of parenting styles [ 1 ].

The Authoritative parent shows high levels of control, coupled with high levels of warmth. Authoritative parents exercise significant authority over their children’s behavior but at the same time they do this with warmth and...

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Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology, 4 , 1–103.

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Baumrind, D. (1989). Rearing competent children. In W. Damon (Ed.), Child development today and tomorrow (pp. 349–378). SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Kuczynski, L., & Lollis, S. (2002). Four foundations for a dynamic model of parenting. In J. Gerris (Ed.), Dynamics of parenting . Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S., Darling, N., Mounts, S., & Dornbusch, S. (1994). Overtime changes in adjustment and competence among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful families. Child Development, 65 , 754–770.

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Levin, E. (2011). Baumrind’s Parenting Styles. In: Goldstein, S., Naglieri, J.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_293

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Diana Baumrind's 3 Parenting Styles: Get a Full Understanding of the 3 Archetypical Parents

In this article on the 3 parenting styles formulated by Diana Baumrind, you'll get:

• Quick background information about her research and methods. 
• An important understanding of her 1960s concepts of demandingness and responsiveness that she used as 'measuring' tools to categorize the parenting styles.
• A detailed but lively description of her results: - The authoritarian parenting style - The permissive parenting style - The authoritative parenting style - And the later added, neglectful / uninvolved parenting style.

Diana Baumrind: - Quick Facts About Her Famous Parent Child Behavior Study

In her study she and her research team followed more than 100 middle class children of preschool-age. Baumrind's primary research methods were interviews and observation.

The aim of Diana Baumrind's child parent behavior study was to formulate and evaluate the effect of the most typical Western parenting styles.

• The authoritarian parenting style
• The permissive parenting style
• The authoritative parenting style

Her findings were ground breaking at the time and her analytical methods and results have ever since been subject to both academic acclaim and criticism.

Diana Baumrind's Two Analytical Measuring Instruments

In her study Diana Baumrind used two aspects of parenting that she found so important that all her data was evaluated and the essence of the 3 parenting styles defined in relation to these two elements.

Her two analytical tools for formulating the parenting styles were:

1) Parental Responsiveness vs. Parental Unresponsiveness:

In the words of Diana Baumrind herself, responsiveness describes "the extent to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and acquiescent to children's special needs and demands" (Baumrind, 1991)

In other words, responsiveness is about how much or how little parents meet and respond to their children's needs!

2) Parental Demandingness vs. Parenting undemandingness:

I relation to demandingness , Diana Baumrind says that it refers to "the claims parents make on children to become integrated into the family whole, by their maturity demands, supervision, disciplinary efforts and willingness to confront the child who disobeys" . (Baumrind, 1991).

Another word for demandingness is control. The demandingness continuum (high vs. low) describes the level of behavior control parents exercise on their kids based on their expectations of 'mature' behavior.

The 3 (and 4) Parenting Styles Model

Before describing each of the 3 parenting styles in detail, I will just explain the model I've made above.

The parenting styles model has two axes. Each axis represents one of Baumrind's parenting themes which is 'high' in one end and 'low' in the other. Together these two axes of demandingness and responsiveness create four quadrants where each parenting styles is placed:

• The authoritative parenting style is high on demandingness and high on responsiveness (hence placed in the top left corner).
• The authoritarian parenting style is high also high on demandingness but low on responsiveness (hence placed in the bottom left corner).
• The permissive parenting style is high on responsiveness but low on demandingness (hence placed in the top right corner).
• The neglectful parenting style is both low on responsiveness and low on demandingness (hence placed in the bottom right corner. For the origin of this parenting style, please se my note further down this article ).

An Important Note: - The Parenting Styles are not "Real"! They Are Archetypes!

This means that in reality most people don't just fit neatly into one archetype.

Typically people behave according to one primary archetype in most situations and then often have traits from some of the other parenting styles in other situations.

We people are not as 'black and white' as models portray us to be!

Description of Baumrind's Parenting Styles

There's no doubt that Baumrind favors the authoritative parenting style and finds the authoritarian parenting style too strict and the permissive parenting style too soft.

I don't favor any of them, not even the authoritative parenting style. My personal approach is different from all of them.

But I will not be commenting on or evaluating her research results right here. However, if you're academically curious or just feel:

• "H'mmm, there must be more to it than these 3 parenting styles? Something seems to be missing!",

I recommend you go on reading this reflective article on parenting styles .

• See my own analysis of her theories and conclusions along with my suggestion of how one may rearrange her 1960's model by replacing her two axes (demandingness & responsiveness) with two new ones.

For now, let's see what these 3 parenting styles are about.

The Authoritarian Parenting Style

The extreme, archetypical representation of authoritarian parents:

To get a mental image of the archetypical authoritarian family, try picturing a typical 1950s American family: There are traditional family values (patriarchal), set family roles, firm rules and everybody behaves in a predictable, orderly fashion.

Main child discipline instrument:

Strict control maintained via rigid rules. Rules are typically enforced via threat and punishment.

The authoritarian parents' behavior, value and belief system:

• The authoritarian parents are conservative, conformist and norm abiding.
• Rigidity, harshness and predictability create a desired sense of being in control.
• Traditional roles and values are to be followed unquestionably. There are strict rules of child conduct. Misbehavior is considered a serious threat to the much cherished established order.
• The authoritarian parents see the world in only black and white, good or bad, right or wrong etc. This means that there is a lot of judgement and evaluation. A child is either good or bad, well-behaved or naughty.
• Children are often looked upon with critical eye. They are basically perceived as non-equals, and sometimes even subconsciously perceived as enemies that pose a threat to order of things and therefore must be kept down.
• Rules and orders are not explained but are to be obeyed instantly and unquestionably. Discussion such as give and take dialogue is not encouraged.
• Praise and reward are potentially dangerous because of the idea that they may lead to children becoming 'too full of themselves' and consequently developing too much autonomy and straying off the 'good' path.
• A good child is a child that lives up to expectations of 'mature' ('adult') behavior: such as being independent, well-behaved, undemanding, non-emotional, participating in house chores to develop a sound work ethic etc.

Kids' social behavior and inner being (the effect of the authoritarian parenting style):

• Kids of authoritarian parents quickly learn to adjust to the parents' expectations. In other words they are well-behaved out of fear: "If I don't behave, I will be punished!"
• They tend to willingly obey authorities. They have internalized and accepted the prevailing norm and value system which means they do relatively well in school, do not engage in 'deviant' behavior such criminal acts or experimental drug or alcohol use.
• They are not used to making independent choices, taking full responsibility for themselves and do not experiment much with new ways of doing things or alternative ways of thinking.
• According to research, kids of authoritarian parents are not as socially 'skilled' as kids from authoritative and permissive families.
• According to research they find it difficult to handle frustration: girls tend to give up in the face of challenges and boys tend to react with aggressiveness.
• According to research, they are also more prone to suffer from low self esteem, anxiety and depression.

The Permissive Parenting Style

The extreme, archetypical representation of Permissive Parenting:

The archetypical image of permissive parenting, also called indulgent parenting, is that of a conflict scared parent desperately trying to maintain a 'friendship' with his or her bossy child rather than being 'a parent'.

The child behaves in a 'unruly' fashion, oblivious of other people's needs and is only interested in having fun. Many people believe that permissive parenting is a curse of the modern age: The child is seen as being too much in the centre!

Use of reasoning, manipulation and / or bribes as means to achieve some level of control.

The permissive parents' behavior, value and belief system:

• Permissive parents believe in the autonomy of the individual. The world is seen as a free place filled with opportunities just waiting to be seized.
• Permissive parents believe in responding to their children's desires in an accepting and affective manner.
• The child is viewed as a 'child' and is not expected to behave according to 'mature' or 'adult' standards.
• Traditional child discipline and rigid rules of conduct are seen as restrictive of a child's natural development and free, independent thinking.
• Children are perceived as equals and are included in decision making processes and are encouraged to communicate and discuss rather than just obey.
• Permissive parents dislike and tend to avoid confrontations and the overt use of power to shape and regulate their kids behavior.

Kids' social behavior and inner being (the effect of the permissive parenting style):

• A complete lack of limits, absence of authority figures, no consistent routines, no predictability may lead to a sense of insecurity in the child: "How far can I go and what can I count on?"
• Because of the potential experience of wavering, conflict scared parents the child may become bossy or dominating as he or she tries to search for limits where there are none.
• Because of the installed beliefs that the world is open for experimentation and that there are very few 'musts', children of permissive parents are found to be more impulsive and involved in 'problematic' behavior such as drug and alcohol use and do less well in school than kids from authoritative and authoritarian parents.
• As these kids are brought up in the belief that they are adults' equals, they are well equipped in dialogue, have high social skills and high self esteem and low levels of depression.

The Authoritative Parenting Style

This one of the 3 parenting styles is Baumrind's ideal parenting style.

Baumrind views authoritative parenting as a sort of middle ground, taking the best from the authoritarian parenting style, high control, and the best from the permissive parenting style, high responsiveness.

Even though Baumrind's research is 50 years old, many people (not me), child experts included, see the authoritative parenting styles as the 'ideal' parenting style.

Control is achieved via the use of firm but fair reasoning as a base for 'moderately' open negotiations along with positive reinforcement .

The authoritative parents' behavior, value and belief system:

• "They monitor and impart clear standards for their children’s conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. Their disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive. They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as cooperative" (Baumrind, 1991, p. 62).
• In this way authoritative parents recognize that a child needs to have a degree of say but will always make sure to have the final word. In this way they strive to balance a child's need for autonomy and their own need for discipline and control.
• Authoritative parents use praise and positive attention as a way to make their child 'want to' behave well: "If I behave and do well, I will get positive attention and affection!"
• Authoritative parents make an effort to understand their child and teach them how to understand their own feelings, think of ways to solve problems and encourage them to follow independent but still norm supportive ways.

Kids' social behavior and inner being (the effect of the authoritative parenting style):

• Because of the use of positive reinforcement (praise) along with logical and fair rules done in a warm, caring manner, the child has learnt that behaving and following the rules feels good and get them positive attention.
• Their ability to decode and subsequently live up their parents rules and expectations provide them with well developed social skills and emotional regulation.
• According to research, kids of authoritative parents do well in school, are self confident and goal orientated.

I think The Cosby Show represent an archetypical authoritative family: Control / demandingness is high and responsiveness / warmth is high as well.

The Neglectful / Uninvolved Parenting Style

The uninvolved parents fulfill their children's physical needs but are otherwise distant, detached, and disengaged.

The uninvolved parents may lead 'full' lives but their life is emotionally separate from that of their children. There are few demands and limits and communication and responsiveness is low.

The children of neglectful parents have low self esteem (no attention makes them feel unimportant) and they are less socially competent than children of raised with the other parenting styles.

Children and adolescents whose parents are uninvolved perform most poorly in all domains.

A note on the origin of this fourth parenting style: In my original article I wrote that the neglectful / uninvolved parenting style was formulated by Maccoby and Martin when they in 1983 expanded upon Baumrind's work. If you do a quick search online, you'll find plenty of articles concluding the same.

However, I was contacted by Diana Baumrind's daughter, Nikki Baumrind , who told me that there was an "inaccuracy" in my articles regarding that fourth dimension. Nikki Baumrind wrote to me that:

• "You indicate that Maccoby and Martin added the fourth dimension of the model. That is not correct. My mother's original description included the two by two matrix, including the neglectful parents. Most people have forgotten that parental type, with the notable exception of Maccoby and Martin's summary of my mother's work."

When I further researched this issue, I found that in 1971 Baumrind published a study where she grouped families into eight parenting styles:

• Two types of authoritarian parenting styles
• Two types of authoritative parenting styles
• Two types of permissive parenting styles
• And two additional parenting styles, one of which was labeled "rejecting-neglecting".

New, Modern Perspectives on Baumrind's 1960's Parenting Styles Study!

However, the study is more than 50 years and I think it does show.

Among other things, I think her academic and analytical point of departure - the presumption of high control being an important definitive of 'good' parenting - is a direct reflection of the early 1960s societal norms and mindset.

If you want more 'meta thinking' and want to see my analytical perspectives on her 3 parenting styles, you're welcome to dive into this this article  

Your Positive Parenting Ally, Birgitte

Note: This article has been updated for accuracy in January 2019.

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Parenting Styles

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

It is a stereotype that, in therapy, all of a person’s problems will be blamed on their parents. That is not the case. But decades of psychological research have suggested that the approach to parenting generally followed by an individual’s mother and/or father can influence the way they approach relationships, challenges, and opportunities. That doesn’t mean that an adult can’t change, of course, especially once they understand what may be influencing their behavior. And parents who become aware of the pitfalls of their own style and how it may affect their kids can also change.

For more on dysfunctional parenting, click here .

On This Page

• What are the four major parenting styles?
• How can a parent’s style predict a child’s future relationships?
• How can mothers and fathers tell what their parenting style is?
• How can parents become more authoritative?
• What is supportive parenting?
• What is attachment parenting?
• How can mothers and fathers transition away from attachment parenting?

Research begun by developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind in the 1960s identified three main parenting styles —authoritarian, indulgent, and authoritative. Later studies added a fourth—neglectful. Every parent does not neatly fit into one of these four categories but they describe the approaches of many.

• An authoritarian parent seeks to maintain a high level of control over their children. They may set and adhere to a strict set of rules, and are more likely to support and take part in corporal punishment such as spanking. Children of highly authoritarian parents may struggle socially and may be likely to become authoritarian parents themselves.
• Neglectful parents (also known as uninvolved or disengaged) take on a limited parenting role. They may not spend as much time as other parents in conversation, play, or other activities, and may not bother to set many house rules. Some children of neglectful parents may resist rules outside of the home and struggle with self-control.
• Indulgent (or permissive) parents may be attentive and warm, but may not set many rules for their children. They may prioritize being their child’s friend over being their parent. Research suggests that the children of permissive parents may show higher levels of creativity but may also feel entitled, and be more interested in taking rather than giving in their own relationships.
• Authoritative parents follow what is widely understood as the preferred approach. Such parents are more pragmatic and flexible. They set clear boundaries but also encourage children’s independence within those limits. Discipline in such families may be more supportive than punitive, and as children get older, their independence increases. Children of authoritative parents may have more highly developed self-control and self-reliance.

Recent research suggests that, in some families, a parent’s style, especially as it relates to maintaining control over their children, could leave their kids vulnerable to emotional abuse from future partners, employers, and and others. Researchers found that people raised with a parent who maintained strict psychological control over them grew to be especially vulnerable to emotionally abusive partners. The effect appeared to be offset, though, by experiencing emotional warmth from the other parent. Research continues to explore the effect of differing parenting styles in the same family, and whether it matters if a mother or father is the authoritarian.

Much research of parenting styles has examined how the styles affect children as they grow up, and how negative effects could be tempered. But other studies have focused on helping parents become more self-aware and change their styles to develop healthier relationships with their kids . Some researchers have developed analytical scales in which parents indicate how they would respond to certain scenarios with an eye toward helping them shift, perhaps through therapy, to a more moderate approach.

In practical terms, most parents do not think of themselves as authoritarian, authoritative, or otherwise, and many mothers and fathers are self-aware enough to know that they may not be consistent with their kids at all times. Experts suggest that attention to some general guidelines can help parents develop a healthier style—for example, being consciously warm and loving toward children, setting age-appropriate limits, actively listening to children’s concerns, gently but firmly asking to be treated with respect, and “catching” kids being good , while making sure they know they’ve been seen and acknowledged.

Supportive parenting describes an approach to authoritative parenting in which mothers and fathers are conscious of how often they say no to children (as they often must, especially when kids are young) so that they can seek more opportunities to say yes to them in encouraging ways that help kids develop confidence and self-esteem. When children are mostly told what they cannot do, they can feel rejected by a parent, even a well-meaning one, with potentially negative emotional outcomes. Being consciously supportive and selfless with children can help them internalize belief in themselves.

Attachment parenting , a term coined by pediatrician William Sears, describes an approach to parenting in which mothers and fathers are physically and emotionally close to their children, especially at an early age, and is characterized in practice by extended periods of breastfeeding and co-sleeping. Sears referred to it as “what mothers and fathers would do instinctively if they were raising their baby on a desert island.” There is little evidence, however, that this approach leads to more positive psychological outcomes for children and many experts reject attachment parenting as unnecessarily demanding of parents and potentially creating conflict and division between new parents.

Parents who commit themselves to attachment parenting and have the time and temperament to maintain the approach throughout early childhood may then be faced with the challenge of weaning their children from the approach. These mothers and fathers may need to consciously practice “ detachment parenting ” so that children entering early adolescence can develop independence and healthy friendships, while resisting feeling rejected themselves as kids begin to resist a parent’s efforts to hold onto their previous level of connection.

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Diana Baumrind Parenting Styles: Why and How They Matter to Your Child

• October 14, 2021

How did Diana Baumrind come up with parenting styles?

How many parenting styles did baumrind identify, what are the 4 parenting styles according to diana baumrind, impact of parenting styles on child development, authoritative: is this the way forward, observations about diana baumrind parenting styles.

Diana Baumrind was a clinical and developmental psychologist. Her most famous study was about parent-child behaviour. She conducted this research in the early 1960s by following more than 100 preschool-age children. 🧒

Even though the study took place decades ago, the parenting styles that Baumrind uncovered are still widely used as benchmarks today. Baumrind’s theory was that different parenting styles had a correlation with a child’s behaviour, happiness, and success. 

How did Baumrind study parenting styles?

Baumrind studied parenting styles by using 2 metrics: parental responsiveness (or unresponsiveness), and parental demandingness (or undemandingness). 

Responsiveness relates to how sensitive and open parents are to their child’s needs. Some examples include the level of affectionate interaction, interest in a child’s daily activities, and respect for a child’s point of view. ❤️

Demandingness relates to the amount that parents control their child’s behaviour. Some examples include how much monitoring takes place over a child’s activities and whether a parent has expectations of more responsible and mature behaviour from their child. 

Baumrind and her research team used observation, analyses, and interviews in order to ultimately identify the distinct parenting styles. Some of the dimensions studied included communication styles, disciplinary strategies , communication styles, and expectations of maturity and control. 

Baumrind identified 3 parenting styles: Authoritative, Authoritarian, and Permissive. These were widely accepted and used over the next 20 years until 2 researchers, Maccoby and Martin, famously introduced a 4th parenting style: Neglectful. 🥺

Today, all 4 parenting styles are usually included when referring to the Diana Baumrind parenting styles. Occasionally, they are also referred to as the Maccoby and Martin parenting styles (in case you hear this bandied around). Either way, the 4 categories are the same.

Now that you know there are 4 parenting styles , let’s look at each of them in more detail. 

Authoritative parenting

Authoritative-style parenting is sometimes referred to as “democratic”. It’s known as democratic because parents listen to their children and provide warmth as well as fair discipline and positive reinforcement. This style of parenting embodies high expectations matched with high responsiveness where parents support their kids to enable them to succeed . 

As well as the general characteristics we just mentioned, Baumrind determined some of the typical traits shared by authoritative parents as being the following:

• Listening and allowing their children to express their opinion
• Encouraging their children to be independent 
• Placing limits, expectations, and consequences on behaviour
• Being more flexible and adjusting their responses to suit circumstances and situations
• Setting clear rules
• Having high but reasonable expectations of their children 

Authoritarian parenting

Authoritarian-style parenting is sometimes referred to as “disciplinarian”. It is known as disciplinarian because these parents punish mistakes harshly, often without giving a reason to their child, rather than opt for positive reinforcement. In contrast to authoritative parenting, less love and warmth are displayed too.

As well as the general characteristics we just mentioned, Baumrind determined some of the typical traits shared by authoritarian parents as being the following: 

• Expecting total obedience
• Not giving their children choices or options
• Having high expectations and often being highly critical 
• Imposing strict rules that are not clearly laid out and sometimes change
• Hovering over their children to make sure they don’t make mistakes

Permissive parenting

Permissive-style parenting is sometimes referred to as “indulgent”. It is known as indulgent because these parents rarely discipline their children and offer an abundance of freedom. Expectations and demands of their children aren’t as high as the former 2 styles of parenting either. 

As well as the general characteristics we just mentioned, Baumrind determined some of the typical traits shared by permissive parents as being the following: 

• Being warm and loving towards their children
• Imposing very few rules or a schedule to follow and little structure
• Asking their children’s opinions even on important decisions
• Sometimes using bribery as in toys or food to get a child to do something
• Often behaving more as a friend instead of as a parental figure

Neglectful parenting

Neglectful-style parenting is sometimes referred to as “uninvolved”. It is known as uninvolved because their responsiveness is low as is their demandingness. As with permissive parents they set few rules, if any, however, they provide little to no affection or warmth.

As well as the general characteristics we just mentioned, some of the typical traits shared by neglectful parents can be described as: 

• Being cold and unresponsive towards their children
• Showing little involvement or interest in their children’s school-life or activities
• Setting few or no expectations on their children
• Spending little time with their children

As you can see, each of the parenting styles has its own quirks and common behaviour patterns. There is also some overlap with some of the dimensions and characteristics between the styles. 

The examples we listed above are the extremes of each parenting style. There is also a sliding scale within each category. For example, one parent who is authoritative can have different or stricter rules than another who would also be considered authoritative under the Diana Baumrind parenting styles. ⚖️

Each parenting style usually impacts a child’s development differently. However, sometimes a child can display qualities or behaviours not associated with their father or mother’s parenting style/s. 

Let’s look at what are the typical impacts of each parenting style on children as a rough guide. 

• More happy and active
• More independent and have better self-esteem
• Perform better academically
• Have better social skills
• Have fewer mental health issues or drug and alcohol abuse issues
• Have an unhappy temperament
• Have more mental health issues or drug and alcohol abuse issues
• Have worse academic results
• Less independent and have lower self-esteem
• Have poorer social skills
• Have bad self-control and are more likely to have problems with authority
• Have more problems in social settings
• Perform poorly at school
• Aren’t able to follow rules
• Are stressed or anxious
• More likely to have issues with drug and alcohol abuse 
• Won’t perform as well at school
• More likely to display delinquent behaviour as adolescents
• Have more mental health problems

Authoritative parenting is generally considered to produce the most positive outcome for children and the style of parenting to aim for. This makes sense given that the impacts of this parenting style on children are good and tend to lead to a happy and well-balanced person.

Authoritative parents use positive reinforcement which is also used in positive parenting techniques. The term “positive parenting” stemmed from Austrian psychologist Alfred Alder’s work. 👍🏿 It’s also sometimes referred to as strength-based parenting. 

Like authoritative parenting outcomes, it improves children’s development and helps them cope better in different situations. These impacts can benefit them later in life too. 

The evidence is clear, if you can rely on authoritative-style parenting and use positive reinforcement to try and avoid punishment and provide a warm and nurturing environment, your child has a better chance of success and happiness. 🥰

Of course, some children are naturally more of a challenge to their parents. If you need support dealing with difficult behaviour the NHS offers some advice and links to positive parenting strategies to help you. 

While the Diana Baumrind parenting styles guidelines are still widely used today, there have been some criticisms or observations over the years about their shortcomings. 

One is that not all parents fall neatly into one archetype. While you may see yourself following many characteristics of one of the parenting styles, you might feel like your behaviour is more aligned with a different style in other aspects. Different days and different challenges may affect your own behaviour and parenting style too. 🙃

Also, in two-parent households it’s not uncommon that each parent will have a different style of parenting. Some kids respond better to freedom or discipline depending on their nature too. You may have siblings who require slightly different extremes of one of the parenting dimensions. There is also some evidence that children’s behaviour can shape parenting styles and it’s not just a one-way system that you as parents impact your children.

As we mentioned earlier, not all children will develop the attributes and behaviour that is supposedly predicted by their parents’ style either. There are many other factors to take into consideration including cultural nuances, a family’s financial situation, schooling, and other environmental impacts. 🏫

However, the Diana Baumrind parenting styles are useful for you to understand and consider what kind of parent you are. The positive and negative points attributed to the different styles can help you determine areas you might want to change or work on, and those points that you should keep doing exactly the same as you already are.

We’re sure you’re doing everything you can to be the best parent possible. 💪 The fact that you’re on this page and interested in different parenting styles is testament to that so don’t worry you’re doing great. Just remember that love truly is the way with your little one and no parent is perfect or ever will be but you probably are in your child’s eyes anyway.

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• Eur J Psychol
• v.16(3); 2020 Aug

Parenting Styles and Child’s Well-Being: The Mediating Role of the Perceived Parental Stress

Elisa delvecchio.

a Department of Philosophy, Social Sciences and Education, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

Alessandro Germani

Veronica raspa, adriana lis.

b Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padova, Padova, Italy

Claudia Mazzeschi

In the last decades, consensus from laymen, scholars, and policy-makers has emphasized the role of child-parent relationships to promote child’s development and positive well-being. Parenting style was claimed as one of the crucial factors for the child’s positive adjustment. The main aim of the present study was to investigate the relationships between authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles and child’s difficulties. The mediational role of parent’s perception of a difficult child on the above mentioned relation was taken into account. The study was carried out on a sample of 459 couples including mothers (n = 459) and fathers (n = 459) of children aged 2 to 10 years old who filled in the Parenting Styles & Dimensions Questionnaire short version, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and the Parenting Stress Index-short form. Main findings indicated that authoritative style was associated with less child’s maladjustment, while the authoritarian one showed the opposite association. These relationships were partially mediated by the perception of a difficult child, which partially explained the link between parenting style and child’s problems. Above and beyond the role of parent’s perception as a difficult child, parenting styles had an important effect on child’s difficulties. Future studies should replicate these results with other samples, use the spouse version of the parenting styles, control the effect of socio-economic status and other variables related to family functioning, as well as to consider the child’s perception regarding parents’ parenting style.

Parenting is a complex construct that involves several and multifaceted variables ( Bornstein, 2002 ). It was defined as a normal variation in the parents' attempts of controlling their children and making them socialize ( Baumrind, 1967 ). Parenting includes many specific attitudes which work individually and cumulatively to influence the child's behavior. Schaefer (1959 , 1965 ) proposed a circumplex parenting model using three dimensions of acceptance versus rejection, psychological autonomy versus psychological control, and firm behavioral control versus lax behavioral control. On these dimensions Baumrind ( Baumrind 1966 , 1968 ; Baumrind & Thompson, 2002 ) proposed three parental prototypes: authoritative, authoritarian and permissive, to describe models of parental control and child socialization. For the purposes of the current paper, authoritative and authoritarian styles were taken into account.

Authoritative parents tend to show high acceptance and behavioral control, low psychological control, high responsiveness and warmth to their children. They are conceptualized as affectionate, encouraging, and controlling in a way that promotes child autonomy ( Baumrind, 1966 , 2013a ; Baumrind, Larzelere, & Owens, 2010 ). They direct the child in a rational situation-based way in which both autonomy and conformity are important, they clearly set rules and use reasoning to enforce them for encouraging open communication, supporting children’s independence, and expressing love and affection ( Maccoby & Martin, 1983 ). Authoritative style was related to positive child outcomes such as self-reliance ( Baumrind, 1968 ), social responsibility ( Baumrind, 1971 ), and adjustment ( Baumrind et al., 2010 ; Braza et al., 2015 ; García & Gracia, 2009 ; Luyckx et al., 2011 ). A large number of studies indicated that children of authoritative parents are shown as being cooperative, friendly, emotionally stable, and with good academic performance ( García & Gracia, 2009 ; Maccoby, 1992 ; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989 ).

Authoritarian parents combine high control with low levels of warmth involvement, support, and emotional commitment to their child; they are rejecting, highly demanding, strongly commanding, psychologically and domineeringly controlling ( Baumrind, 2013b ; Baumrind et al., 2010 ). They are often punitive and forceful in order to adhere to an absolute standard of behavior ( Baumrind, 2012 ), leaving very little space to the child’s decision making or rationales ( Baumrind, 1991 ). Parents believe that the child should do what they say, as a consequence child’s behaviors and attitudes are guided, formed and based on a certain standard of conduct. This parenting style was related to less optimal child outcomes, including lower self-efficacy ( Baumrind et al., 2010 ), more externalizing and internalizing problems ( Braza et al., 2015 ; Maccoby & Martin, 1983 ; Rinaldi & Howe, 2012 ), and rebellion ( Baumrind, 1968 ).

Authoritative parenting style was defined as the optimal parenting style (e.g., Baumrind, 1966 , 2013a ; García & Gracia, 2009 ; Luyckx et al., 2011 ; Maccoby & Martin, 1983 ) whereas the authoritarian style was proved to be the most negative form of parenting ( Baumrind & Black, 1967 ; Luyckx et al., 2011 ; Olivari, Tagliabue, & Confalonieri, 2013 ). Research in the last decades supported Baumrind’s prediction about authoritative parents ( Bornstein & Lamb, 2015 ; Larzelere, Morris, & Harrist, 2013 ) and the adverse effects of authoritarian parenting.

In order to assess parenting styles, researchers mainly used questionnaires (e.g., Steinberg, Mounts, Lamborn, & Dornbusch, 1991 ). One of the most known tools is the Parenting Practices Questionnaire (PPQ; Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, & Hart, 1995 ). This 62-item self-report measure aimed at identifying continuous scales of authoritative, authoritarian and permissive parenting styles ( Robinson et al., 1995 ), although greater importance was given to authoritative and authoritarian styles. Several variations of this measure have been developed in recent years (e.g., Coolahan, McWayne, Fantuzzo, & Grim, 2002 ; Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, & Hart, 2001 ; Robinson et al., 1995 ; Russell, Londhe, & Britner, 2013 ; Wu et al., 2002 ). Among them, the most used version is the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire - short form (PSDQ; Robinson et al., 2001 ), an abbreviated self-report measure of the PPQ in which each parent independently reports his/her own parenting style and his/her spouse’s parenting style. The PSDQ measures continuous scales of authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles, although only some of the original items and dimensions from the PPQ were retained.

PSDQ was widely used in large samples ( Padilla-Walker & Coyne, 2011 ; Topham et al., 2011 ; Williams et al., 2009 ) and in different cultures ( Kern & Jonyniene, 2012 ; Önder & Gülay, 2009 ; Porter at al., 2005 ). PSDQ psychometric characteristics were reviewed by Olivari et al. (2013) . They showed that PSDQ was most frequently used (83.02%) among school-age or pre-school children ( Olivari et al., 2013 ). Little attention was given to the comparison of PSDQ among different ages. A need for further studies was claimed after having found mixed results in the conduction of three studies which included parents of children from nursery to primary school ( Olivari et al., 2013 ). Moreover, none of them were carried out in Italy. Notwithstanding the increasing interest on parenting styles ( Olivari et al., 2013 ), there are still many issues that need to be addressed.

The present study had two main goals. The first aim was to contribute to the investigation of the authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles by using the PSDQ in a large sample of Italian parents of children aged 2-11 years old. The second purpose was to focus and expand the investigation on the relationship between the authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles and child's adaptation. The possible mediator role of parents’ perception about having a difficult child was also examined. Mother and father’s contributions were taken into account separately.

Previous research comparing parenting styles in different cultures showed that the original assumption that authoritative style would be the “best protective” style of parenting, is not always true. For instance, in African American families, authoritarian parenting, if associated with physical punishment, did not increase the level of behavior problems, suggesting that the pattern of findings reported by Baumrind is culture-specific ( Baumrind, 1972 ). A large body of evidence supports the importance of extending investigation on parenting and its related contribution to child development, as well as to collect data in countries that can be culturally different concerning parenting practices ( Bornstein et al., 1998 ; Russell, Hart, Robinson, & Olsen, 2003 ).

In Italy, the parent-child relationship is characterized by basic emotional bonding and support from parents. Moreover, although parents encourage their children to be autonomous and independent ( Casiglia, Lo Coco, & Zappulla, 1998 ; Confalonieri, 2010 ; Laudani, Guzzo, Cascio, Pace, & Cacioppo, 2014 ; Scabini & Cigoli, 2000 ), attention is also paid to the rights of children in a two-way parent-child relationship ( Scabini, Marta, & Lanz, 2006 ; Yeh & Bedford, 2004 ). However, a parental change involving fathers ( Bacchini, Galiani, Guerriera, & Sbandi, 2003 ) was observed to occur among Italian culture in the last 20 years ( Confalonieri, 2010 ). From a family where the parents’ roles were differentiated, with the mother being in charge of caring for the child whereas the father providing rules and transmitting values ( Confalonieri et al., 2010 ), there was a shift toward a family where both mother and father identify their main function as to ensuring care to their children. However, just one Italian study ( Confalonieri, Giuliani, & Tagliabue, 2009 ) was run on parenting styles of parents with children aged 3 to 10.

Attempts to compare mothers’ and fathers’ approach to parenting styles yielded inconclusive findings. Baumrind (1991 , 2013a ) focused on both parents rather than on single mothers or fathers, but she didn’t explore why parents adopted these strategies. Studying parents of Australian and US pre-schoolers, Russell and colleagues (2003) found that mothers were more likely to identify with the authoritative style of parenting, whereas fathers were more likely to describe themselves as either authoritarian or permissive. Based on these results, we expected the highest average score for authoritative style in mothers and on the contrary the highest average score for authoritarian style for fathers (Hypothesis 2). However, because of the shift occurred in Italy where both parents identify their main function as to ensuring warm care to their child, both mothers and fathers were expected to report higher scores in authoritative than authoritarian style (Hypothesis 1).

Another limitation in the existing literature is the investigation of possible differences in parenting styles related to the child’s gender. Few papers were devoted to this issue. Russell et al. (2003) found that more authoritative parenting was reported by parents of girls rather than by parents of boys, while more authoritarian parenting was found in parents of boys rather than of girls. The same results were hypothesized for the present study (Hypothesis 3). Finally, although many papers were focused on children of different ages, few studies compared possible variation of parental styles with the child’s developmental changes with regard to age. Bornstein and Lamb (2015) reviewed and stressed the importance of different roles played by parents in their involvement with children in pre-school and school years, respectively taking into account the different goals of development the child needs to reach in these two important age groups. Thus, the comparison of parenting styles in these two periods needs more investigation and no specific hypothesis was given (Hypothesis 4).

PSDQ and Related Variables

A considerable research body examined how variations in parental styles are related to a wide range of child outcomes ( Baumrind et al., 2010 ; Braza et al., 2015 ; García & Gracia, 2009 ; Luyckx et al., 2011 ). Relationship between parenting styles and child’s behavioral problems were examined. For example, as said before, authoritative style was related to psychological adjustment ( Baumrind et al., 2010 ), whereas the authoritarian one was positively related to externalizing problems ( Braza et al., 2015 ; Maccoby & Martin, 1983 ; Rinaldi & Howe, 2012 ). Researchers described the relationship between parenting styles and some negative outcomes concerning academic adjustment, success, moral development, emotion regulation and social competence ( Davidov & Grusec, 2006 ; Denham et al., 2000 ; Laible, 2004 ; Spera, 2005 ). However, Darling and Steinberg (1993) , Bornstein and Lamb (2015) , and Russell et al. (2003) pointed out that the influence of parenting style on behavioral outcomes across ethnic groups and cultures was not adequately studied, despite research findings had suggested that differences exist.

Previous research reported greater parenting stress regarding parents with an authoritarian parenting style ( Deater-Deckard & Scarr, 1996 ; McBride & Mills, 1993 ), whereas other studies showed no differences in parenting distress among authoritarian and authoritative styles ( Woolfson & Grant, 2006 ). Parenting stress is a universal experience for parents in all sociodemographic groups and contexts ( Crnic & Low, 2002 ). Parents who experience moderate amounts of parenting stress may engage in lesser optimal parenting ( Bonds, Gondoli, Sturge-Apple, & Salem, 2002 ; Seginer, Vermulst, & Gerris, 2002 ) and the children of stressed parents may be adversely affected, though indirectly, through parenting behaviors ( Magill-Evans & Harrison, 2001 ; Putnick et al., 2008 , 2010 ; Seginer et al., 2002 ). Within parenting stress, Abidin (1995) and Deater‐Deckard (1998) identified a specific dimension: stress that can be attributed to the parent’s perception of the child as being difficult. More specifically, it deals with the child’s behavioral characteristics that make him or her easy or difficult to manage, due to either temperament and/or noncompliant, defiant, or demanding behavior. However, no previous studies on the link between parenting styles and parent’s perception of a difficult child were found.

Based on the above-mentioned findings, we hypothesized that the authoritative style was negatively related to behavioral problems in children, whereas the authoritarian one was positively related to them (Hypothesis 5). Moreover, in this study, we explored how a perception of the child as being difficult would mediate the relationship between authoritative and authoritarian parenting style and the child’s behavior difficulties. Since a negative relation between authoritative style and the perception of a difficult child, as well as a positive relation between the authoritarian style and the perception of a difficult child were expected (Hypothesis 6), negative and positive indirect effects of parenting styles on child’s behavioral difficulties were hypothesized respectively (Hypothesis 7).

Thus, to summarize, the current study is aimed to investigate in mothers and fathers respectively (a) levels of authoritative versus authoritarian parenting style and the role of parent’s gender; (b) the role of child’s gender and age on parenting styles and (c) the relation between parenting styles and child’s psychological well-being mediated by parents’ perception of having a difficult child.

Participants

Participants were 459 Caucasian parent couples ( n = 459 fathers, M age = 37.13, SD = 5.39; and n = 459 mothers, M age = 35.08, SD = 4.95) living in urban and suburban areas of Central Italy. They were married or living together heterosexual parents of children from infancy to childhood (2-11 years old). Considering the large life-span included, parents were assessed considering child’s developmental stage: (a) pre-school children (from 2 to 5 years old) and (b) school aged children (from 6 to 11 years old). 239 ( n = 129 boys (54.0%), M age = 3.21, SD = 1.39) were parents of pre-school age children; 220 ( n = 108 boys (49.1%); M age = 7.91, SD = 1.33) were parents of school age children. More than half (58.5%) were parents at their first parenthood experience. Parents’ socio-economic level measured by SES ( Hollingshead, 1975 ), was primarily middle to upper for 90% of families. Only 7% had a low socio-economic status and only 3% reported a very high level.

All procedures were conducted in compliance with the ethical standards for research outlined in the 1964 Helsinki declaration. Both parents gave written informed consent to participate in the study. Confidentiality was assured in all phases of the study using a numerical code instead of participants’ names. Families were recruited through day-cares, nurseries and schools. Parents who participated in the study were given at their children’s school - with the teachers’ help - a booklet containing the tools that they needed to fill in at home and bring back to school. No incentives were awarded and voluntary participation was encouraged. Families of the final sample met the following criteria: (a) both mothers and fathers agreed to participate, (b) all participants completed the entire assessment phase (c) parents and children did not meet criteria for psychiatric diagnosis and were not under psychological treatment. 5% of the initial participants did not meet all the criteria.

Parenting Styles & Dimensions Questionnaire- Short Version (PSDQ)

The PSDQ-short version ( Robinson et al., 2001 ) is a 32 self-report questionnaire measuring continuous dimensions of parenting styles using authoritative (15 items), authoritarian (12 items) and permissive (5 items) scales ( Russell et al., 2013 ). It comprehends a self and spouse version (i.e., self-evaluation of her/his-own parenting style and evaluation of his/her spouse’s parenting style). With regard to the current study, the authoritarian and authoritative scales of the self-version were considered. Mothers and fathers independently rated themselves by assessing how often they exhibited parenting behaviors as described in each item by using a five-point scale from “ never ” to “ always ” (coded 1 to 5). Higher mean scores indicated a prevalence on that style. Confalonieri, Giuliani, and Tagliabue (2009) adapted the measure with Italian parents. The alpha value related to the authoritarian scale was .70 (.65-.74) for fathers, and .72 (.69-.76) for mothers, whereas referring to the authoritative scale it was .78 (.75-.81) for fathers and .75 (.72-.78) for mothers.

Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)

The SDQ ( Goodman, 1999 , 2001 ) is a brief questionnaire of 25 attributes, some positive and some negative, for assessing strengths and difficulties in the psychological adjustment of children and adolescents. Each item uses a 3-point ordinal Likert scale (0 “ not true ”; 1 “ somewhat true ”; 2 “ certainly true ”). In the present paper, the Total Difficulties Score (TDS; 20 items, range 0-40) was used. Higher scores indicated more difficulties i . Cronbach’s coefficients for SDQ TDS were .79 (.76-.81) for fathers and .78 (.74-.80) for mothers.

The Difficult Child Subscale (PSI_DC) of the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF)

The PSI-SF ( Abidin, 1995 ) is a 36-item measure of overall levels of stress experienced by parents. The current study is focused on the Difficult Child Scale which includes 12 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 ( Strongly agree ) to 5 ( Strongly disagree ). It measures the parent’s perception of his/her child’s self-regulatory abilities. The higher the score is, the higher the perceived difficulties will be. The measure was validated in several countries, among which Italy ( Guarino, Di Blasio, D’Alessio, Camisasca, & Serantoni, 2008 ). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the present study were .88 (.86-.89) for fathers and .86 (.84-.88) for mothers.

Data Analysis

Firstly, in order to test Hypotheses 1-4, descriptive statistics and a MANOVA were performed with parental role, child’s gender, and age-group as factors, and the authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles as dependent variables. Effect size was measured by using partial eta-squared, in which small, medium, and large effects were .0099, .0588, and .1379, respectively ( Cohen, 1988 , p. 283). Second, before testing the mediational model, Pearson’s correlations were run to explore the associations between the selected variables. Effect sizes were interpreted according to Cohen (1992) , with correlation coefficient of .10, .30, and .50 representing low, medium and high effect sizes, respectively. Third, the mediational models split for mothers and fathers were carried out. Specifically, in order to test the total effects of parenting styles on children’s maladjustment (Hypothesis 5), simple regression analyses were used. Then, to test their effects on difficult child variable (i.e., the mediator; Hypothesis 6), simple regressions were analyzed. Finally, in order to assess direct and indirect effects of parental styles on child’s behavior problems mediated by the perception of a difficult child, SPSS Process Macro (Model 4) developed by Preacher and Hayes (2008) was used (Hypothesis 7). This allowed the authors to observe the change of the total effects and the influence of the mediator (i.e., the mediated effect). Bootstrapping method ( Preacher & Hayes, 2008 ) was applied to all the mediation models. Specifically, 5000 bootstrap samples were used from the full data and 95% confidence interval was utilized to determine the significance of the mediating effect. Significant mediating effect was identified if the confidence interval excluded 0. In order to calculate the ratio of the indirect effect to the total effect, proportion mediated (PM = indirect effect/total effect) was calculated. Regression and moderation analysis were carried out separately for mothers and fathers. Analyses were carried out using SPSS (Version 18.0) and Process Macro for SPSS.

The Effect of Parental Role, Child’s Age, and Age-Group on Authoritative and Authoritarian Parenting Styles

Means and standard deviations of PSDQ subscales for mothers and fathers, and according to child’s gender and age-group are shown in Table 1 .

Results of MANOVA indicated that there was a significant main effect of parental role ( Wilks’ Lambda = .914, F (2, 909) = 43.00, p < .001, η 2 = .086) on dependent variables (parenting styles), but there were not significant main effects of child’s gender ( Wilks’ Lambda = .996, F (2, 909) = 2.04, p = .131, η 2 = .004) and age-group ( Wilks’ Lambda = .994, F (2, 909) = 2.62, p = .074, η 2 = .006) on parenting styles. ANOVA indicated that there was a significant effect of parental role both for authoritative ( F = 57.96, p < .001, η 2 = .060) and authoritarian ( F = 2.83, p < .001, η 2 = .015) styles. As shown in Table 1 , fathers referred both a higher authoritative and authoritarian style than mothers, with a medium and small effect size, respectively.

Correlations Between Selected Variables by Parental Role

Pearsons’ correlations are reported in Table 2 . Authoritative and authoritarian styles were significantly and negatively correlated to each other with small effect size, independently of parental role. Moreover, on one hand, authoritative style was significantly and negatively correlated to the perception of a difficult child and child’s total difficulties with small effect sizes, irrespective of parental role. On the other hand, authoritarian style was significantly and positively associated to parents’ perception of a difficult child and child’s total difficulties, with small effect size, both in mothers and fathers. Finally, the perception of having a difficult child and child’s total difficulties were significantly and positively associated both in fathers and mothers, with medium and nearly large effect size, respectively.

Note. Coefficients above the diagonal referred to mothers, coefficients under the diagonal referred to fathers.

*p < .01.

Parenting Styles, Parenting Stress and Child’s Psychological Well-Being

Since results for mothers and fathers showed similar paths, they are described together, although the statistics are illustrated separately in Figure 1 and Figure 2 respectively.

Regression and mediational model for fathers. Total effects and mediational models examining the direct and indirect effects of authoritative (A) and authoritarian (B) parenting styles of fathers on child’s TDS, mediated by difficult child variable.

Note . Slope coefficients are standardized; numbers in parenthesis represent significant indirect effects mediated by Difficult Child (5.000 bootstrap samples, 95% confidence interval).

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Regression and mediational model for mothers. Total effects and mediational models examining the direct and indirect effects of authoritative (A) and authoritarian (B) parenting styles of mothers on child’s TDS, mediated by the perception of having a difficult child.

Referring to authoritative style ( Figure 1A and ​ and2A): 2A ): i. Total effect. The increase in authoritative style significantly predicted a decrease in TDS; ii. Variation in mediator. The rise in authoritative style predicted a decrease in the score of the perception of a difficult child; iii. Mediation model. The increase in the difficult child variable predicted a rise in the child’s TDS. Moreover, authoritative style showed both negative direct (except for mothers) and indirect effect on the child’s total difficulties as mediated through the perception of a difficult child variable. More specifically, the proportion mediated by the difficult child variable was .65 (65%) for mothers and .31 (31%) for fathers.

Regarding the authoritarian style ( Figure 1B and ​ and2B): 2B ): i. Total effect. There was a positive relation between authoritarian style and TDS score; ii. Variation in mediator. Moreover, the rise in authoritarian style predicted an increase of the difficult child variable; iii. Mediation model. The perception of a difficult child had a positive relation with the child’s TDS. Moreover, the authoritarian style showed both positive direct and indirect effects on the child’s TDS. The proportion mediated by difficult child variable was .61 (61%) for mothers and .26 (26%) for fathers.

The first aim of this paper was to investigate the authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles using the PSDQ in a large sample of Italian parents of children aged 2-11 years old. Bornstein and Lamb (2015) stressed how greatly research enriched understanding of socialization processes with family system scholars, documenting the processes by which parents and children shape one another’s behavior. The authors highlighted the developmental processes by which authoritative parents facilitate their children’s socialization ( Bornstein & Lamb, 2015 ). Jacobson and Crockett (2000) and Smetana (2008) reported that parental involvement plays an important role in the development of both social and cognitive competences in children, whereas a lack of it is associated with the risk of delinquent behavior. Bornstein and Lamb (2015) according to these results, suggested to consider both the children’s impact on the parents’ child rearing beliefs and the parental role in giving care to the child. They stressed that this assertion needs to be explored empirically in a wide variety of cultural and subcultural settings.

The interest in Italian parents originated from many different issues. First of all, the importance to extend investigation of parenting styles in order to advance the understanding of factors shaping parenting as well as processes that influence child development ( Russell, 2003 ; Wu et al., 2002 ). Italy is a country where parenting is characterized by intertwining emotional bonding and supportive parent-child relationship with encouragement for the child’s autonomy. Moreover, both mothers and fathers are called to ensure the care for the child. The complexity of the present parenting “environment” confirmed the hypothesis that both mothers and fathers reported higher score on authoritative than on authoritarian parenting style. However, for both styles, fathers scored higher than mothers. Following the general agreement in literature as to the positive effect of authoritative versus authoritarian styles, Italian parents seem to offer their children a healthy environment characterized by warmth, affection, open communication and supportive proximity ( Maccoby & Martin, 1983 ). Although gender and age-group differences were expected, mothers and fathers appeared to be homogenous in their score of authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles.

A further aim of this study was to focus and expand the investigation of the relationship regarding the authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles with the child's adaptation. More specifically, to investigate the possible relationship between these two parenting styles in mothers and fathers and their perception of the child’s well-being. Stressful perception of a difficult child was also examined as a mediator. The significant total effects of parenting styles on the child’s behavioral problems confirmed this well-established relation. More precisely, the authoritative parenting style had a positive influence in diminishing the parent’s perception on the child’s maladjustment, and the reverse for the authoritarian style. These results were regardless of parent’s gender. In line with literature, these results confirmed that the authoritative style is the optimal parenting style while the authoritarian style is a less desirable form of parenting ( Baumrind, 1966 , 2013a ; Bornstein & Lamb, 2015 ; Larzelere et al., 2013 ). The current study allowed confirming this trend also for Italian mothers and fathers. Moreover, being the fathers more authoritative than authoritarian, just like mothers, they appeared to contribute in their protecting role against child’s maladjustment.

The potential role of parents’ perception of a difficult child in mediating the aforementioned relation was investigated. As expected, the higher the authoritative style was, the lower the parents’ perception of a difficult child and referred problems. On the contrary, parents who reported higher score in the authoritarian style, referred that their children were particularly difficult, and they reported higher difficulties in their children. Both mothers and fathers showed the same pattern. In other words, both parents were significantly less stressed by their perception of the child as difficult when their style was authoritative and the reverse when their style was authoritarian. Moreover, the higher the parental distress related to their perception of a difficult child, the more problems in children arose. Therefore, being authoritative has indirect protective effect on child’s behavioral problems, because it is related to less perception of a difficult child. On the contrary, being authoritarian increases the child’s problems, also because parents consider more difficult their children. This is true for mothers and fathers, although, mothers were significantly more influenced by the perception of their child as difficult. In other words, this component of parenting stress seemed to explain more variance in child’s total difficulties in mothers than in fathers. A possible explanation may be that mothers, as primary caretakers, have to deal more closely with everyday life and routine with the child than fathers, even if the latter in the last few years have been more involved in family life. This makes mothers more sensitive to stress linked with child care. Finally, it is important to highlight that the present study allowed to measure the relation between parental styles and child’s behavioral problems taking into account and controlling for the role of a relevant aspect of parenting stress (i.e., parents’ perception of a difficult child). In other words, the current work emphasized the link between parenting styles and child’s behavioral problems above and beyond the parents’ evaluation of the child as difficult.

This study has some limitations. Firstly, this study used a specific measure of parenting with respect to other versions quoted in literature. Moreover, although in the current study the self-report version of the PSDQ was administered to mother and father of each child, the spouse version of the PSDQ was not considered. Since the self-report and the spouse version could offer different results, future studies are encouraged to use both versions to delve into these issues. Furthermore, the categories selected (i.e., pre-school versus school age children) may be too ample to make the differences of parenting styles linked to child’s age emerge. Greater and more detailed samples need to be taken into consideration in order to make more generalizable and conclusive results. Hoff, Laursen, and Tardif (2002) described the strong association between parenting and socioeconomic status. Although the current paper assessed parents’ SES, it did not consider such variable for data analysis. Neither the role of parental burden was taken into account, although it may play a role on the selected variables (e.g., Oyserman, Bybee, Mowbray, & Kahng, 2004 ). Future studies should deepen into those topics, due to their meaningful potential role in explaining such complex relationships. Furthermore, the current study used only parents’ perceptions. Further studies could be carried out to analyze child’s perception regarding parents’ parenting style (according to child’s developmental stage).

Notwithstanding, the present study contributes to the cross-cultural literature on parenting styles in pre-school and school children, as well as to the association with the child’s difficulties. The results of the mediational models highlight that stress connected to the perception of the child as difficult, is one of the mechanisms explaining how parenting styles are related to psychological difficulties in Italian pre-school and school age children.

Acknowledgments

The authors have no support to report.

Biographies

Elisa Delvecchio , Ph.D., is assistant professor in Dynamic Psychology. She is the representative of the international relationships for the psychological field at the University of Perugia. She is the coordinator of the “Psychology and Cultures Lab” at the International Human-being Research Centre (IHRC). Her main research interests focus on the role of personal and interpersonal variables for the prevention and treatment of anxiety and depressive disorders in adolescence adopting a cross-cultural perspective. She is currently running a project aimed to assess the link between psychological well-being and cultural beliefs in adolescents and emerging adults across the world. She has authored or coauthored more than 30 articles in international peer reviewed scientific journals.

Alessandro Germani is a Ph.D candidate in Human Sciences. His research interests concern Clinical and Dynamic Psychology, Cross-Cultural Psychology, as well as Cognitive Neuroscience.

Veronica Raspa , Ph.D., is an expert in the subject of Dynamic Psychology. She is a contract professor of Theory and Techniques of Interview (University of Perugia), and General Psychology (University of Siena). She collaborates with the Center for Documentation, Update and Experimentation on childhood in the Region of Umbria. She participates in research projects related to early childhood, specific educational services, parenting and the reflective function.

Adriana Lis , Senior Prof. at the University of Padova from 1/10/2014. She was Full Professor at the same University and she taught Psychology of Family Relation in 2014/2015, 2015/2016, 2016/2017. Moreover, she was Professor of Psychology of family relation, Psychodynamic diagnosis, Intervention models for family relationships, Evaluation of psychotherapeutic interventions. She published over 50 national and international papers as well as several national and international books.

Claudia Mazzeschi , Ph.D, is full professor in Dynamic Psychology and Head of the Department of Philosophy, Social Sciences and Education (University of Perugia). She is the coordinator of the clinical service at the University of Perugia and the scientific coordinator for the psychological area of CURIAMO, a clinical and research centre for obesity and diabetes affiliated to the University of Perugia. Her main research interests focus on psychological assessment and intervention throughout the life span. She has authored or coauthored more than 50 articles in international peer reviewed scientific journals.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

i The Italian version was retrieved from https://sdqinfo.org .

The authors have no funding to report.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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