what is an example of presentation punishment

Presentation Punishment and Removal Punishment

Examples include spanking, dirty looks, and being yelled at. An example of presentation punishment: Melissa throws a fit when she has to go to bed, and her mom spanks her in order to stop her from crying. The next time Melissa is sent to bed, she might not cry because she doesn’t want to get spanked.

Removal punishment is the removal of a previously existing stimulus in response to a behavior. Removal can mean the loss of privilege or freedom (grounding…).

For instance, Bob keeps making fun of his brother, so his mom takes away his nintendo. The next time Bob thinks he wants to make fun of his brother, he might decide not to in order to avoid the removal punishment.

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B-6: Define and provide examples of positive and negative punishment contingencies ©

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Target Terms: Positive Punishment, Negative Punishment

Positive Punishment

Definition : The presentation of a stimulus (punishment) follows a response, which then results in a decrease in the future frequency of the behavior.

Example in an everyday context: Your cat jumps up onto the counter which they are not supposed to do. You spray your cat with water from a spray bottle and say, “No!” You never see your cat jump up onto the counter again. The introduction of the spray bottle and saying “no” immediately following the behavior of jumping up on the counter resulted in a decrease in that behavior.

Example in clinical context : During an art activity, a client becomes aggressive toward a staff member on the unit. The staff member physically restrains the client and takes them to the seclusion room. The presentation of the restraint and seclusion procedure decreased the future frequency of the client engaging in aggression during art time, which indicates that restraint/seclusion functioned as punishment.

Example in supervision context: A supervisor conducts an observation of a teacher in their classroom. The supervisor tells the teacher that their instructional methods were “horrible” and heavily criticized their performance. The teacher no longer uses those instructional methods. The presentation of the verbal reprimand decreased the future frequency of the teacher using those instructional methods.

Why it matters: Positive punishment should be used as a last resort (i.e., reinforcement-based interventions have been or are likely to be ineffective ) when designing intervention and treatment. It is extremely important to understand that punishment may yield to unwanted side effects, such as avoidance of the person delivering punishment, as well as emotional and aggressive responding beyond what was previously seen. It is also important to be thoroughly familiar with federal and state laws regarding the use of aversives, restraints, and seclusion procedures.

Negative Punishment

Definition : The removal of a stimulus (punishment) follows a response, which then results in a decrease in the future frequency of the behavior.

Example in everyday context: You are at a restaurant by yourself and eating at a table. You get up to use the restroom. While you are gone, your server removes your plate of food. You return from the restroom to find that your plate of food is gone. In the future, you will be less likely to leave your food before you are done.

Example in clinical context : A client really likes country music and is permitted to listen to it during leisure time. The client is working on keeping their hands in a respectful place (away from their crotch) when in common areas of the milieu. Staff members turn off the music (remove stimulus) when the client puts their hands on their crotch, which decreases the frequency of that behavior in the future.

Why it matters: Some considerations regarding positive punishment also apply to negative punishment. One additional consideration when using negative punishment is that the client should also have plenty of opportunities to earn reinforcers, because otherwise it can become relatively easy to “take things away” until there is nothing left to lose.

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What is a Presentation Punishment?

Behavior Management

This is the act of using unpalatable stimuli to decrease the frequent occurrence of a behavior. This causes such an individual to not want to engage in such behaviors to avoid the consequence in the future. This is adding something to the mix that’ll lead to an unpleasant consequence. Using a presentation punishment might be beneficial in particular circumstances, but it’s just one part of the equation. Guiding the kids toward more appropriate, alternative behaviors is also needed.

All actions have consequences, and presentation punishment can only be a natural consequence of a particular action. For instance, if kids touch a hot oven, they’ll burn their hands. If they consume whipped cream that has spoiled as they hid it below their bed, they’ll have a stomachache. While these experiences are unpleasant, they serve as important teaching moments. Just as one would, kids may be inclined to modify their behavior to keep away from the consequence. When selecting a punishment, parents should consider punishing the behavior, not the kid.

Some examples of common presentation punishments include:

Writing: This method is often utilized in schools. The kids are obligated to write an essay on their behavior or write the same sentence many times.

Grabbing or hand slapping: This might instinctively occur at the moment. The parents might lightly slap a kid’s hand, reaching for a container of boiling water on the oven, or who’s pulling a sibling’s hair. The parents may forcefully pull or grab a kid who’s about to encounter traffic.

Chores: Many parents use chores as a method of punishment. A kid who smears all over the table or scribbles on the wall might be asked to clean it up or carry out other household tasks.

Rules: Few individuals crave more rules. Incorporating additional rules may be the incentive to modify behavior for the kid who frequently misbehaves.

According to a 2016 review of 50 years of research, the more the parents spank kids, the more likely they’re to disobey them. It might increase aggression and antisocial behavior. It might also contribute to mental and cognitive health problems. When it comes to hitting with a ruler, spanking, or other types of physical punishment, they aren’t recommended. Children are pretty good at discovering loopholes. They tend to discover equally undesired behaviors unless parents teach them alternative ones.

Positive punishment is when the parents add a consequence to undesired behavior to make it less attractive. An example of this is adding more household tasks to the list when the kids neglect their responsibilities. The objective is to motivate the kids to manage their daily chores to avoid a growing list.

It’s important to note that positive punishment is different from positive reinforcement. Positive punishment adds an unwanted consequence following an undesirable behavior. Positive reinforcement is providing a reward when the kids behave well. If parents give the kids an allowance for doing particular chores, that’s positive reinforcement. The objective is to improve the probability of continuing good behavior. These strategies can help the kids develop associations between behaviors and their consequences when used together.

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The use of unpleasant or displeasing stimuli to reduce the reoccurrence of a particular behavior by causing an individual to avoid the behavior in the future.

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Reinforcement and Punishment

Learning objectives.

Explain the difference between reinforcement and punishment (including positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment)
Define shaping
Differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers

In discussing operant conditioning, we use several everyday words—positive, negative, reinforcement, and punishment—in a specialized manner. In operant conditioning, positive and negative do not mean good and bad. Instead, positive means you are adding something, and negative means you are taking something away. Reinforcement means you are increasing a behavior, and punishment means you are decreasing a behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative. All reinforcers (positive or negative) increase the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishers (positive or negative) decrease the likelihood of a behavioral response. Now let’s combine these four terms: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment (Table 1).

Table 1. Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

	Something is to the likelihood of a behavior.	Something is to the likelihood of a behavior.
	Something is to the likelihood of a behavior.	Something is to the likelihood of a behavior.

Reinforcement

The most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behavior is with positive reinforcement. In positive reinforcement , a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior.

For example, you tell your five-year-old son, Jerome, that if he cleans his room, he will get a toy. Jerome quickly cleans his room because he wants a new art set. Let’s pause for a moment. Some people might say, “Why should I reward my child for doing what is expected?” But in fact we are constantly and consistently rewarded in our lives. Our paychecks are rewards, as are high grades and acceptance into our preferred school. Being praised for doing a good job and for passing a driver’s test is also a reward. Positive reinforcement as a learning tool is extremely effective. It has been found that one of the most effective ways to increase achievement in school districts with below-average reading scores was to pay the children to read. Specifically, second-grade students in Dallas were paid $2 each time they read a book and passed a short quiz about the book. The result was a significant increase in reading comprehension (Fryer, 2010). What do you think about this program? If Skinner were alive today, he would probably think this was a great idea. He was a strong proponent of using operant conditioning principles to influence students’ behavior at school. In fact, in addition to the Skinner box, he also invented what he called a teaching machine that was designed to reward small steps in learning (Skinner, 1961)—an early forerunner of computer-assisted learning. His teaching machine tested students’ knowledge as they worked through various school subjects. If students answered questions correctly, they received immediate positive reinforcement and could continue; if they answered incorrectly, they did not receive any reinforcement. The idea was that students would spend additional time studying the material to increase their chance of being reinforced the next time (Skinner, 1961).

In negative reinforcement , an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior. For example, car manufacturers use the principles of negative reinforcement in their seatbelt systems, which go “beep, beep, beep” until you fasten your seatbelt. The annoying sound stops when you exhibit the desired behavior, increasing the likelihood that you will buckle up in the future. Negative reinforcement is also used frequently in horse training. Riders apply pressure—by pulling the reins or squeezing their legs—and then remove the pressure when the horse performs the desired behavior, such as turning or speeding up. The pressure is the negative stimulus that the horse wants to remove.

Link to Learning

Watch this clip from The Big Bang Theory to see Sheldon Cooper explain the commonly confused terms of negative reinforcement and punishment.

Many people confuse negative reinforcement with punishment in operant conditioning, but they are two very different mechanisms. Remember that reinforcement, even when it is negative, always increases a behavior. In contrast, punishment always decreases a behavior. In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. An example of positive punishment is scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class. In this case, a stimulus (the reprimand) is added in order to decrease the behavior (texting in class). In negative punishment , you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior.

Punishment, especially when it is immediate, is one way to decrease undesirable behavior. For example, imagine your four year-old son, Brandon, hit his younger brother. You have Brandon write 50 times “I will not hit my brother” (positive punishment). Chances are he won’t repeat this behavior. While strategies like this are common today, in the past children were often subject to physical punishment, such as spanking. It’s important to be aware of some of the drawbacks in using physical punishment on children. First, punishment may teach fear. Brandon may become fearful of the hitting, but he also may become fearful of the person who delivered the punishment—you, his parent. Similarly, children who are punished by teachers may come to fear the teacher and try to avoid school (Gershoff et al., 2010). Consequently, most schools in the United States have banned corporal punishment. Second, punishment may cause children to become more aggressive and prone to antisocial behavior and delinquency (Gershoff, 2002). They see their parents resort to spanking when they become angry and frustrated, so, in turn, they may act out this same behavior when they become angry and frustrated. For example, because you spank Margot when you are angry with her for her misbehavior, she might start hitting her friends when they won’t share their toys.

While positive punishment can be effective in some cases, Skinner suggested that the use of punishment should be weighed against the possible negative effects. Today’s psychologists and parenting experts favor reinforcement over punishment—they recommend that you catch your child doing something good and reward her for it.

Make sure you understand the distinction between negative reinforcement and punishment in the following video:

You can view the transcript for “Learning: Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment” here (opens in new window) .

Still confused? Watch the following short clip for another example and explanation of positive and negative reinforcement as well as positive and negative punishment.

You can view the transcript for “Operant Conditioning” here (opens in new window) .

In his operant conditioning experiments, Skinner often used an approach called shaping. Instead of rewarding only the target behavior, in shaping , we reward successive approximations of a target behavior. Why is shaping needed? Remember that in order for reinforcement to work, the organism must first display the behavior. Shaping is needed because it is extremely unlikely that an organism will display anything but the simplest of behaviors spontaneously. In shaping, behaviors are broken down into many small, achievable steps. The specific steps used in the process are the following: Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior. Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior. You will no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response. Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior. Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Finally, only reinforce the desired behavior.

Shaping is often used in teaching a complex behavior or chain of behaviors. Skinner used shaping to teach pigeons not only such relatively simple behaviors as pecking a disk in a Skinner box, but also many unusual and entertaining behaviors, such as turning in circles, walking in figure eights, and even playing ping pong; the technique is commonly used by animal trainers today. An important part of shaping is stimulus discrimination. Recall Pavlov’s dogs—he trained them to respond to the tone of a bell, and not to similar tones or sounds. This discrimination is also important in operant conditioning and in shaping behavior.

Here is a brief video of Skinner’s pigeons playing ping pong.

You can view the transcript for “BF Skinner Foundation – Pigeon Ping Pong Clip” here (opens in new window) .

It’s easy to see how shaping is effective in teaching behaviors to animals, but how does shaping work with humans? Let’s consider parents whose goal is to have their child learn to clean his room. They use shaping to help him master steps toward the goal. Instead of performing the entire task, they set up these steps and reinforce each step. First, he cleans up one toy. Second, he cleans up five toys. Third, he chooses whether to pick up ten toys or put his books and clothes away. Fourth, he cleans up everything except two toys. Finally, he cleans his entire room.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

Rewards such as stickers, praise, money, toys, and more can be used to reinforce learning. Let’s go back to Skinner’s rats again. How did the rats learn to press the lever in the Skinner box? They were rewarded with food each time they pressed the lever. For animals, food would be an obvious reinforcer.

What would be a good reinforce for humans? For your daughter Sydney, it was the promise of a toy if she cleaned her room. How about Joaquin, the soccer player? If you gave Joaquin a piece of candy every time he made a goal, you would be using a primary reinforcer. Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities. These kinds of reinforcers are not learned. Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, and touch, among others, are primary reinforcers . Pleasure is also a primary reinforcer. Organisms do not lose their drive for these things. For most people, jumping in a cool lake on a very hot day would be reinforcing and the cool lake would be innately reinforcing—the water would cool the person off (a physical need), as well as provide pleasure.

A secondary reinforcer has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer. Praise, linked to affection, is one example of a secondary reinforcer, as when you called out “Great shot!” every time Joaquin made a goal. Another example, money, is only worth something when you can use it to buy other things—either things that satisfy basic needs (food, water, shelter—all primary reinforcers) or other secondary reinforcers. If you were on a remote island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean and you had stacks of money, the money would not be useful if you could not spend it. What about the stickers on the behavior chart? They also are secondary reinforcers.

Sometimes, instead of stickers on a sticker chart, a token is used. Tokens, which are also secondary reinforcers, can then be traded in for rewards and prizes. Entire behavior management systems, known as token economies, are built around the use of these kinds of token reinforcers. Token economies have been found to be very effective at modifying behavior in a variety of settings such as schools, prisons, and mental hospitals. For example, a study by Cangi and Daly (2013) found that use of a token economy increased appropriate social behaviors and reduced inappropriate behaviors in a group of autistic school children. Autistic children tend to exhibit disruptive behaviors such as pinching and hitting. When the children in the study exhibited appropriate behavior (not hitting or pinching), they received a “quiet hands” token. When they hit or pinched, they lost a token. The children could then exchange specified amounts of tokens for minutes of playtime.

Everyday Connection: Behavior Modification in Children

Parents and teachers often use behavior modification to change a child’s behavior. Behavior modification uses the principles of operant conditioning to accomplish behavior change so that undesirable behaviors are switched for more socially acceptable ones. Some teachers and parents create a sticker chart, in which several behaviors are listed (Figure 1). Sticker charts are a form of token economies, as described in the text. Each time children perform the behavior, they get a sticker, and after a certain number of stickers, they get a prize, or reinforcer. The goal is to increase acceptable behaviors and decrease misbehavior. Remember, it is best to reinforce desired behaviors, rather than to use punishment. In the classroom, the teacher can reinforce a wide range of behaviors, from students raising their hands, to walking quietly in the hall, to turning in their homework. At home, parents might create a behavior chart that rewards children for things such as putting away toys, brushing their teeth, and helping with dinner. In order for behavior modification to be effective, the reinforcement needs to be connected with the behavior; the reinforcement must matter to the child and be done consistently.

A photograph shows a child placing stickers on a chart hanging on the wall.

Time-out is another popular technique used in behavior modification with children. It operates on the principle of negative punishment. When a child demonstrates an undesirable behavior, she is removed from the desirable activity at hand (Figure 2). For example, say that Sophia and her brother Mario are playing with building blocks. Sophia throws some blocks at her brother, so you give her a warning that she will go to time-out if she does it again. A few minutes later, she throws more blocks at Mario. You remove Sophia from the room for a few minutes. When she comes back, she doesn’t throw blocks.

There are several important points that you should know if you plan to implement time-out as a behavior modification technique. First, make sure the child is being removed from a desirable activity and placed in a less desirable location. If the activity is something undesirable for the child, this technique will backfire because it is more enjoyable for the child to be removed from the activity. Second, the length of the time-out is important. The general rule of thumb is one minute for each year of the child’s age. Sophia is five; therefore, she sits in a time-out for five minutes. Setting a timer helps children know how long they have to sit in time-out. Finally, as a caregiver, keep several guidelines in mind over the course of a time-out: remain calm when directing your child to time-out; ignore your child during time-out (because caregiver attention may reinforce misbehavior); and give the child a hug or a kind word when time-out is over.

Photograph A shows several children climbing on playground equipment. Photograph B shows a child sitting alone at a table looking at the playground.

Think It Over

Explain the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment, and provide several examples of each based on your own experiences.
Think of a behavior that you have that you would like to change. How could you use behavior modification, specifically positive reinforcement, to change your behavior? What is your positive reinforcer?

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Modification and adaptation, addition of Big Bang Learning example. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
Operant conditioning interactive. Authored by : Jessica Traylor for Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

CC licensed content, Shared previously

Operant Conditioning. Authored by : OpenStax College. Located at : https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/6-3-operant-conditioning . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

BF Skinner Foundation – Pigeon Ping Pong Clip. Provided by : bfskinnerfoundation. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vGazyH6fQQ4 . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
Learning: Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment. Authored by : ByPass Publishing. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=imkbuKomPXI . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
Operant Conditioning. Authored by : Dr. Mindy Rutherford. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LSHJbIJK9TI . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License

implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior

has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)

has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)

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Presentation of Theoretical Construct

Lecture Information : Types of Consequences

	Behavior Encouraged	Behavior Suppressed
Stimulus Presented	Positive Reinforcement - Reward	Presentation Punishment - Aversive
Stimulus Presented
Stimulus Removed	Negative Reinforcement - Escape	Removal Punishment - Take away a privilege
Stimulus Removed

Negative Reinforcement: One of the most common mistakes concerning the different types of behaviorism's consequences is to confuse "Negative Reinforcement" with "Punishment. Even though the term has the word "Negative" in the title, it is still a reward for the actor. You are in fact subtracting an annoyance from their environment. In this way it is very much like the old mathematical rule of a "Negative" times a "Negative" is a positive. This is a mistake that many practicing teachers make as well.

Authority Figure Intentions: The second topic of concern for any discussion of rewards and punishments from a behavioral point of view is the fact that it does not matter one wit what you, as the authority figure, intend to accomplish; it only matters how it is taken by the receiver of the consequence. As a teacher you can fully intend to punish a student with a huge tongue-lashing, a vein-in-the-forehead-popping tirade, only to have the students be rather amused by the outburst. They are very likely to try and get your goat again. In other words, you just accidentally reinforced that exact behavior that you wanted to quell.

The opposite is also true. You can point out to the whole class how well Suzy has organized her desk to perform the project calling everybody's attention to her and her beautiful desk. She then turns bright red in the face and slinks to the back of the with her hand over her mouth. You have just punished her behavior. She is now less likely be organized next time. My point in this is that it is very, very easy to make a mistake with rewards and punishments. You can only be sure of a success by the impact on the behavior.

Back to Lesson 8 Index

5 Positive Reinforcement Activities to Use in the Classroom

It was commonplace for teachers to favor harsh punishment over positive punishment , including using the cane.

Now, however, it is recognized that there are more effective ways to teach and to manage classrooms. Techniques such as positive reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement was introduced by B. F. Skinner in relation to the theory of operant conditioning. It is a form of learning whereby the contingency between a specific behavior and a desirable consequence help increase the likelihood of the behavior recurring.

However, there is much more to positive reinforcement, as will be explored in this article.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Education Exercises for free . These ready-made tools are perfect for enhancing your teaching approach, making it easier to engage students in meaningful, student-centered learning.

This Article Contains:

What is positive reinforcement in teaching and education, why is using it in the classroom important, 5 examples of positive reinforcement in the classroom, the research on positive reinforcement in education, 7 benefits and advantages of using positive reinforcement, are there any negative effects, it’s effect on learning, positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement in early childhood education, techniques and tips for pre-schoolers, 10 techniques on how to best use positive reinforcement with students, ideas and strategies for classroom management, 15 games and activities, positive reinforcement behavior chart (pdf), a list of positive reinforcement words and phrases to use, recommended scholarly and journal articles, a take-home message.

Reinforcement refers to “ a stimulus which follows and is contingent upon a behavior and increases the probability of a behavior being repeated ” (Smith, 2017, p. 1). The simplest way of conceptualizing positive reinforcement is that something pleasant is ‘added’ when a specific action is performed (Cherry, 2018).

Positive reinforcement is an aspect of the construct of Operant Conditioning that was developed by B. F. Skinner (Cherry, 2018). Skinner studied rats, and he found that if the rats consistently pressed a bar which then administered food to the rat, the rat would press the bar more and more in order to get the food reward. Like those rats, if people find a particular behavior rewarding, it is more likely that they will repeat this behavior.

When thinking about positive reinforcement in teaching and education, the overarching purpose is to provide an incentive for students to repeat desired behaviors (Revermann, n.d.). In other words, by providing students with a positive outcome when they accomplish achievements or display certain behaviors, students are encouraged to do so again.

The timing and delivery of positive reinforcement is the key to effectively promote certain behaviors (Revermann, n.d.). In order for positive reinforcement to be effective, the reinforcement must be appropriate for a student’s age, it should be genuine, and it should be awarded straight after the target behavior (Revermann, n. d.).

Perhaps the easiest way to explain how positive reinforcement is used in the classroom, and also to introduce some areas that I will go into in more detail, I will provide an example:

Timmy is a grade two student in Ms. Fisher’s class. He fidgets and fiddles, and doesn’t stay in his seat for more than a minute or so at a time. Ms. Fisher decided to use positive reinforcement. Timmy loves stickers, so Ms. Fisher decides that after Timmy sits still for more than a cursory period of time, he will get a sticker.

This works well, with Timmy motivated to stay in his seat. As the week progressed, Ms. Fisher deliberately leaves it longer for Timmy to earn the sticker. Timmy begins staying seated for extended periods of time in order to get stickers.

There is a lot that will be discussed in relation to this scenario’s details, for now, it suffices to say that Ms. Fisher provided positive reinforcement (stickers) for Timmy sitting in his seat, therefore meaning that he is more likely to do the desired behavior (staying seated).

It should be noted that positive reinforcement refers to not only those stimuli that increase the likelihood of a desirable behavior but that cause an increase in ANY behavior (Smith, 2017).

For example, a student calls out during class to get attention. When the teacher responds, i.e. pays attention to the disruptive student, this response acts as positive reinforcement – therefore, the probability that the student will call out again increases (Smith, 2017).

Without meaning to, by paying attention, the teacher has made it more likely that the behavior will recur. It can therefore be seen how, although simple in concept, positive reinforcement must be used carefully and strategically.

Positive reinforcement is occasionally misunderstood by teachers – for example, those teachers who were trained using different techniques (Rumfola, 2017). However, more and more teachers are understanding this evolving and effective form of teaching and classroom management (Rumfola, 2017).

The reason positive reinforcement is important in the classroom is that it can be used to effectively change student behavior (Smith, 2017).

Using positive reinforcement is also important because it is a universal principle that actually occurs quite naturally in each and every classroom (Maag, 2001).

As well as offering the opportunity to increase the display of appropriate behaviors, planning the occurrence of positive reinforcement also means that educators can avoid inadvertently and haphazardly promoting inappropriate behaviors (Maag, 2001). It can be quite difficult to avoid reinforcing misbehavior simply by paying attention to it.

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Broadly speaking, examples of positive reinforcement in the classroom fall into five categories:

Direct reinforcement: this refers to a type of reinforcement that, as the name suggests, directly results from the appropriate behavior. The example given by Smith (2017) is that if a child interacts appropriately with their peers in a group activity, this will most likely lead to further invitations to join in on such activities in future.
Comments (later I will share the words and phrases to use!)
Written approval (e.g. writing ‘super’ on a completed worksheet) and
Other expressions of approval (such as smiling, nodding your head, clapping, a pat on the back) (Smith, 2017)
Activity reinforcers – involves allowing students to take part in their preferred activities if they behave appropriately. This is especially effective if they are allowed to choose a classmate with whom they can, for example, play a game or spend time on the computer with. This provides social reinforcement from their partner, too. More on this a bit later.
Tangible reinforcers – for example, edibles, toys, balloons, stickers, and awards. However, edibles and toys must be used mindfully. For example, if a student has a weight problem their parents may have reason to oppose the use of edibles as reinforcement. Furthermore, handing out toys may make other students envious. Instead, awards such as certificates, displaying work in the classroom, or a letter sent home to parents praising students’ progress can be used as reinforcement (see positive reinforcement parenting ).
Token reinforcement – occurs when points or tokens are awarded for appropriate behavior. The rewards themselves have little value but they can be collected, then exchanged for something valuable to the student. For example, every time a student shows a certain behavior, the teacher could give them a ticket. At the end of the week, tickets can be exchanged for a prize.

These are five simple examples of positive reinforcement in the classroom. Keep reading to learn more about how it can be used effectively!

One study by Little and Akin-Little (2008) incorporated a survey of positive reinforcement as a component of CRM (classroom management) – it looked at a “ number of techniques and procedures that can be followed to help teachers better manage the classroom ”. The study included 149 teachers from U.S. school districts who were attending in-service training classes in science education.

The sample was made up of 120 women and 29 men, the majority being Caucasian (Little & Akin-Little, 2008).

It was found that almost all teachers use verbal praise (such as saying “good job” or “I like the way you do…”) and positive feedback (such as a smile or nod of recognition) to reinforce students for appropriate behavior (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). 73% of teachers used positive touching (e.g. a pat on the back), and 63% sent a positive note home to parents (Little & Akin-Little, 2008).

A further 60% used stickers or tokens, and 53% provided students demonstrating appropriate behavior with extra privileges (such as additional computer time) (Little & Akin-Little, 2008).

The study by Little and Akin-Little (2008) looks at positive reinforcement as an evidence-based classroom management procedure. It should be noted that, in this study, teachers also reported responding to breaches of rules with a large amount of attention (e.g. verbal reprimands, moving a student closer to the teacher) and that this attention may act as a positive reinforcer for misbehavior.

Another study, by Leandra Pintel (2006) examined the effect of positive reinforcement, in the form of rewards, on the achievement of fourteen 3rd Grade students’ end of the week spelling test.

The first four weeks of the study looked at test results when there was no use of positive reinforcement in the form of rewards (Pintel, 2006). These results were then compared to grades for the four weeks in which students received rewards every time the student earned a score of 92 or above.

The 8-week study showed significant improvement in the students’ grades when they received positive reinforcement in the form of rewards (Pintel, 2006).

One functional analysis of a classroom found that destructive behavior was maintained by negative reinforcement, whilst positive behavior was continued through the use of positive reinforcement (Rumfola, 2017). Bernier (2012) also conducted research that showed that students who were reinforced socially in a positive manner were 68% more likely to do or follow what was being encouraged of them (Rumfola, 2017).

Another study by Bernier (2012) showed that students pay attention 93% of the time during instruction when the teacher was using positive reinforcement techniques (Rumfola, 2017). A study conducted by Kennedy reported that students with emotional and behavioral difficulties increased their compliance when they were given positive praise for their behavior (Rumfola, 2017).

There is definitely a need for more research in the area of positive reinforcement.

The benefits of using positive reinforcement are academic, behavioral, social, and emotional (Rumfola, 2017). Advantages of using positive reinforcement are, as described in Rumfola (2017):

Students can learn through the social cues of their teachers as to what constitutes acceptable behavior. For example, if one student is praised for a desired behavior, other students also learn that this behavior is acceptable and that it will be praised.
One important advantage of using positive reinforcement is that students actively enjoy being present and learning in the classroom.
Use of positive reinforcement leads to heightened enthusiasm in students – and even the teacher!
Furthermore, it can allow accomplishment to be celebrated as a class.
Positive reinforcement leads to a greater sense of community in the class.
Use of positive reinforcement is related to increased student attendance.
When positive reinforcement is used, students are more motivated.

Positive Reinforcement in early childhood

So far, it sounds like positive reinforcement is a great tool. Are there any negative effects?

In fact, behavior management techniques espousing the principles of positive reinforcement have actually been criticized and rejected by many teachers as well as the general public (Maag, 2001).

Kohn (1993) published a book titled “ Punished by Rewards ” which described the dismissal of techniques centered upon positive reinforcement (Maag, 2001).

The book resonated with educators and the wider society. However, according to Maag (2001), Kohn’s arguments do not acknowledge the scientific literature that provides support for behavioral techniques (encompassing positive reinforcement).

Axelrod (1996) had a different view. According to Axelrod, techniques that have been developed from positive reinforcement are not popular or accepted by professionals because they require time, provide little reimbursement to educators, they are not consistent with popular developmental psychology theories, are a threat to special interest groups, are somehow not acceptable socially, and are demeaning to humans (Maag, 2001).

Education professionals have not accepted Axelrod’s recommendations – evidence suggests that techniques that employ principles of positive reinforcement have had a significant impact on the management of challenging behavior in students (Maag, 2001).

It is said by Maag (2001) that punishment has been the preferred option for managing behavior in the classroom due to simplicity in administration, the fact that it is effective for students WITHOUT challenging behaviors as well as those who misbehave, and perhaps most significantly, punishment has resulted from the Judeo-Christian history that has driven much of today’s society.

According to Maag (2001), positive reinforcement is commonly ignored and misunderstood. Those who oppose the use of positive reinforcement tend to say that it threatens individuals’ freedom as autonomous human beings.

Mistakenly, some have believed that positive reinforcement is externally applied and thus individuals behave in a certain way not because they are internally motivated to do so (Maag, 2001). Rather, it has been erroneously believed that, when positive reinforcement is employed, individuals are being ‘co-erced’.

Punishment had also been perceived as an effective way of controlling members of society. Indeed, the use of punishment results in a quick – albeit temporary – suppression of most students’ inappropriate behaviors. In some ways, positive reinforcement has therefore proposed a very different notion of behavior management to teachers’ existing understandings.

Furthermore, despite empirical support for positive reinforcement, it is still common for techniques based on positive reinforcement not to be used correctly.

It can be easy to ignore students who are behaving well, which is a disadvantage of positive reinforcement. Also, for students with the most challenging behaviors who don’t get much positive attention, adult attention is a powerful reinforcer even if the attention is negative (Maag, 2001).

It has also been believed by some educators that positive reinforcement reduces a student’s ability to develop self-direction and crushes the student’s internal motivation.

Other negative effects include the fact that all behaviors are followed by certain consequences – the teacher cannot predict which outcome will be reinforced as opposed to ‘punishing’. In other words, a disadvantage of positive reinforcement is that the teacher cannot control what is naturally reinforcing for a student (Maag, 2001).

It is also very easy for a teacher to inadvertently positively reinforce inappropriate behavior simply by reacting to the student, and therefore paying attention to the student – increasing the likelihood of the behavior recurring (Maag, 2001).

Some teachers feel uncomfortable using reinforcement because they believe that this will mean that students lose sight of the intrinsic motivation to engage in an activity (Parsonson, 2012).

However, this is not actually a negative effect of positive reinforcement… children learn the intrinsic value of activities through effective teaching of skills that allow them to access and enjoy the activity! (Parsonson, 2012). Part of the process is for teachers to initially use exposure to extrinsic rewards for developing and displaying relevant skills (Parsonson, 2012).

Some ‘food for thought’ when it comes to praise:

The following discussion arises from the work of Alfie Kohn (2001) who wrote a somewhat controversial piece about the use of praise (a form of social reinforcement) It raises some interesting points to consider, though certainly approach the arguments with a grain of salt!

The use of praise may, in fact, have negative consequences. Let’s look at what Kohn (2001) has suggested. Firstly, he argues that the use of praise may result in children being tentative in their responses because they have come to rely on praise as reassurance – i.e. the praise creates dependence.

Praise may also reflect an outcome that benefits the adults – e.g. a child behaves in a way that is more convenient for us – for example, not making a mess. Thus, using praise may be a way for us to get children to act in a way that is in accordance with our wishes.

Alfie Kohn suggests that this may even lead to children feeling manipulated – even if they can’t explain why. In other words, use of praise may take advantage of a child’s dependence on adults.

The use of praise is a value judgment, and by us providing praise to children, we take from them the opportunity to learn how it feels to successfully achieve something. In other words, by us saying “well done” we are telling the child they should feel pleased.

Even though our guidance and evaluations are necessary, especially with toddlers and young children, overuse of praise or any type of positive reinforcement, is not helpful for children’s development.

Constant praise may lead to a child depending on feedback to persist with a task. Kohn (2001) shares a quote from Lilian Katz who is an expert on early childhood education: “ once attention is withdrawn, many kids won’t touch the activity again ” (p. 3).

In other words, it has been found that the more a person is rewarded for doing something, the more they will lose interest in whatever it was that they had to do to get the reinforcement in the first place.

Kohn also describes a research study which found that children who were frequently praised for being generous actually ended up showing less generosity – in other words, the actions lost their value as something worthwhile in their own right. Rather, the actions are the means to elicit the positive reaction by an adult.

It has been found that children who are praised may then struggle to achieve – the praise can create pressure to perform. It may decrease interest in an activity – i.e. the child may lose intrinsic motivation when praise is used. The child may also be less likely to take risks if they’re focused on getting more positive comments.

Kohn gives us an example of where praise may inadvertently discourage acts of beneficence – e.g. a child shares their lunch with a friend. The child may have done so to elicit a positive reaction by an adult, or perhaps so the other child has enough to eat. The praise that is given does not regard these different motives, and may even lessen the chance of the more desirable motive – in future, the child may simply fish for more praise.

Kohn (2001) even goes so far as to say that praising children’s positive actions as a way of discouraging misbehavior is not a more effective means of achieving lasting change… he suggests working WITH a child to figure out reasons for misbehavior, rather than simply looking for the child to obey.

So, this somewhat lengthy discussion opens the door for considering the potential pitfalls of the use of positive reinforcement (and particularly praise).

Firstly, in order to look at the effect of positive reinforcement on learning, a definition of learning. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior, mental representations, or associations as a result of experience (Pintel, 2006). So, positive reinforcement creates change as a result of experiencing the rewarding consequences of demonstrating a specific behavior.

An example of positive reinforcement shaping learning is that of a child misbehaving in a store. When the child misbehaves, the parent reacts – they may pay attention to the child, or even try to distract them by purchasing a toy (Cherry, 2018). The child learns that, by acting out, they can get their parents’ attention or even get the toy they want! (Cherry, 2018).

How would a parent, on the other hand, use a positive parenting approach to teach the child how to behave appropriately? Well, if the parents ignored the misbehavior, and instead wait until the child demonstrates good behavior to reward the child with praise – or even the toy – the child then learns to associate rewards with behaving appropriately (Cherry, 2018).

It is always important to consider the type of reinforcer used – depending on the individual and the situation. Learning will be more rapid when there is a short amount of time between the behavior and the presentation of positive reinforcement (Cherry, 2018).

Motivation is an important factor to consider in learning (Rumfola, 2017). A student will be more likely to want to learn a skill or behavior if they are motivated by a pleasant consequence (i.e. the positive reinforcement).

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement? Well, negative reinforcement is not the same thing as punishment, even though this is commonly mistaken. Punishment involves using the delivery of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus to decrease the likelihood that a behavior will recur (Smith, 2017).

For example, if someone handles a hot oven tray without wearing gloves or mitts, the burn that they will get will result in the person being less likely to handle the tray without gloves in future.

Rather, on the other hand, negative reinforcement is the REMOVAL of aversive stimuli in order to INCREASE the likelihood that the behavior is repeated (Smith, 2017).

A simple example of this is an alarm clock. The annoying loud buzzing stops when the man turns it off, leading the man to quickly turn it off in future. Positive reinforcement, as explained earlier is the ADDITION of a pleasant stimulus in response to a desired behavior.

So, the difference between positive and negative reinforcement is the consequence of the target behavior – the addition of a desirable stimulus versus the removal of an aversive stimulus.

To demonstrate what negative reinforcement looks like, here is an example: if a student is sent out of the classroom due to disruptive behavior, the teacher has actually been reinforced! The teacher is negatively reinforced for removing the noisy student because this act has removed the unpleasantness of the student’s behavior (Maag, 2001).

Negative reinforcement can also allow students to ‘escape’ the task that they are looking for a break from… for example, a student ‘acts out’ leading to the teacher intervening, and the student therefore avoids the task at hand (Rumfola, 2017). Then, furthermore, when the disruptive behavior is negatively reinforced, it can even lead to socially inappropriate behavior of other students who also wish to ‘escape’ a situation (Rumfola, 2017).

Positive reinforcement plays an important role in teaching young children, including toddlers. A critical aspect of using positive reinforcement in early childhood education is to promote and encourage positive social interactions (Rumfola, 2017).

It is advisable to get parents involved with a behavior plan that outlines clear, positively stated behavior (Rumfola, 2017). It is crucial that teachers and parents continuously reinforce positive behavior and to talk appropriately to children about what is expected of them (Rumfola, 2017).

In all education settings, but especially education in early childhood, it is important that the role models in the child’s life have a shared understanding of expectations.

Even very young children can learn to behave differently if appropriate and desired behaviors are demonstrated (Parsonson, 2012). In young children, positive reinforcement can be used as a behavior modification technique (Morin, 2018). It can also be used to support the learning of prosocial behavior – e.g. sharing, following directions, and taking turns.

Young children can be taught not to misbehave – i.e. to prevent hitting or breaking rules (Morin, 2018).

Positive reinforcement can also help children learn how to be responsible – e.g. putting away their toys (Morin, 2018).

Positive reinforcement is an effective tool to help young children learn desired behaviors, such as:

Using good manners (saying please and thank you, for example)
Playing quietly
Waiting patiently
Playing nicely with another child or sibling
Complying with a request straight away
Putting in a lot of effort on a challenging activity, and
Doing chores (Morin, 2018).

The ‘New Kids Center’ has provided some reasons to use positive reinforcement for children:

Children need verbal affirmation
Positive reinforcement contributes to self-esteem
It boosts character development
It is a good way to teach children to make behavioral choices
It stimulates intrinsic motivation

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How can we best use positive reinforcement with young children – i.e. pre-schoolers? As evidenced by Kohn (2001), it may be best to avoid excessive use of praise. Instead, ‘say what you saw’ – i.e. use a simple, evaluation-free statement to let the child know that their behavior has been noticed. So, for example, remark: “you put your shoes on all by yourself!” or “you did it!”.

This gives children the opportunity to take pride in their achievement.

If a longer, more elaborate response is called for, provide feedback rather than judgment. Comment on what you have noticed – e.g. “gosh! That mountain in your picture is huge!”. If the child does something that is kind or generous, rather than simply praising the child, help them understand the effect that their caring has had on the other person.

This approach differs from praise, which reflects how YOU feel about the kind behavior (Kohn, 2001).

To convey an interest in the child, use questions rather than descriptions (Kohn, 2001). For example, rather than talking about what you were impressed by, ask the child about the process – e.g. ask “ what was the most difficult part to draw? ” or “ what was the most fun thing about doing the puzzle? ”.

It should be noted, as Kohn (2001) pointed out – not ALL compliments and expressions of our delight and approval are ‘bad’ – we just need to be more mindful of the motives for what we say.

Behavior charts, such as the ones that links are provided for later in this article, can be excellent resources to use with pre-schoolers. Providing young children with visual aids to learn can be very effective. For example, draw smiley faces in a chart every time a young child does the target behavior (e.g. puts their toys away).

Then, the young child can see their progress and work towards a goal – e.g. 5 smiley faces means Mum will take me for a cookie after pre-school!

When working with pre-schoolers in particular, it is also important to remember to encourage effort rather than achievement. Children need to learn that if they do their best, that’s good enough.

By encouraging and positively reinforcing effort, children will feel more inclined to learn and persist with challenging tasks.

Online teaching student rewards – positive reinforcement ideas – Mr Cook’s Corner

It is claimed that positive reinforcement strategies are more effective than punishment for increasing and shaping positive behaviors (Rumfola, 2017). What, then, is the key to successful positive reinforcement?

The following ten strategies (from Smith, 2017) can help make the best use of positive reinforcement:

Consistently deliver the reinforcement, according to the planned ‘schedule of reinforcement’. If this does not occur, students will not form a connection between the appropriate behavior and the reinforcement. Then, the behavior won’t change!
Deliver the reinforcement straight away. Students should be aware of when they can expect reinforcement. If there is a delay between the target behavior and the positive reinforcement, such as if a teacher doesn’t commend a student for good behavior early on in the day until the end of the day, the reinforcement won’t be as effective – if the student even remembers their instance of good behavior, that is!
Reinforce improvement! Reinforcement will not be effective if the individual waits until the student’s behavior is perfect before giving reinforcement. Improvement, and effort, should also be recognized and reinforced. Also, ‘think small’ – avoid unrealistic expectations of students (Maag, 2001). Set small goals and reinforce gradual approximations toward the goal. An example described by Maag (2001) is that of a student who always arrives to class more than 10 minutes late. To effectively use positive reinforcement, the student should be reinforced when he arrives at the door 5 minutes into the class. Then once the student begins to make improvements in the desired behavior – i.e. arriving on time – future behavior changes will become easier.
Don’t give a student reinforcement because you feel sorry for them. This is because if the student fails to meet the required criteria, and still receives reinforcement, they will learn that the reinforcer is readily available regardless of behavior. The behavior may even escalate then! Instead, show an awareness of the student’s disappointment and point out that they will get the opportunity to reach the desired outcome again. In other words, reinforcement must be contingent on behavior.
Whenever it is possible to do so, pair reinforcement with a form of social reinforcement. For example, regardless of the type of reinforcer to be used, it is a good idea to provide social reinforcement such as telling the student something like “you did a great job today! You ought to be very proud of yourself”. Expressing approval of the student’s actions serve as a form of social reinforcement. Another way to pair social reinforcement with another is if a student is being allowed to participate in an activity as a ‘reward’, the student could be allowed to choose a partner to take part with them. Social reinforcers should be clear and not ambiguous. The reinforcement should be sincere, clear and most importantly identify the specific behavior for which it is being delivered.
The reinforcers must be suitable for the students’ age – for example, if you were to consider using stickers to reward high-school students, not only is the reinforcement likely to be ineffective, it is also likely to insult the students. Above all else, the reinforcer should be something of value to the person so that they are motivated to achieve it.
Catch students ‘being good’ – sometimes it is easier for teachers not to do this, because they may believe that students “should” behave well, and therefore the teacher only pays attention to students who are displaying inappropriate behaviors (Maag, 2001). Teachers only have to notice a student behaving well occasionally – because intermittent reinforcement can sustain high rates of students’ appropriate behavior. Occasional positive reinforcement is just as powerful as continually punishing the behavior!
Have a ‘Group management plan’. It will be easier to handle the challenging behaviors of certain students if the rest of the class is well-behaved (Maag, 2001). An example of a group management plan is the Good Behavior Game – this sees 3 appropriate behaviors being listed somewhere prominent in the classroom. Random tones are pre-recorded and then played during a lesson. When a tone is heard, the teacher places 3 marbles in a jar if everyone in the class is demonstrating at least 1 of the 3 appropriate behaviors. Then, if the jar has been filled with marbles at the end of the week, the class earns the reinforcer (e.g. watching a movie).
The teacher should set out rules for expected behavior and the positive reinforcement that a student can earn if they demonstrate appropriate behavior.
The teacher should aim for students being academically engaged for 70% of the day
The teacher should try and spend as much time as possible moving around the classroom in order to monitor the behavior of students and therefore be able to subtly reinforce appropriate behavior (Maag, 2001).
Use peer influence favorably. Maag (2001) suggests that the best way to encourage the positive influence of peers is to put a group management technique in place.

Some other brief suggestions as to other techniques to incorporate into positive reinforcement in the classroom are:

To acknowledge that reinforcement and punishment occur naturally.
To analyze and modify environmental, curricular, and instructional aspects in the classroom in order to promote appropriate behavior.
Ignore misbehavior that does not interfere with the learning of other students, classroom routines, or is otherwise reinforcing.
Avoid using reprimands – if necessary, use an even-handed, matter-of-fact tone (Maag, 2001).
To design an effective positive reinforcement plan, it is important to progress from less natural forms of reinforcement (such as tokens and tangibles) to more intrinsic, or in other words, natural reinforcers (i.e. social reinforcement, direct reinforcement, and natural reinforcement).

Positive reinforcement ideas and practices

What techniques can be used to effectively achieve management of a classroom?

For many students, appropriate classroom behavior is maintained via natural reinforcers (Little & Akin-Little, 2008).

However, natural reinforcement (such as attention from the teacher, grades, or the self-reinforcement resulting from task completion) may not be sufficient for all students to display appropriate behavior (Little & Akin-Little, 2008).

What can be done to manage a classroom, then?

One example of an effective classroom management technique is the use of “Interdependent Group Contingencies” (Little & Akin-Little, 2008).

This is a technique whereby reinforcers are distributed to every member of the group, contingent on the group meeting specified criteria. This technique has many benefits, such as teachers only requiring one plan for the entire class rather than one for every student (Little & Akin-Little, 2008).

The entire class either earns or does not earn the reinforcement, so the teacher does not have to monitor every single student’s behavior and give reinforcers to certain students. Students may even have fun working towards reinforcement rather than avoiding punishment! (Little & Akin-Little, 2008).

The following are 20 practical strategies for classroom management suggested by Guido (2018).

Demonstrate the behavior you want to see. If you want the students to be quiet and pay attention, stand still, silently, until all students are quiet before you begin.
Allow students to help in establishing the guidelines for classroom behavior. This achieves mutually understood and respected classroom expectations. Students will feel as if their wishes have been heard and that they have agreed upon the behavior standards required of them.
Print and distribute a list of classroom rules, and go over this document with students.
Address isolated behavior issues rather than punish an entire class.
Encourage initiative. Offer the chance for students to get ahead with their work if they wish. In other words, if a student completes a task, they should have the opportunity to begin the next task if they want to. This can also help alleviate frustration and boredom in students if they are waiting for their classmates to finish work.
Offer praise. Praise that is sincere and references specific examples of effort or accomplishment can inspire the class, improve a student’s self-esteem, and reinforce the rules and values that you wish to see. This form of social reinforcement, as discussed in other parts of this article, encourages students to repeat positive behavior.
Use non-verbal communication. A strategy to engage students is to enrich lessons by adding actions and visual aids. This also helps students to focus, another way to prevent misbehavior. It is a lot easier to prevent misbehavior than it is to regain control of a classroom!
Hold parties! Occasional celebrations of students’ hard work encourage students to keep working hard. It is important to make it clear to students that the party is a reward, and that future parties can be earned by good performance and demonstration of positive behavior.
Give tangible rewards – reward specific students at the end of each lesson.
Make positive letters and phone calls to keep parents informed of students’ academic effort or behavioral progress. With any luck, they will celebrate the achievement with their son/daughter, therefore acting as a form of social reinforcement.
Build excitement for content. By keeping lessons really engaging, you can interest the students in your teaching agenda. It also helps to dissuade misbehavior.
Provide a range of different activity options during free study periods to interest students who struggle to process learning in silence, individually.
Help student group work run more smoothly and effectively by writing contracts for each group task and project. Done in conjunction with students, the contract should contain guidelines for expectations that students have for each other and that the teacher has for them. Each group member should agree upon and sign the contract.
Encourage students to get involved in open-ended projects – i.e. those projects that do not require a specific end-product. To effectively manage a classroom, entice and challenge students!
Avoid standard marks on informal and formative assessments. Simply state whether the student did or did not meet expectations. The aim of the feedback should be to provide students, particularly those students who are struggling, with clear paths of how to improve.
Provide opportunities to students who struggle to process learning content by utilizing educational technology that adapts to their needs. For example, use games and platforms – including, for example, ‘Prodigy’ which is a math video game that adjusts content to help students to address learning problem areas.
Interview students, particularly those who are struggling academically or behaviorally, in order to learn how to manage them. Find out, from such students, things that can help them focus, with whom they tend to work well with, their preferred types of lessons, their favorite activities in class and the type of exercises that help them recall key content.
Avoid hesitation when bad behavior must be addressed. However, when addressing misbehavior, it is best to do so in private.
Consider using peer teaching as a classroom management strategy if you believe that top performers in the class are in a position to help engage and educate other students who may be disruptive or struggling. An example of such an activity is creating ‘reading buddies’ by pairing students together. These sorts of activities have been shown to be of the greatest benefit to students who have low confidence and poor social skills.
Consider using ‘gamification’ strategies to motivate students who are on personal learning plans. Many students are now avid ‘gamers’ and using these strategies can be effective ways to enhance learning. Such strategies could include revising the traditional scoring system and to refer to topics and units as ‘stages’.

The aim of employing these classroom management strategies is to create an orderly – but still engaging and friendly – learning environment and optimize teacher-student and student-student interactions. It is also important to remember that for students to benefit from positive reinforcement in the classroom, they must trust their positive role model (Rumfola, 2017).

It is therefore worthwhile developing rapport with students in the class to enhance learning and increase the demonstration of appropriate behavior.

The following are 15 positive reinforcement ideas for kids:

Good Deed Card – by Eighteen25
Caught Ya Being Good – by Wolfelicious
Reward Coupons – by Mama Gets it Done
Helpfulness Necklace – by Meaningful Mama
Printable Behavior Chart – by A Little Tipsy
Instant Gratification Award System – by Moritz Fine Blog Designs
Dazzling Deeds Good Behavior Jar – by Mama Miss
Reward Box – by Sugar for Breakfast
Reward Jars – by How Does She
Compliment Them Like Crazy – by Meaningful Mama
$1 for Every Time Another Adult Compliments on Character
Behavior Bucks – by Healthy in Candyland
Praise Effort More than Ability – by Meaningful Mama
Behavior Bingo – by Mrs. Lisa’s K-Crew Kids Rock
Helpfulness Reward Jar – by Meaningful Mama.

Follow the links below to find free Positive Behavior Charts:

https://www.template.net/business/charts/free-behavior-chart/
https://www.thegirlcreative.com/reward-chart-printable/
https://www.template.net/business/charts/printable-behavior-chart-template/

In addition, here is a digital PDF Positive Reinforcement Behavior Chart .

When using positive reinforcement, it’s all about showing interest in a student. Here are some helpful words and phrases to include:

“I saw how you were helping other kids. I’m so proud of you”
“I noticed how you asked your sister about playing with her doll. It was very polite of you”
“I liked how you shared your toys with other kids”
“You have been very thoughtful and considerate this week”
“I can see that you are trying really hard today”
“Great effort!”
“Even though this is challenging, I can tell that you are trying your best”
“You’re a friendly person”
“You’re really persisting with that jigsaw puzzle, well done”
“Nice work!”
“I love the way you did your very best in class”
“You have worked really hard in class today”
“Thank you for putting your Lego away!”
“That’s an interesting picture you are working on. Can you tell me about it?”

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Although there is not plenty of papers out there on positive reinforcement in the classroom, nonetheless the following are interesting:

Bernier, S., Simpson, C. G., & Rose, C. A. (2012). Positive and negative reinforcement in increasing compliance and decreasing problematic behavior. National Teacher Education Journal, 5 , 45 – 51.
Clair, E. B., Bahr, M. W., Quach, H. L., & Le Duc, J. D. (2018). The Positive Plus Program: Affirmative classroom management to improve student behavior. Behavioral Interventions, 33, 221 – 236.
Moore, T. C., Maggin, D. M., Thompson, K. M., Gordon, J. R., Daniels, S., & Lang, L. E. (2018). Evidence review for teacher praise to improve students’ classroom behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 21, 3 – 18.
Abramowitz, A. J., & O’Leary, S. G. (1991). Behavioral interventions for the classroom: Implications for students with ADHD. School Psychology Review, 20 , 220 – 234.
Coogan, B. A., Kehle, T. J., Bray, M. A., & Chafouleas, J. M. (2007). Group contingencies, randomization of reinforcers, and criteria for reinforcement, self-monitoring, and peer feedback on reducing inappropriate classroom behavior. School Psychology Quarterly, 22, 540 – 556.
Atkeson, B. M., & Forehand, R. (1979). Home-based reinforcement programs designed to modify classroom behavior: A review and methodological evaluation. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 1298 – 1308.
Warmbold-Brann, K., Burns, M. K., Preast, J. L., Taylor, C. N., & Aguilar, L. N. (2017). Meta-analysis of the effects of academic interventions and modifications on student behavior outcomes. School Psychology Quarterly, 32, 291 – 305.

It is clear from this article that there is much more to positive reinforcement than first meets the eye. Hopefully, you have learned about the benefits and advantages of using positive reinforcement in the classroom, but also developed an understanding of the limitations and potential pitfalls to its use.

Perhaps one thing that I hope you learned from this article is that for the most effective outcomes of using positive reinforcement in the classroom is to avoid empty, excessive praise (e.g. saying “good job!” every time a student displays appropriate behavior) and rather, pay attention to effort and provide statements of feedback and observations.

Do you have classroom experience? Have you seen positive reinforcement in action? I would be interested in hearing from you! Or, alternatively, do you use positive reinforcement in your work with clients? Is it effective? How do you avoid inadvertently reinforcing negative behavior? Let’s explore this topic further together!

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Education Exercises for free .

Cherry, K. (2018). Positive Reinforcement and Operant Conditioning. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-positive-reinforcement-2795412
Guido, M. (2018). 20 Classroom Management Strategies and Techniques. Retrieved from https://www.prodigygame.com/blog/classroom-management-strategies/
Kohn, A. (2001). Five Reasons to Stop Saying “Good Job!”. Retrieved from www.coalitionforcharacter.com/Literature_files/Five%20to%Stop%20Saying%20%22Good%20Job!%22.pdf
Little, J. G., & Akin-Little, A. (2018). Psychology’s contributions to classroom management. Psychology in the Schools, 45 , 1 – 9.
Maag, J. W. (2001). Rewarded by punishment: Reflections on the disuse of positive reinforcements in schools. Exceptional Children, 67 , 173 – 186.
Meaningful Mama (n.d.). 15 Positive Reinforcement Ideas for Kids. Retrieved from https://meaningfulmama.com/15-positive-reinforcement-ideas-kids.html
Morin, A. (2018). Positive Reinforcement to Improve a Child’s Behavior. Retrieved from https://www.verywellfamily.com/positive-reinforcement-child-behavior-1094889
New Kids Center (n.d.). How to Use Positive Reinforcement for Children. Retrieved from https://www.newkidscenter.com/Positive-Reinforcement-for-Children.html
Parsonson, B. S. (2012). Evidence-based classroom behavior management strategies. Kairaranga, 13 , 16 – 23.
Pintel, L. (2006). The effect of positive reinforcement on the achievement of 3rd grade students’ spelling. Theses and Dissertations, 923. http://rdw.rowan.edu/etd/923
Revermann, S. (n.d.). Examples of Positive Reinforcement in the Classroom. Retrieved from https://classroom.synonym.com/examples-positive-reinforcement-classroom-7817435.html
Rumfola, L. (2017). Positive reinforcement positively helps students in the classroom. Education and Human Development Master’s Theses, 786. http://digitalcommons.brockport.edu/ehd_theses/786
Smith, K. (2017). Positive Reinforcement…a Proactive Intervention for the Classroom. Retrieved from https://ceed.umn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Positive-Reinforcement.pdf

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I loved reading this article which I came across whilst researching the impact of positive reinforcement. So many invaluable strategies for older pupils too. Thank you.

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Punishment in Psychology

How Punishment Works in Operant Conditioning

Blend Images / Getty Images

Effectiveness
Disadvantages
Long-Term Consequences

Punishment involves the use of adverse consequences to reduce a behavior. The goal is to form an association between the behavior and the negative consequences. Once this association is created, the hope is that the behavior will then be less likely to occur.

Punishment can involve either applying an aversive consequence (such as getting a ticket for speeding) or taking away something desirable (such as a child losing their screen time privileges).

This article discusses how punishment is used in psychology, its effects, and potential downsides.

Definition of Punishment in Psychology

In psychology, punishment refers to any change that occurs after a behavior that reduces the likelihood that that behavior will happen again in the future. The goal of punishment is to either reduce or stop a behavior.

Punishment plays an important role in operant conditioning . Operant conditioning is a learning method that utilizes rewards and punishments to modify behavior.

While positive and negative reinforcements increase behaviors, punishment focuses on reducing or eliminating unwanted behaviors.

Types of Punishment

When people think of punishment, they often immediately think of the application of some type of negative consequence. Prison, spanking, or scolding are a few examples that come to mind. But punishment can also involve taking good things away, such as losing a privilege or reward.

Behaviorist B. F. Skinner , the psychologist who first described operant conditioning, identified two different kinds of aversive stimuli that can be used as punishment: positive punishment and negative punishment.

Positive Punishment

How can punishment be positive? In this case, the term positive refers to the addition of something. Positive punishment is a type of punishment that is also known as "punishment by application."

Positive punishment involves presenting an aversive stimulus after a behavior has occurred.

For example, when a student talks out of turn in the middle of class, the teacher might scold the child for interrupting.

Negative Punishment

In the case of negative punishment, negative refers to taking something away. Negative punishment is also known as "punishment by removal."

Negative punishment involves taking away a desirable stimulus after a behavior has occurred.

For example, when the student from the previous example talks out of turn again, the teacher promptly tells the child that they will have to miss recess because of their behavior.

Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement

Punishment is often mistakenly confused with negative reinforcement . The difference: Reinforcement increases the chances that a behavior will occur and punishment decreases the chances that a behavior will occur.

Examples of Punishment

To understand how punishment works, exploring a few more examples of how it might be used in everyday life can be helpful.

Time-outs : A time-out involves removing a child from a situation and having them sit in a more isolated location. The goal is to punish undesirable behavior.
Response cost : This punishment method involves taking away desired possessions, such as toys or privileges after an undesirable behavior has occurred.
Overcorrection : An overcorrection involves someone taking corrective actions after an undesirable behavior. For example, a child who throws toys on the ground during a tantrum will be punished by having to clean up the mess that they made.
Verbal reprimands : Scolding is an example of punishment. For example, a parent might scold their child by telling them why their behavior was inappropriate.

Is Punishment Effective?

While punishment can be effective in some cases, you can probably think of a few examples of when a punishment does not consistently reduce unwanted behavior. Prison is one example. Serving time in prison does not necessarily serve as a deterrent to future criminal behavior.

Why does punishment seem to work in some instances but not in others? Timing and consistency are two factors that can play a role in how effective punishment is in different situations.

First, punishment is more effective if is applied quickly. Prison sentences often occur long after the crime has been committed, which may help explain one reason why sending people to jail does not always lead to a reduction in criminal behavior.

Consistency

Second, punishment achieves greater results when it is consistently applied. It can be difficult to administer a punishment every time a behavior occurs.

For example, people often drive over the speed limit even after receiving a speeding ticket. Why? Because the behavior is inconsistently punished.

Punishment is more likely to lead to a reduction in behavior if it immediately follows the behavior and is consistently applied.

Disadvantages of Punishment

Punishment also has some notable drawbacks. First, any behavior changes that result from punishment are often temporary.

"Punished behavior is likely to reappear after the punitive consequences are withdrawn," Skinner explained in his book "Beyond Freedom and Dignity."

Perhaps the most significant short-term drawback is that punishment does not offer any information about more appropriate or desired behaviors. While subjects might be learning not to perform specific actions, they are not learning anything about what they should be doing.

Long-Term Consequences of Punishment

Another thing to consider about punishment is that it can have unintended and undesirable consequences. Researchers have found that this type of physical, or corporal, punishment may lead to antisocial behavior, aggression , and delinquency among children.

The World Health Organization (WHO) states that corporal punishment increases behavioral problems and leads to no positive outcomes. It also increases the risk of a range of problems, including:

Poor physical health
Increased mental health problems
Impaired cognitive and psychosocial development
Increased aggression and violence
Worse educational outcomes

One summary of the research on the use of physical punishment found that it harmed the quality of children's relationships with their parents, reduced children's cognitive abilities, and increased adult aggression and antisocial behavior.

According to a study published in JAMA Pediatrics , the number of parents reporting spanking their children has declined over the past 25 years. In 1993, 50% of parents reported spanking their kids. By 2017, this number had dropped to 35%.

Skinner and other psychologists suggest that any potential short-term gains from using punishment as a behavior modification tool must be weighed against the possible long-term consequences. In many cases, other methods are more effective and less harmful.

Alternatives to Punishment

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that parents avoid spanking and other forms of corporal punishment, including yelling and shaming. While such methods may lead to the short-term reduction of a behavior, they are linked to worse behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and psychosocial outcomes.

Other behavioral strategies, such as reinforcement and extinction, may be more effective in many cases. The AAP recommends using safer and more effective disciplinary strategies such as redirecting, positive reinforcement, and limit setting.

Jean-Richard-Dit-Bressel P, Killcross S, McNally GP. Behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms of punishment: implications for psychiatric disorders . Neuropsychopharmacology . 2018;43(8):1639-1650. doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0047-3

Fazel S, Wolf A. A systematic review of criminal recidivism rates worldwide: Current difficulties and recommendations for best practice . PLoS ONE . 2015;10(6):e0130390. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130390

Lukowiak T, Bridges J. Punishment strategies: First choice or last resort . JAASEP. 2010:63-72.

Finkelhor D, Turner H, Wormuth BK, Vanderminden J, Hamby S. Corporal punishment: Current rates from a national survey . J Child Fam Stud. 2019;28. doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01426-4

World Health Organization. Corporal punishment and health .

Gershoff ET. More harm than good: A summary of scientific research on the intended and unintended effects of corporal punishment on children . Law Contemp Probl . 2010;73(2):31-56.

Mehus CJ, Patrick ME. Prevalence of spanking in us national samples of 35-year-old parents from 1993 to 2017 . JAMA Pediatr . 2021;175(1):92. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.2197

Sege RD, Siegel BS, Council on Child Abuse and Neglect, et al. Effective discipline to raise healthy children . Pediatrics . 2018;142(6):e20183112.doi:10.1542/peds.2018-3112

American Academy of Pediatrics. Where we stand: Spanking .

Skinner BF. Beyond Freedom and Dignity. Hackett Publishing Company; 1971.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Operant Conditioning: What It Is, How It Works, and Examples

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning, is a theory of learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences. Behavior that is reinforced (rewarded) will likely be repeated, and behavior that is punished will occur less frequently.

By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left academic psychology, and other behaviorists were becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical conditioning . Perhaps the most important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons, he is more commonly known as B.F. Skinner.

Skinner’s views were slightly less extreme than Watson’s (1913). Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events.

Skinner’s work was rooted in the view that classical conditioning was far too simplistic to fully explain complex human behavior. He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to examine its causes and consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

How It Works

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s (1898) Law of Effect . According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect – Reinforcement. Behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior that is not reinforced tends to die out or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals, which he placed in a “ Skinner Box, ” which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.

Skinner box or operant conditioning chamber experiment outline diagram. Labeled educational laboratory apparatus structure for mouse or rat experiment to understand animal behavior vector illustration

A Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioning chamber, is a device used to objectively record an animal’s behavior in a compressed time frame. An animal can be rewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors, such as lever pressing (for rats) or key pecking (for pigeons).

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.

Neutral operants : Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers : Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
Punishers : Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

We can all think of examples of how reinforcers and punishers have affected our behavior. As a child, you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their consequences.

For example, when you were younger, if you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior.

If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school, and your parents became involved, you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.

Positive Reinforcement

B. F. Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning describes positive reinforcement. In positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by rewards, leading to the repetition of the desired behavior. The reward is a reinforcing stimulus.

Primary reinforcers are stimuli that are naturally reinforcing because they are not learned and directly satisfy a need, such as food or water.

Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that are reinforced through their association with a primary reinforcer, such as money, school grades. They do not directly satisfy an innate need but may be the means. So a secondary reinforcer can be just as powerful a motivator as a primary reinforcer.

Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the side, and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately, it did so that a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever.

After being put in the box a few times, the rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework (i.e., a reward), you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

The Premack principle is a form of positive reinforcement in operant conditioning. It suggests using a preferred activity (high-probability behavior) as a reward for completing a less preferred one (low-probability behavior).

This method incentivizes the less desirable behavior by associating it with a desirable outcome, thus strengthening the less favored behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is the termination of an unpleasant state following a response.

This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience.

For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever.

Immediately, it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after being put in the box a few times. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.

In fact, Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the electric current from being switched on.

These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning .

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.

Note : It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

They are two distinct methods of punishment used to decrease the likelihood of a specific behavior occurring again, but they involve different types of consequences:

Positive Punishment :

Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus or something unpleasant immediately following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening in the future.
It aims to weaken the target behavior by associating it with an undesirable consequence.
Example : A child receives a scolding (an aversive stimulus) from their parent immediately after hitting their sibling. This is intended to decrease the likelihood of the child hitting their sibling again.

Negative Punishment :

Negative punishment involves removing a desirable stimulus or something rewarding immediately following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening in the future.
It aims to weaken the target behavior by taking away something the individual values or enjoys.
Example : A teenager loses their video game privileges (a desirable stimulus) for not completing their chores. This is intended to decrease the likelihood of the teenager neglecting their chores in the future.

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it’s suppressed – behavior returns when punishment is no longer present.
Causes increased aggression – shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.
Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.
Does not necessarily guide you toward desired behavior – reinforcement tells you what to do, and punishment only tells you what not to do.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

Positive Reinforcement : Suppose you are a coach and want your team to improve their passing accuracy in soccer. When the players execute accurate passes during training, you praise their technique. This positive feedback encourages them to repeat the correct passing behavior.

Negative Reinforcement : If you notice your team working together effectively and exhibiting excellent team spirit during a tough training session, you might end the training session earlier than planned, which the team perceives as a relief. They understand that teamwork leads to positive outcomes, reinforcing team behavior.

Negative Punishment : If an office worker continually arrives late, their manager might revoke the privilege of flexible working hours. This removal of a positive stimulus encourages the employee to be punctual.

Positive Reinforcement : Training a cat to use a litter box can be achieved by giving it a treat each time it uses it correctly. The cat will associate the behavior with the reward and will likely repeat it.

Negative Punishment : If teenagers stay out past their curfew, their parents might take away their gaming console for a week. This makes the teenager more likely to respect their curfew in the future to avoid losing something they value.

Ineffective Punishment : Your child refuses to finish their vegetables at dinner. You punish them by not allowing dessert, but the child still refuses to eat vegetables next time. The punishment seems ineffective.

Premack Principle Application : You could motivate your child to eat vegetables by offering an activity they love after they finish their meal. For instance, for every vegetable eaten, they get an extra five minutes of video game time. They value video game time, which might encourage them to eat vegetables.

Other Premack Principle Examples :

A student who dislikes history but loves art might earn extra time in the art studio for each history chapter reviewed.
For every 10 minutes a person spends on household chores, they can spend 5 minutes on a favorite hobby.
For each successful day of healthy eating, an individual allows themselves a small piece of dark chocolate at the end of the day.
A child can choose between taking out the trash or washing the dishes. Giving them the choice makes them more likely to complete the chore willingly.

Skinner’s Pigeon Experiment

B.F. Skinner conducted several experiments with pigeons to demonstrate the principles of operant conditioning.

One of the most famous of these experiments is often colloquially referred to as “ Superstition in the Pigeon .”

This experiment was conducted to explore the effects of non-contingent reinforcement on pigeons, leading to some fascinating observations that can be likened to human superstitions.

Non-contingent reinforcement (NCR) refers to a method in which rewards (or reinforcements) are delivered independently of the individual’s behavior. In other words, the reinforcement is given at set times or intervals, regardless of what the individual is doing.

The Experiment:

Pigeons were brought to a state of hunger, reduced to 75% of their well-fed weight.
They were placed in a cage with a food hopper that could be presented for five seconds at a time.
Instead of the food being given as a result of any specific action by the pigeon, it was presented at regular intervals, regardless of the pigeon’s behavior.

Observation:

Over time, Skinner observed that the pigeons began to associate whatever random action they were doing when food was delivered with the delivery of the food itself.
This led the pigeons to repeat these actions, believing (in anthropomorphic terms) that their behavior was causing the food to appear.
In most cases, pigeons developed different “superstitious” behaviors or rituals. For instance, one pigeon would turn counter-clockwise between food presentations, while another would thrust its head into a cage corner.
These behaviors did not appear until the food hopper was introduced and presented periodically.
These behaviors were not initially related to the food delivery but became linked in the pigeon’s mind due to the coincidental timing of the food dispensing.
The behaviors seemed to be associated with the environment, suggesting the pigeons were responding to certain aspects of their surroundings.
The rate of reinforcement (how often the food was presented) played a significant role. Shorter intervals between food presentations led to more rapid and defined conditioning.
Once a behavior was established, the interval between reinforcements could be increased without diminishing the behavior.

Superstitious Behavior:

The pigeons began to act as if their behaviors had a direct effect on the presentation of food, even though there was no such connection. This is likened to human superstitions, where rituals are believed to change outcomes, even if they have no real effect.

For example, a card player might have rituals to change their luck, or a bowler might make gestures believing they can influence a ball already in motion.

Conclusion:

This experiment demonstrates that behaviors can be conditioned even without a direct cause-and-effect relationship. Just like humans, pigeons can develop “superstitious” behaviors based on coincidental occurrences.

This study not only illuminates the intricacies of operant conditioning but also draws parallels between animal and human behaviors in the face of random reinforcements.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Imagine a rat in a “Skinner box.” In operant conditioning, if no food pellet is delivered immediately after the lever is pressed, then after several attempts, the rat stops pressing the lever (how long would someone continue to go to work if their employer stopped paying them?). The behavior has been extinguished.

Behaviorists discovered that different patterns (or schedules) of reinforcement had different effects on the speed of learning and extinction. Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised different ways of delivering reinforcement and found that this had effects on

1. The Response Rate – The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e., how hard the rat worked).

2. The Extinction Rate – The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e., how soon the rat gave up).

Skinner found that variable-ratio reinforcement produces the slowest rate of extinction (i.e., people will continue repeating the behavior for the longest time without reinforcement). The type of reinforcement with the quickest rate of extinction is continuous reinforcement.

(A) Continuous Reinforcement

An animal or human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed, a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off.

Response rate is SLOW
Extinction rate is FAST

(B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly.

Response rate is FAST
Extinction rate is MEDIUM

(C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement

One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15 minutes (half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then food delivery is shut off.

Response rate is MEDIUM

(D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement

behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For example, gambling or fishing.

Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)

(E) Variable Interval Reinforcement

Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-employed person being paid at unpredictable times.

Extinction rate is SLOW

Applications In Psychology

1. behavior modification therapy.

Behavior modification is a set of therapeutic techniques based on operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938, 1953). The main principle comprises changing environmental events that are related to a person’s behavior. For example, the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired ones.

This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behavior, for example, is basically bribery.

There are different types of positive reinforcements. Primary reinforcement is when a reward strengths a behavior by itself. Secondary reinforcement is when something strengthens a behavior because it leads to a primary reinforcer.

Examples of behavior modification therapy include token economy and behavior shaping.

Token Economy

Token economy is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers).

Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. While the rewards can range anywhere from snacks to privileges or activities. For example, teachers use token economy at primary school by giving young children stickers to reward good behavior.

Token economy has been found to be very effective in managing psychiatric patients . However, the patients can become over-reliant on the tokens, making it difficult for them to adjust to society once they leave prison, hospital, etc.

Staff implementing a token economy program have a lot of power. It is important that staff do not favor or ignore certain individuals if the program is to work. Therefore, staff need to be trained to give tokens fairly and consistently even when there are shift changes such as in prisons or in a psychiatric hospital.

Behavior Shaping

A further important contribution made by Skinner (1951) is the notion of behavior shaping through successive approximation.

Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can be used to produce extremely complex behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in such a way as to encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each time.

In shaping, the form of an existing response is gradually changed across successive trials towards a desired target behavior by rewarding exact segments of behavior.

To do this, the conditions (or contingencies) required to receive the reward should shift each time the organism moves a step closer to the desired behavior.

According to Skinner, most animal and human behavior (including language) can be explained as a product of this type of successive approximation.

2. Educational Applications

In the conventional learning situation, operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill performance.

A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g., compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation.

A variable-ratio produces the highest response rate for students learning a new task, whereby initial reinforcement (e.g., praise) occurs at frequent intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until eventually only exceptional outcomes are reinforced.

For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class they should praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct). Gradually the teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only exceptional answers will be praised.

Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be extinguished through being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by having attention drawn to them). This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.

Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However, it is important to vary the type of reinforcement given so that the behavior is maintained.

This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.

Operant Conditioning vs. Classical Conditioning

Learning type.

While both types of conditioning involve learning, classical conditioning is passive (automatic response to stimuli), while operant conditioning is active (behavior is influenced by consequences).

Classical conditioning links an involuntary response with a stimulus. It happens passively on the part of the learner, without rewards or punishments. An example is a dog salivating at the sound of a bell associated with food.
Operant conditioning connects voluntary behavior with a consequence. Operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action to be rewarded or punished. It’s active, with the learner’s behavior influenced by rewards or punishments. An example is a dog sitting on command to get a treat.

Learning Process

Classical conditioning involves learning through associating stimuli resulting in involuntary responses, while operant conditioning focuses on learning through consequences, shaping voluntary behaviors.

Over time, the person responds to the neutral stimulus as if it were the unconditioned stimulus, even when presented alone. The response is involuntary and automatic.

An example is a dog salivating (response) at the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) after it has been repeatedly paired with food (unconditioned stimulus).

Behavior followed by pleasant consequences (rewards) is more likely to be repeated, while behavior followed by unpleasant consequences (punishments) is less likely to be repeated.

For instance, if a child gets praised (pleasant consequence) for cleaning their room (behavior), they’re more likely to clean their room in the future.

Conversely, if they get scolded (unpleasant consequence) for not doing their homework, they’re more likely to complete it next time to avoid the scolding.

Timing of Stimulus & Response

The timing of the response relative to the stimulus differs between classical and operant conditioning:

Classical Conditioning (response after the stimulus) : In this form of conditioning, the response occurs after the stimulus. The behavior (response) is determined by what precedes it (stimulus).

For example, in Pavlov’s classic experiment, the dogs started to salivate (response) after they heard the bell (stimulus) because they associated it with food.

The anticipated consequence influences the behavior or what follows it. It is a more active form of learning, where behaviors are reinforced or punished, thus influencing their likelihood of repetition.

For example, a child might behave well (behavior) in anticipation of a reward (consequence), or avoid a certain behavior to prevent a potential punishment.

Looking at Skinner’s classic studies on pigeons’ and rats’ behavior, we can identify some of the major assumptions of the behaviorist approach .

• Psychology should be seen as a science , to be studied in a scientific manner. Skinner’s study of behavior in rats was conducted under carefully controlled laboratory conditions . • Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion. Note that Skinner did not say that the rats learned to press a lever because they wanted food. He instead concentrated on describing the easily observed behavior that the rats acquired. • The major influence on human behavior is learning from our environment. In the Skinner study, because food followed a particular behavior the rats learned to repeat that behavior, e.g., operant conditioning. • There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals. Therefore research (e.g., operant conditioning) can be carried out on animals (Rats / Pigeons) as well as on humans. Skinner proposed that the way humans learn behavior is much the same as the way the rats learned to press a lever.

So, if your layperson’s idea of psychology has always been of people in laboratories wearing white coats and watching hapless rats try to negotiate mazes to get to their dinner, then you are probably thinking of behavioral psychology.

Behaviorism and its offshoots tend to be among the most scientific of the psychological perspectives . The emphasis of behavioral psychology is on how we learn to behave in certain ways.

We are all constantly learning new behaviors and how to modify our existing behavior. Behavioral psychology is the psychological approach that focuses on how this learning takes place.

Critical Evaluation

Operant conditioning can explain a wide variety of behaviors, from the learning process to addiction and language acquisition . It also has practical applications (such as token economy) that can be used in classrooms, prisons, and psychiatric hospitals.

Researchers have found innovative ways to apply operant conditioning principles to promote health and habit change in humans.

In a recent study, operant conditioning using virtual reality (VR) helped stroke patients use their weakened limb more often during rehabilitation. Patients shifted their weight in VR games by maneuvering a virtual object. When they increased weight on their weakened side, they received rewards like stars. This positive reinforcement conditioned greater paretic limb use (Kumar et al., 2019).

Another study utilized operant conditioning to assist smoking cessation. Participants earned vouchers exchangeable for goods and services for reducing smoking. This reward system reinforced decreasing cigarette use. Many participants achieved long-term abstinence (Dallery et al., 2017).

Through repeated reinforcement, operant conditioning can facilitate forming exercise and eating habits. A person trying to exercise more might earn TV time for every 10 minutes spent working out. An individual aiming to eat healthier may allow themselves a daily dark chocolate square for sticking to nutritious meals. Providing consistent rewards for desired actions can instill new habits (Michie et al., 2009).

Apps like Habitica apply operant conditioning by gamifying habit tracking. Users earn points and collect rewards in a fantasy game for completing real-life habits. This virtual reinforcement helps ingrain positive behaviors (Eckerstorfer et al., 2019).

Operant conditioning also shows promise for managing ADHD and OCD. Rewarding concentration and focus in ADHD children, for example, can strengthen their attention skills (Rosén et al., 2018). Similarly, reinforcing OCD patients for resisting compulsions may diminish obsessive behaviors (Twohig et al., 2018).

However, operant conditioning fails to take into account the role of inherited and cognitive factors in learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and animals.

For example, Kohler (1924) found that primates often seem to solve problems in a flash of insight rather than be trial and error learning. Also, social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that humans can learn automatically through observation rather than through personal experience.

The use of animal research in operant conditioning studies also raises the issue of extrapolation. Some psychologists argue we cannot generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy and physiology are different from humans, and they cannot think about their experiences and invoke reason, patience, memory or self-comfort.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who discovered operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning was discovered by B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist, in the mid-20th century. Skinner is often regarded as the father of operant conditioning, and his work extensively dealt with the mechanism of reward and punishment for behaviors, with the concept being that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are reinforced, while those followed by negative outcomes are discouraged.

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning, focusing on how voluntary behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences, such as rewards and punishments.

In operant conditioning, a behavior is strengthened or weakened based on the consequences that follow it. In contrast, classical conditioning involves the association of a neutral stimulus with a natural response, creating a new learned response.

While both types of conditioning involve learning and behavior modification, operant conditioning emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping voluntary behavior.

How does operant conditioning relate to social learning theory?

Operant conditioning is a core component of social learning theory , which emphasizes the importance of observational learning and modeling in acquiring and modifying behavior.

Social learning theory suggests that individuals can learn new behaviors by observing others and the consequences of their actions, which is similar to the reinforcement and punishment processes in operant conditioning.

By observing and imitating models, individuals can acquire new skills and behaviors and modify their own behavior based on the outcomes they observe in others.

Overall, both operant conditioning and social learning theory highlight the importance of environmental factors in shaping behavior and learning.

What are the downsides of operant conditioning?

The downsides of using operant conditioning on individuals include the potential for unintended negative consequences, particularly with the use of punishment. Punishment may lead to increased aggression or avoidance behaviors.

Additionally, some behaviors may be difficult to shape or modify using operant conditioning techniques, particularly when they are highly ingrained or tied to complex internal states.

Furthermore, individuals may resist changing their behaviors to meet the expectations of others, particularly if they perceive the demands or consequences of the reinforcement or punishment to be undesirable or unjust.

What is an application of bf skinner’s operant conditioning theory?

An application of B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory is seen in education and classroom management. Teachers use positive reinforcement (rewards) to encourage good behavior and academic achievement, and negative reinforcement or punishment to discourage disruptive behavior.

For example, a student may earn extra recess time (positive reinforcement) for completing homework on time, or lose the privilege to use class computers (negative punishment) for misbehavior.

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How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

How does operant conditioning relate to social learning theory?

What are the downsides of operant conditioning?

What is an application of bf skinner’s operant conditioning theory?

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