thesis tense structure

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What tense to use when writing a thesis?

I am well aware of the fact that there are a number of questions that talk about tenses in research, but I still have not found exactly what I am after.

Basically my question is this, in a Master dissertation, should the tense be the same throughout the entire text? Or is it acceptable (or even required) to use different tenses in different structures?

Assuming the following structure, if you believe that there should be separate tenses, would the suggestions in brackets be correct?

• Title ( Present )
• Abstract ( Imperfect Past )
• Introduction ( Present + Future )
• Methodology ( Past Perfect, Present, Future or Mix? )
• Results ( Past Perfect )
• Discussion ( Present* )
• Conclusion ( Mix?, conditional present )

*Would the choice of any present tense put all preceding sections in a past tense?

Looking at that structure I find it hard to see that only one tense should be adopted throughout the entire text.

Sources: This , this and that .

• writing-style

• I was about to say "The correct tense for the correct sections" but I see you are already thinking in terms of sections. Good question. It might be interesting to run corpus linguistics on this to find out. –  Frames Catherine White Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 15:39
• 1 I would use the past only for discussion of prior work. –  gerrit Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 17:09
• @gerrit: In papers involving experiments, the experiments are typically described in the past tense. –  Peter Shor Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 18:51
• @PeterShor Maybe so. That makes me a minority. I don't destroy my instruments after use so when I describe them, I do so in the present tense. I might use them again! Consistency is most important, however. –  gerrit Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 18:57
• @gerrit: I can see writing "The apparatus consists of ..." , but do you mean you would also write "500 observations are taken for each value of the electric field" ? –  Peter Shor Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 19:27

The answer to this question varies across disciplines. Your dissertation presumably falls within some academic discipline. Look at other papers in the same discipline, and see what tenses they use. For example, unlike your suggestion, in math papers the abstract is usually present tense.

If some of the premier journals in your discipline have a style guide, look at these style guides and see what they say.

The journal Nature , in which the majority of articles are in the sciences, has the following suggestions for verb tense (I've left out a few of their examples):

Past tense Work done We collected blood samples from . . . Consequently, astronomers decided to rename . . . Work reported Jankowsky reported a similar growth rate . . . In 2009, Chu published an alternative method to . . . Observations The mice in Group A developed, on average, twice as much . . . The conversion rate was close to 95% . . . Present tense General truths Microbes in the human gut have a profound influence on . . . The Reynolds number provides a measure of . . . Atemporal facts This paper presents the results of . . . Section 3.1 explains the difference between . . . Behbood's 1969 paper provides a framework for . . . Future tense Perspectives In a follow-up experiment, we will study the role of . . . The influence of temperature will be the object of future research . . .

• "We collected blood samples from . . ." That's strange. I thought they want you to avoid I and We? "Blood samples were collected from..." sounds much more like a nature paper. –  user64845 Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 22:01
• @DSVA: There has been a rethinking of the tradition of never using we or I in scientific papers. While some journals still maintain this rule, many welcome use of the first person plural. Another quote from that same link: 'As a second argument against a systematic preference for the passive voice, readers sometimes need people to be mentioned. A sentence such as "The temperature is believed to be the cause for . . . " is ambiguous. Readers will want to know who believes this — the authors of the paper, or the scientific community as a whole? ' (continued ...) –  Peter Shor Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 23:55
• 'To clarify the sentence, use the active voice and set the appropriate people as the subject, in either the third or the first person, as in the examples below. Biologists believe the temperature to be . . . Keustermans et al. (1997) believe the temperature to be . . . The authors believe the temperature to be . . . We believe the temperature to be . . . ' –  Peter Shor Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 23:55
• And let me modify the Nature suggestions. I have the impression that work done and observations are usually past tense, but work reported is often present perfect tense — Jankowsky has reported a similar growth rate ... Of course, if you mention a year with work reported, then for grammatical reasons it has to be past tense. –  Peter Shor Commented Aug 27, 2017 at 20:16

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Verbs are direct, vigorous communicators. Use a chosen verb tense consistently throughout the same and adjacent paragraphs of a paper to ensure smooth expression.

Use the following verb tenses to report information in APA Style papers.

Verb tense is covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 4.12 and the Concise Guide Section 2.12

From the APA Style blog

Check your tone: Keeping it professional

When writing an APA Style paper, present ideas in a clear and straightforward manner. In this kind of scholarly writing, keep a professional tone.

The “no second-person” myth

Many writers believe the “no second-person” myth, which is that there is an APA Style guideline against using second-person pronouns such as “you” or “your.” On the contrary, you can use second-person pronouns in APA Style writing.

The “no first-person” myth

Whether expressing your own views or actions or the views or actions of yourself and fellow authors, use the pronouns “I” and “we.”

Navigating the not-so-hidden treasures of the APA Style website

This post links directly to APA Style topics of interest that users may not even know exist on the website.

Welcome, singular “they”

This blog post provides insight into how this change came about and provides a forum for questions and feedback.

Dissertations & projects: Tenses

• Research questions
• The process of reviewing
• Project management
• Literature-based projects

On this page:

“You will use a range of tenses depending on what you are writing about . ” Elizabeth M Fisher, Richard C Thompson, and Daniel Holtom,   Enjoy Writing Your Science Thesis Or Dissertation!

Tenses can be tricky to master. Even well respected journals differ in the guidance they give their authors for their use. However, their are some general conventions about what tenses are used in different parts of the report/dissertation. This page gives some advice on standard practice.

What tenses will you use?

There are exceptions however, most notably in the literature review where you will use a mixture of past , present and present perfect tenses (don't worry, that is explained below), when discussing the implications of your findings when the present tense is appropriate and in the recommendations where you are likely to use the future tense.

The tenses used as standard practice in each of these sections of your report are given and explained below.

In your abstract

You have some leeway with tense use in your abstract and guidance does vary which can sometimes be confusing. We recommend the following:

Describing the current situation and reason for your study

Mostly use the present tense,  i.e. "This is the current state of affairs and this is why this study is needed."

Occasionally, you may find the need to use something called the present perfect tense when you are describing things that happened in the past but are still relevant. The present perfect tense uses have/has and then the past participle of the verb i.e. Previous research on this topic has focused on... 

Describing the aims of your study

Here you have a choice. It is perfectly acceptable to use either the present or past tense,  i.e. "This study aims to..." or "This study aimed to..." 

Describing your methodology

Use the past tense to describe what you did, i.e. "A qualitative approach was used." "A survey was undertaken to ...". "The blood sample was analysed by..."

Describing your findings

Use the past tense to describe what you found as it is specific to your study, i.e. "The results showed that...", "The analysis indicated that..."

Suggesting the implications of your study

Use the present tense as even though your study took place in the past, your implications remain relevant in the present, i.e. Results revealed x which indicates that..."

Example abstract 

An example abstract with reasoning for the tenses chosen can be found at the bottom of this excellent blog post: 

Using the Present Tense and Past Tense When Writing an Abstract

In your methodology

The methodology is one of the easiest sections when it comes to tenses as you are explaining to your reader what you did. This is therefore almost exclusively written in the past tense.

Blood specimens were frozen at -80 o C.

A survey was designed using the Jisc Surveys tool.

Participants were purposefully selected.

The following search strategy was used to search the literature:

Very occasionally you may use the present tense if you are justifying a decision you have taken (as the justification is still valid, not just at the time you made the decision). For example: 

Purposeful sampling was used to ensure that a range of views were included. This sampling method maximises efficiency and validity as it identifies information-rich cases and ... (Morse & Niehaus, 2009).

In your discussion/conclusion

This will primarily be written in the present tense as you are generally discussing or making conclusions about the relevance of your findings at the present time. So you may write:

The findings of this research suggest that.../are potentially important because.../could open a new avenue for further research...

There will also be times when you use the past tense , especially when referring to part of your own research or previous published research research - but this is usually followed by something in the present tense to indicate the current relevance or the future tense to indicate possible future directions:

Analysis of the survey results found most respondents were not concerned with the processes, just the outcome. This suggests that managers should focus on...

These findings mirrored those of Cheung (2020), who also found that ESL pupils failed to understand some basic yet fundamental instructions. Addressing this will help ensure...

In your introduction

The introduction generally introduces what is in the rest of your document as is therefore describing the present situation and so uses the present tense :

Chapter 3  describes  the research methodology.

Depending on your discipline, your introduction may also review the literature so please also see that section below.

In your literature review

The findings of some literature may only be applicable in the specific circumstances that the research was undertaken and so need grounding to that study. Conversely, the findings of other literature may now be accepted as established knowledge. Also, you may consider the findings of older literature to be still relevant and relatively recent literature be already superseded. The tenses you write in will help to indicate a lot of this to the reader. In other words, you will use a mix of tenses in your review depending on what you are implying.

Findings only applicable in the specific circumstances

Use the past tense . For example: 

In an early study, Sharkey et al. (1991)  found  that isoprene emissions  were doubled  in leaves on sunnier sides of oak and aspen trees. 

Using the past tense indicates that you are not implying that isoprene emissions are always doubled on the sunnier side of the trees, just that is what was found in the Sharkey et al. study.

Findings that are still relevant or now established knowledge

Mostly use the present tense , unless the study is not recent and the authors are the subject of the sentence (which you should use very sparingly in a literature review) when you may need to use a mixture of the past and present. For example:

A narrowing of what 'graduateness' represents damages students’ abilities to thrive as they move through what will almost certainly be complex career pathways (Holmes, 2001).

Holmes (2001) argued strongly that a narrowing of what 'graduateness' represents damages  students’ abilities to thrive as they move through what will almost certainly be complex career pathways

Both of these imply that you think this is still the case (although it is perhaps more strongly implied in the first example). You may also want to use some academic caution too - such as writing 'may damage' rather than the more definite 'damages'.

Presenting your results

As with your methodology, your results section should be written in the past tense . This indicates that you are accepting that the results are specific to your research. Whilst they may have current implications, that part will not be considered until your discussion/conclusions section(s).

Four main themes were identified from the interview data.

There was a significant change in oxygen levels.

Like with the methodology, you will occasionally switch to present tense to write things like "Table 3.4 shows that ..." but generally, stick to the past tense.

In your recommendations

Not everyone will need to include recommendations and some may have them as part of the conclusions chapter. Recommendations are written in a mixture of the present tense and  future tense :

It is recommended that ward layout is adapted, where possible, to provide low-sensory bays for patients with autism. These will still be useable by all patients but...

Useful links

• Verb tenses in scientific manuscripts From International Science Editing
• Which Verb Tenses Should I Use in a Research Paper? Blog from WordVice
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writing@chalmers

Parts of a thesis / report.

Writing a thesis is not about following a checklist but about being aware of what is expected in terms of audience, content, structure, and style amongst other things. See the section ”Before you start writing” for more information.

At both Bachelor and Master levels at Chalmers, the type of thesis written varies from department to department and even within departments. When starting work on your thesis, you need to establish what kind of thesis you will work on and what the expected format of such a thesis is.

1)   Find examples of Master theses in your field at the library. All Master theses are saved in  Chalmers Library 2)   Ask your supervisor

3)   Check your department guidelines on thesis writing to see if they suggest a model thesis structure

The basic, common structure of a scientific text is shown below, the IMRAD structure, Introduction-Methods-Results and Discussion. However, this structure is very simplified and needs to be adapted to suit the task, purpose and audience in the best way.

Introduction :  Why was the study undertaken? What was the research question, the tested hypothesis or the purpose of the research? Methods :  When, where, and how was the study done? What materials were used or who was included in the study groups? Results : What answer was found to the research question; what did the study find? Was the tested hypothesis true? and Discussion :  What might the answer imply and why does it matter? How does it fit in with what other researchers have found? What are the perspectives for future research?

Language and tenses in a thesis

Though there are no fixed rules, some tendencies have been seen as regards use of tense in the different sections of the thesis. See the different sections of the thesis for more information.

Table 1: Use of tense in parts of the thesis (Swales and Feak, 2012)

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What tenses should be used in the research paper and thesis? The most concern part is the literature review.

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Grammar: Verb Tenses

Most common verb tenses in academic writing.

According to corpus research, in academic writing, the three tenses used the most often are the simple present , the simple past , and the present perfect (Biber et al., 1999; Caplan, 2012). The next most common tense for capstone writers is the future ; the doctoral study/dissertation proposal at Walden is written in this tense for a study that will be conducted in the future.

Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan, E. (1999). Longman grammar of written and spoken English . Pearson. https://doi.org/10.1162/089120101300346831

Caplan, N. A. (2012). Grammar choices for graduate and professional writers . University of Michigan Press.

Simple present: Use the simple present to describe a general truth or a habitual action. This tense indicates that the statement is generally true in the past, present, and future.

• Example: The hospital admits patients whether or not they have proof of insurance.

Simple past : Use the simple past tense to describe a completed action that took place at a specific point in the past (e.g., last year, 1 hour ago, last Sunday). In the example below, the specific point of time in the past is 1998.

• Example: Zimbardo (1998) researched many aspects of social psychology.

Present perfect: Use the present perfect to indicate an action that occurred at a nonspecific time in the past. This action has relevance in the present. The present perfect is also sometimes used to introduce background information in a paragraph. After the first sentence, the tense shifts to the simple past.

• Example: Numerous researchers have used this method.
• Example: Many researchers have studied how small business owners can be successful beyond the initial few years in business. They found common themes among the small business owners.

Future: Use the future to describe an action that will take place at a particular point in the future (at Walden, this is used especially when writing a proposal for a doctoral capstone study).

• Example: I will conduct semistructured interviews.

Keep in mind that verb tenses should be adjusted after the proposal after the research has been completed. See this blog post about Revising the Proposal for the Final Capstone Document for more information.

APA Style Guidelines on Verb Tense

APA calls for consistency and accuracy in verb tense usage (see APA 7, Section 4.12 and Table 4.1). In other words, avoid unnecessary shifts in verb tense within a paragraph or in adjacent paragraphs to help ensure smooth expression.

• Use the past tense (e.g., researchers presented ) or the present perfect (e.g., researchers have presented ) for the literature review and the description of the procedure if discussing past events.
• Use the past tense to describe the results (e.g., test scores improved significantly).
• Use the present tense to discuss implications of the results and present conclusions (e.g., the results of the study show …).

When explaining what an author or researcher wrote or did, use the past tense.

• Patterson (2012) presented, found, stated, discovered…

However, there can be a shift to the present tense if the research findings still hold true:

• King (2010) found  that revising a document three times improves the final grade.
• Smith (2016) discovered that the treatment is effective.

Verb Tense Guidelines When Referring to the Document Itself

To preview what is coming in the document or to explain what is happening at that moment in the document, use the present or future tense:

• In this study, I will describe …
• In this study, I describe …
• In the next chapter, I will discuss …
• In the next chapter, I discuss …

To refer back to information already covered, such as summaries of discussions that have already taken place or conclusions to chapters/sections, use the past tense:

• Chapter 1 contained my original discussion of the research questions.
• In summary, in this section, I presented information on…

Simple Past Versus the Present Perfect

Rules for the use of the present perfect differ slightly in British and American English. Researchers have also found that among American English writers, sometimes individual preferences dictate whether the simple past or the present perfect is used. In other words, one American English writer may choose the simple past in a place where another American English writer may choose the present perfect.

Keep in mind, however, that the simple past is used for a completed action.  It often is used with signal words or phrases such as "yesterday," "last week," "1 year ago," or "in 2015" to indicate the specific time in the past when the action took place.

• I went to China in 2010 .
• He completed the employee performance reviews last month .

The present perfect focuses more on an action that occurred without focusing on the specific time it happened. Note that the specific time is not given, just that the action has occurred.

• I have travelled to China.

The present perfect focuses more on the result of the action.

• He has completed the employee performance reviews.

The present perfect is often used with signal words such as "since," "already," "just," "until now," "(not) yet," "so far," "ever," "lately," or "recently."

• I have already travelled to China.
• He has recently completed the employee performance reviews.
• Researchers have used this method since it was developed.

Summary of English Verb Tenses

The 12 main tenses:

• Simple present : She writes every day.
• Present progressive: She is writing right now.
• Simple past : She wrote last night.
• Past progressive: She was writing when he called.
• Simple future : She will write tomorrow.
• Future progressive: She will be writing when you arrive.
• Present perfect : She has written Chapter 1.
• Present perfect progressive: She has been writing for 2 hours.
• Past perfect: She had written Chapter 3 before she started Chapter 4.
• Past perfect progressive: She had been writing for 2 hours before her friends arrived.
• Future perfect: She will have written Chapter 4 before she writes Chapter 5.
• Future perfect progressive: She will have been writing for 2 hours by the time her friends come over.

Conditionals:

Zero conditional (general truths/general habits).

• Example: If I have time, I write every day.

First conditional (possible or likely things in the future).

• Example: If I have time, I will write every day.

Second conditional (impossible things in the present/unlikely in the future).

• Example : If I had time, I would write every day.

Third conditional (things that did not happen in the past and their imaginary results)

• Example : If I had had time, I would have written every day.

Subjunctive : This form is sometimes used in that -clauses that are the object of certain verbs or follow certain adjectives. The form of the subjective is the simple form of the verb. It is the same for all persons and number.

• Example : I recommend that he study every day.
• Example: It is important that everyone set a writing schedule.

Verbs Video Playlist

Note that these videos were created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

• Grammar for Academic Writers: Common Verb Tenses in Academic Writing (video transcript)
• Grammar for Academic Writers: Verb Tense Consistency (video transcript)
• Grammar for Academic Writers: Advanced Subject–Verb Agreement (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Helping Verbs (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Past Tense (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Present Tense (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Future Tense (video transcript)

Related Resources

Knowledge Check: Verb Tenses

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

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• Next Page: Verb Forms: "-ing," Infinitives, and Past Participles
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Reference management. Clean and simple.

How to structure a thesis

A typical thesis structure

1. abstract, 2. introduction, 3. literature review, 6. discussion, 7. conclusion, 8. reference list, frequently asked questions about structuring a thesis, related articles.

Starting a thesis can be daunting. There are so many questions in the beginning:

• How do you actually start your thesis?
• How do you structure it?
• What information should the individual chapters contain?

Each educational program has different demands on your thesis structure, which is why asking directly for the requirements of your program should be a first step. However, there is not much flexibility when it comes to structuring your thesis.

Abstract : a brief overview of your entire thesis.

Literature review : an evaluation of previous research on your topic that includes a discussion of gaps in the research and how your work may fill them.

Methods : outlines the methodology that you are using in your research.

Thesis : a large paper, or multi-chapter work, based on a topic relating to your field of study.

The abstract is the overview of your thesis and generally very short. This section should highlight the main contents of your thesis “at a glance” so that someone who is curious about your work can get the gist quickly. Take a look at our guide on how to write an abstract for more info.

Tip: Consider writing your abstract last, after you’ve written everything else.

The introduction to your thesis gives an overview of its basics or main points. It should answer the following questions:

• Why is the topic being studied?
• How is the topic being studied?
• What is being studied?

In answering the first question, you should know what your personal interest in this topic is and why it is relevant. Why does it matter?

To answer the "how", you should briefly explain how you are going to reach your research goal. Some prefer to answer that question in the methods chapter, but you can give a quick overview here.

And finally, you should explain "what" you are studying. You can also give background information here.

You should rewrite the introduction one last time when the writing is done to make sure it connects with your conclusion. Learn more about how to write a good thesis introduction in our thesis introduction guide .

A literature review is often part of the introduction, but it can be a separate section. It is an evaluation of previous research on the topic showing that there are gaps that your research will attempt to fill. A few tips for your literature review:

• Use a wide array of sources
• Show both sides of the coin
• Make sure to cover the classics in your field
• Present everything in a clear and structured manner

For more insights on lit reviews, take a look at our guide on how to write a literature review .

The methodology chapter outlines which methods you choose to gather data, how the data is analyzed and justifies why you chose that methodology . It shows how your choice of design and research methods is suited to answering your research question.

Make sure to also explain what the pitfalls of your approach are and how you have tried to mitigate them. Discussing where your study might come up short can give you more credibility, since it shows the reader that you are aware of its limitations.

Tip: Use graphs and tables, where appropriate, to visualize your results.

The results chapter outlines what you found out in relation to your research questions or hypotheses. It generally contains the facts of your research and does not include a lot of analysis, because that happens mostly in the discussion chapter.

Clearly visualize your results, using tables and graphs, especially when summarizing, and be consistent in your way of reporting. This means sticking to one format to help the reader evaluate and compare the data.

The discussion chapter includes your own analysis and interpretation of the data you gathered , comments on your results and explains what they mean. This is your opportunity to show that you have understood your findings and their significance.

Point out the limitations of your study, provide explanations for unexpected results, and note any questions that remain unanswered.

This is probably your most important chapter. This is where you highlight that your research objectives have been achieved. You can also reiterate any limitations to your study and make suggestions for future research.

Remember to check if you have really answered all your research questions and hypotheses in this chapter. Your thesis should be tied up nicely in the conclusion and show clearly what you did, what results you got, and what you learned. Discover how to write a good conclusion in our thesis conclusion guide .

At the end of your thesis, you’ll have to compile a list of references for everything you’ve cited above. Ideally, you should keep track of everything from the beginning. Otherwise, this could be a mammoth and pretty laborious task to do.

Consider using a reference manager like Paperpile to format and organize your citations. Paperpile allows you to organize and save your citations for later use and cite them in thousands of citation styles directly in Google Docs, Microsoft Word, or LaTeX:

🔲 Introduction

🔲 Literature review

🔲 Discussion

🔲 Conclusion

🔲 Reference list

The basic elements of a thesis are: Abstract, Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, Conclusion, and Reference List.

It's recommended to start a thesis by writing the literature review first. This way you learn more about the sources, before jumping to the discussion or any other element.

It's recommended to write the abstract of a thesis last, once everything else is done. This way you will be able to provide a complete overview of your work.

Usually, the discussion is the longest part of a thesis. In this part you are supposed to point out the limitations of your study, provide explanations for unexpected results, and note any questions that remain unanswered.

The order of the basic elements of a thesis are: 1. Abstract, 2. Introduction, 3. Literature Review, 4. Methods, 5. Results, 6. Discussion, 7. Conclusion, and 8. Reference List.

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Tenses – Guide, Conditionals & Use in Academic Writing

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Adherence to the correct tenses is essential in academic writing , directly impacting its conciseness, clarity, and readability. At times, deciding on the appropriate tense could be relatively perplexing, entailing a careful application of language rules . Yet, the situation is not as complex as it may initially seem. As indicated by Cambridge University Press, the majority of students will only need a handful of tenses to express their ideas effectively, once they grasp the associated language rules.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Tenses in a nutshell
• 2 Definition: Tenses
• 3 The 12 tenses
• 4 Conditionals
• 5 Common tenses in academic writing
• 6 Tenses in a research paper

Tenses in a nutshell

Tenses are used to express when an action happens: in the past, present, or future. They convey the timing and duration of events in a clear and structured way.

Definition: Tenses

Tenses are grammatical constructs that express the time at which an action or event takes place. In English, verb tenses are used to indicate whether an action occurs in the past , present , or future . They also convey additional information about the action, such as whether it is ongoing, completed, or habitual. As mentioned before, they can be divided into three main categories, which each have four aspects or subcategories : simple, continuous (also known as progressive), perfect, and perfect continuous. These subdivisions allow for a nuanced expression of time and aspect, which enables both speakers and writers to convey the exact nature of an action.

The 12 tenses

There are a total of 12 time forms in English, each conveying details about the time and nature of the action. In this section, we will introduce you to all types and subtypes of tenses by dividing them into past, simple, and future. After this, we’ll provide you with a downloadable PDF document, that encompasses all time forms.

The present

The English language has four subcategories for the main category “present.” Each one will be explained below, along with numerous examples and how to form them.

• Present simple

Present continuous

Present perfect, present perfect continuous.

Present simple , or simple present, is used to describe everyday actions and general truths . It’s the most basic of the English tenses for English learners, as it is often formed with just the root verb with no additions. The only mistake one can make, is to forget the suffix “-s,” “-es,” or “-ies,” which is added to the verb when the subject is in third-person singular .

• If the verb ends in – o , -ch , -sh ,  -ss , or -x , you add “-es.”
• If the verb ends in a consonant and -y , you drop the -y and add “-ies.”

Subject + infinitive (+ “s,” “es,” or “ies” for 3rd person singular)

• She writes a letter every day.
• They play soccer on weekends.
• He eats breakfast at 7 AM.

Present continuous , or present progressive, describes actions that are happening right now  or around the current time . For this tense, auxiliary verbs are needed.

• For singular first-person pronouns , you use “am.”
• For third-person personal pronouns , you use “is.”
• For plural personal pronouns , you use “are.”

Subject + am/is/are + verb+ing

• She is writing a letter now.
• They are playing soccer at the moment.
• He is eating breakfast right now.

Present perfect is used to describe actions that were completed at some point before now , often with relevance to the present . It is formed with the auxiliary verbs have/has and the past participle of the verb, which is the second past form . More information can be found in our article on present perfect , which includes common temporal adverbs used with this tense, and our article on verb conjugation . More specifically, present perfect is used to describe actions that:

• are ongoing, but started in the past
• were completed very recently
• were completed multiple times before and are likely to be completed again

Subject + have/has + past participle

• She has written three letters today.
• They have played soccer many times.
• He has eaten breakfast already.

Present perfect continuous, or present perfect progressive, describes actions that started in the past and are still ongoing or have recently stopped . It is often used to emphasize the duration of the activity. It is formed by using the auxiliary verb have/has, been, and the -ing form of the verb.

Subject + have/has been + verb+ing

• She has been writing letters all morning.
• They have been playing soccer for two hours.
• He has been eating breakfast since 7 AM.

The English language has four subcategories for the main category “past.” Each category will be explained, as well as several example sentences and how to form them.

• Past simple

Past continuous

• Past perfect

Past perfect continuous

Past simple, or simple past, is used to describe actions that were completed at a specific time in the past . When it comes to this tense, there are two types of verbs: regular verbs and irregular verbs. How to form them can be found in our detailed article on the past simple tense, as well as many exercises and a helpful PDF document encompassing them all for a quick overview.

Subject + past simple form

• She wrote a letter yesterday.
• They played soccer last weekend.
• He ate breakfast at 7 AM.

The past continuous, or past progressive, is commonly used to describe actions that were in progress and were completed at a specific time in the past . It is formed with the helping verb was/were and the -ing form of the verb.

Subject + was/were + verb+ing

• She was writing a letter when I called.
• They were playing soccer at 5 PM.
• He was eating breakfast at 7 AM.

Past perfect is used to describe actions that were completed before another action in the past occurred . It is formed with the helping verb “had” and the past participle form of the verb.

Subject + had + past participle

• She had written a letter before dinner.
• They had played soccer before it started raining.
• He had eaten breakfast before 8 AM.

The past perfect continuous, or past perfect progressive, is used to describe actions that were ongoing in the past until another past action occurred . The different between this tense and the past perfect tense, is that the former was ongoing, while the latter was a one-time occurrence.  The past perfect continuous is formed with the auxiliary verb “had” and “been”, along with the -ing form of the verb.

Subject + had been + verb+ing

• She had been writing letters for an hour before dinner.
• They had been playing soccer for an hour when it started raining.
• He had been eating breakfast for 30 minutes before 8 AM.

In English, there are four subcategories for the main category “future.” Each one will be explained, as well as numerous example sentences and how they’re formed.

Future simple

Future continuous, future perfect, future perfect continuous.

Future simple , or simple future, is used to describe actions that will happen at a specific time in the future . It is formed by using the modal verb “will” (or the modal verb “shall,” which is more formal and less commonly used with first-person pronouns) before the infinitive of the verb. If the action will happen in the near future, you can also use the present continuous tense instead.

While “shall” is less commonly used in modern English, it can often be seen in formal or legal writing, as it is used to make polite offers or suggestions and conveys a stronger sense of resiliency or inevitability .

Subject + will + infinitive

• She will write a letter tomorrow.
• They will play soccer next weekend.
• He will eat breakfast at 7 AM.

Future continuous, or future progressive, is used to describe actions that will be ongoing at a specific time in the future . It is formed by using the helping verbs “will/shall” with “be” and the -ing form of the verb. It is often used to show more certainty than the future simple tense.

Subject + will be + verb+ing

• She will be writing a letter at this time tomorrow.
• They will be playing soccer at 5 PM tomorrow.
• He will be eating breakfast at 7 AM tomorrow.

Future perfect is used to describe actions that will be completed before a specific future time . It is formed with “will have” and the past participle of the verb.

Subject + will have + past participle

• She will have written the letter by tomorrow.
• They will have played soccer by the time you arrive.
• He will have eaten breakfast by 7 AM.

Future perfect continuous, or future perfect progressive, is used to describe actions that will be ongoing until a specific future time . Although it’s a rare occurrence in everyday life, this tense is used to emphasize the duration.

Subject + will have been + verb+ing

• She will have been writing letters for two hours by the time you arrive.
• They will have been playing soccer for an hour when you arrive.
• He will have been eating breakfast for 30 minutes by 7:30 AM.

Below, we have created a PDF document that encompasses the information above along with exercises.

Conditionals

Conditionals are grammatical sentence structures used to discuss possible or hypothetical situations and their consequences . They are important for tenses because they rely on specific verb forms to indicate when the condition and its result take place. The four types of conditionals will be explained below along with examples.

Zero conditional

The zero conditional is used for general truths or scientific facts where the result is always true if the condition is met .

If + present simple, present simple

First conditional

The first conditional is used for real and possible situations in the future .

If + present simple, will + infinitive

Second conditional

The second conditional is used for hypothetical or unlikely situations in the present or future .

If + past simple, would + infinitive

Third conditional

The third conditional is used for hypothetical situations in the past that did not happen .

If + past perfect, would have + past participle

Common tenses in academic writing

Three tenses are most commonly used in academic writing: present simple, past simple, and present perfect. The following paragraph introduces the functions and includes numerous examples for each one.

The present simple

Often considered to be the most common tense, the present simple serves several functions:

• To emphasize the primary focus of the article.
• To reinforce what is presently known about a topic.
• To make general observations and statements.
• To reference previous papers as well as current tables and figures.
• This study highlights the effects of climate change.
• Research indicates that a gender pay gap exists.
• Scholars regard academic careers as the most lucrative way to earn more money.
• This chart presents the results from prior control groups.

The past simple

Let us now examine when the past simple can be used as well as some examples:

• Reporting findings from a previous study where the author is named.
• Discuss what methods and/or data were utilized.
• Highlighting the results of ongoing research.
• Emphasizing that an event occurred in the past.
• Smith et al. found that the initial results were spurious.
• Quantitative analyses were employed.
• Our team implemented a double-blind study.
• The subjects had to report back weekly.

The present perfect

Let’s finally discuss the present perfect tense, as well as when it is most often used.

• When introducing new subjects.
• Generally summarizing what has already taken place.
• Citing prior findings without mentioning other authors.
• Making connections between the past and the present.
• An impressive body of research has shown.
• Prior findings have been illustrated.
• Others have discovered.
• Previous research has indicated a relationship.

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Tenses in a research paper

A research paper consists of various sections, such as the abstract or methodology , and each of these sections necessitates a distinct tense. The following sections state and explain which tense is used in which component.

Most experts agree that the present simple tense is best utilized within the abstract. This is a clear way to state facts and highlight the subsequent results.

• Depression correlates with weight gain.
• Research indicates that a relationship exists.

Introduction

Introductions are used to provide further information that is believed to be true. Thus, both present perfect and present simple tense should be used.

• Research has proven mutations protect plants from diseases.
• Our study shows that confirmation bias exists.

Theoretical framework

Theoretical frameworks are intended to reinforce an existing theory and why the issue in question exists. Therefore, the majority of the information should be addressed with present simple or present perfect .

• Present perfect : Prior research has uncovered …
• Present simple : The table below presents details…

Methodology & results

The methodology of the study and the results will always occur before a conclusion is reached. Therefore, it is best to employ the past simple tense. This tense ensures clarity when discussing completed actions.

• Our team established specific parameters…
• The subsequent studies correlated with…

A combination of past and present tense verbs can be used when presenting a conclusion (depending upon what is being discussed).

• Past simple : Our research indicated that…
• Present perfect : These results have proven that…
• Present simple : Ultimately, evidence indicates that…

Literature review

Literature reviews often use the past simple tense to explain previous findings, highlighting what has been discovered in the past.

• In his groundbreaking study, Smith et al. found that…
• Longitudinal study findings confirmed that…
• Exploratory research coincided with our ultimate findings.

What tenses are frequently seen within academic papers?

Three verb tenses represent the lion’s share of those utilized within an academic paper. The most common tenses are:

What are the 12 tense forms?

The 12 tense forms are: present simple, present continuous, present perfect, present perfect continuous, past simple, past continuous, past perfect, past perfect continuous, future simple, future continuous, future perfect, and future perfect continuous.

What are the 3 main types of tenses?

The three main types are: present, past, and future.

What is a tense example?

Simple present: She goes to college every week.

Simple past: She went to college last week.

Simple future: She will go to college next week.

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Parallel Structure

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Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."

Words and Phrases

With the -ing form (gerund) of words:

With infinitive phrases:

(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)

Do not mix forms.

Not Parallel: Mary likes hik ing , swimm ing , and to ride a bicycle.

Parallel: Mary likes hik ing , swimm ing , and rid ing a bicycle.

Not Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quick ly , accurate ly , and in a detailed manner .

Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quick ly , accurate ly , and thorough ly .

Not Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he wait ed until the last minute to study for the exam, complet ed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.

Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he wait ed until the last minute to study for the exam, complet ed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lack ed motivation.

A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.

Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Not Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that he would have time to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive)

Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that he would have time to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions.

Lists After a Colon

Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.

Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings , pronunciations , correct spellings , and looking up irregular verbs .

Parallel: The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings , pronunciations , correct spellings , and irregular verbs .

Proofreading Strategies to Try:

• Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel.
• If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.
• Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do you hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.

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How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Conclusion

Published on September 6, 2022 by Tegan George and Shona McCombes. Revised on November 20, 2023.

The conclusion is the very last part of your thesis or dissertation . It should be concise and engaging, leaving your reader with a clear understanding of your main findings, as well as the answer to your research question .

In it, you should:

• Clearly state the answer to your main research question
• Summarize and reflect on your research process
• Make recommendations for future work on your thesis or dissertation topic
• Show what new knowledge you have contributed to your field
• Wrap up your thesis or dissertation

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Table of contents

Discussion vs. conclusion, how long should your conclusion be, step 1: answer your research question, step 2: summarize and reflect on your research, step 3: make future recommendations, step 4: emphasize your contributions to your field, step 5: wrap up your thesis or dissertation, full conclusion example, conclusion checklist, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about conclusion sections.

While your conclusion contains similar elements to your discussion section , they are not the same thing.

Your conclusion should be shorter and more general than your discussion. Instead of repeating literature from your literature review , discussing specific research results , or interpreting your data in detail, concentrate on making broad statements that sum up the most important insights of your research.

As a rule of thumb, your conclusion should not introduce new data, interpretations, or arguments.

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Depending on whether you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your length will vary. Generally, a conclusion should make up around 5–7% of your overall word count.

An empirical scientific study will often have a short conclusion, concisely stating the main findings and recommendations for future research. A humanities dissertation topic or systematic review , on the other hand, might require more space to conclude its analysis, tying all the previous sections together in an overall argument.

Your conclusion should begin with the main question that your thesis or dissertation aimed to address. This is your final chance to show that you’ve done what you set out to do, so make sure to formulate a clear, concise answer.

• Don’t repeat a list of all the results that you already discussed
• Do synthesize them into a final takeaway that the reader will remember.

An empirical thesis or dissertation conclusion may begin like this:

A case study –based thesis or dissertation conclusion may begin like this:

In the second example, the research aim is not directly restated, but rather added implicitly to the statement. To avoid repeating yourself, it is helpful to reformulate your aims and questions into an overall statement of what you did and how you did it.

Your conclusion is an opportunity to remind your reader why you took the approach you did, what you expected to find, and how well the results matched your expectations.

To avoid repetition , consider writing more reflectively here, rather than just writing a summary of each preceding section. Consider mentioning the effectiveness of your methodology , or perhaps any new questions or unexpected insights that arose in the process.

You can also mention any limitations of your research, but only if you haven’t already included these in the discussion. Don’t dwell on them at length, though—focus on the positives of your work.

• While x limits the generalizability of the results, this approach provides new insight into y .
• This research clearly illustrates x , but it also raises the question of y .

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You may already have made a few recommendations for future research in your discussion section, but the conclusion is a good place to elaborate and look ahead, considering the implications of your findings in both theoretical and practical terms.

• Based on these conclusions, practitioners should consider …
• To better understand the implications of these results, future studies could address …
• Further research is needed to determine the causes of/effects of/relationship between …

When making recommendations for further research, be sure not to undermine your own work. Relatedly, while future studies might confirm, build on, or enrich your conclusions, they shouldn’t be required for your argument to feel complete. Your work should stand alone on its own merits.

Just as you should avoid too much self-criticism, you should also avoid exaggerating the applicability of your research. If you’re making recommendations for policy, business, or other practical implementations, it’s generally best to frame them as “shoulds” rather than “musts.” All in all, the purpose of academic research is to inform, explain, and explore—not to demand.

Make sure your reader is left with a strong impression of what your research has contributed to the state of your field.

Some strategies to achieve this include:

• Returning to your problem statement to explain how your research helps solve the problem
• Referring back to the literature review and showing how you have addressed a gap in knowledge
• Discussing how your findings confirm or challenge an existing theory or assumption

Again, avoid simply repeating what you’ve already covered in the discussion in your conclusion. Instead, pick out the most important points and sum them up succinctly, situating your project in a broader context.

The end is near! Once you’ve finished writing your conclusion, it’s time to wrap up your thesis or dissertation with a few final steps:

• It’s a good idea to write your abstract next, while the research is still fresh in your mind.
• Next, make sure your reference list is complete and correctly formatted. To speed up the process, you can use our free APA citation generator .
• Once you’ve added any appendices , you can create a table of contents and title page .
• Finally, read through the whole document again to make sure your thesis is clearly written and free from language errors. You can proofread it yourself , ask a friend, or consider Scribbr’s proofreading and editing service .

Here is an example of how you can write your conclusion section. Notice how it includes everything mentioned above:

V. Conclusion

The current research aimed to identify acoustic speech characteristics which mark the beginning of an exacerbation in COPD patients.

The central questions for this research were as follows: 1. Which acoustic measures extracted from read speech differ between COPD speakers in stable condition and healthy speakers? 2. In what ways does the speech of COPD patients during an exacerbation differ from speech of COPD patients during stable periods?

All recordings were aligned using a script. Subsequently, they were manually annotated to indicate respiratory actions such as inhaling and exhaling. The recordings of 9 stable COPD patients reading aloud were then compared with the recordings of 5 healthy control subjects reading aloud. The results showed a significant effect of condition on the number of in- and exhalations per syllable, the number of non-linguistic in- and exhalations per syllable, and the ratio of voiced and silence intervals. The number of in- and exhalations per syllable and the number of non-linguistic in- and exhalations per syllable were higher for COPD patients than for healthy controls, which confirmed both hypotheses.

However, the higher ratio of voiced and silence intervals for COPD patients compared to healthy controls was not in line with the hypotheses. This unpredicted result might have been caused by the different reading materials or recording procedures for both groups, or by a difference in reading skills. Moreover, there was a trend regarding the effect of condition on the number of syllables per breath group. The number of syllables per breath group was higher for healthy controls than for COPD patients, which was in line with the hypothesis. There was no effect of condition on pitch, intensity, center of gravity, pitch variability, speaking rate, or articulation rate.

This research has shown that the speech of COPD patients in exacerbation differs from the speech of COPD patients in stable condition. This might have potential for the detection of exacerbations. However, sustained vowels rarely occur in spontaneous speech. Therefore, the last two outcome measures might have greater potential for the detection of beginning exacerbations, but further research on the different outcome measures and their potential for the detection of exacerbations is needed due to the limitations of the current study.

Checklist: Conclusion

I have clearly and concisely answered the main research question .

I have summarized my overall argument or key takeaways.

I have mentioned any important limitations of the research.

I have given relevant recommendations .

I have clearly explained what my research has contributed to my field.

I have  not introduced any new data or arguments.

You've written a great conclusion! Use the other checklists to further improve your dissertation.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Research bias

• Survivorship bias
• Self-serving bias
• Availability heuristic
• Halo effect
• Hindsight bias
• Deep learning
• Generative AI
• Machine learning
• Reinforcement learning
• Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

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In a thesis or dissertation, the discussion is an in-depth exploration of the results, going into detail about the meaning of your findings and citing relevant sources to put them in context.

The conclusion is more shorter and more general: it concisely answers your main research question and makes recommendations based on your overall findings.

While it may be tempting to present new arguments or evidence in your thesis or disseration conclusion , especially if you have a particularly striking argument you’d like to finish your analysis with, you shouldn’t. Theses and dissertations follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the discussion section and results section .) The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

For a stronger dissertation conclusion , avoid including:

• Important evidence or analysis that wasn’t mentioned in the discussion section and results section
• Generic concluding phrases (e.g. “In conclusion …”)
• Weak statements that undermine your argument (e.g., “There are good points on both sides of this issue.”)

Your conclusion should leave the reader with a strong, decisive impression of your work.

The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation shouldn’t take up more than 5–7% of your overall word count.

The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation should include the following:

• A restatement of your research question
• A summary of your key arguments and/or results
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

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