Source: Foster, M. (2018). Systematic reviews service: Introduction to systematic reviews. Retrieved September 18, 2018, from
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It can be challenging to conduct a systematic review with limited experience and skills in undertaking such a task. This chapter provides a practical guide to undertaking a systematic review, providing step-by-step instructions to guide the individual through the process from start to finish. The chapter begins with defining what a systematic review is, reviewing its various components, turning a research question into a search strategy, developing a systematic review protocol, followed by searching for relevant literature and managing citations. Next, the chapter focuses on documenting the characteristics of included studies and summarizing findings, extracting data, methods for assessing risk of bias and considering heterogeneity, and undertaking meta-analyses. Last, the chapter explores creating a narrative and interpreting findings. Practical tips and examples from existing literature are utilized throughout the chapter to assist readers in their learning. By the end of this chapter, the reader will have the knowledge to conduct their own systematic review.
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MacMillan, F., McBride, K.A., George, E.S., Steiner, G.Z. (2019). Conducting a Systematic Review: A Practical Guide. In: Liamputtong, P. (eds) Handbook of Research Methods in Health Social Sciences. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5251-4_113
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Home » Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips
Table of Contents
Definition:
Research Process is a systematic and structured approach that involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data or information to answer a specific research question or solve a particular problem.
Research Process Steps are as follows:
This is the first step in the research process. It involves identifying a problem or question that needs to be addressed. The research question should be specific, relevant, and focused on a particular area of interest.
Once the research question has been identified, the next step is to conduct a literature review. This involves reviewing existing research and literature on the topic to identify any gaps in knowledge or areas where further research is needed. A literature review helps to provide a theoretical framework for the research and also ensures that the research is not duplicating previous work.
Based on the research question and literature review, the researcher can formulate a hypothesis or research objectives. A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested to determine its validity, while research objectives are specific goals that the researcher aims to achieve through the research.
This step involves designing a research plan and methodology that will enable the researcher to collect and analyze data to test the hypothesis or achieve the research objectives. The research plan should include details on the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques that will be used.
This step involves collecting and analyzing data according to the research plan and methodology. Data can be collected through various methods, including surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. The data analysis process involves cleaning and organizing the data, applying statistical and analytical techniques to the data, and interpreting the results.
After analyzing the data, the researcher must interpret the findings and draw conclusions. This involves assessing the validity and reliability of the results and determining whether the hypothesis was supported or not. The researcher must also consider any limitations of the research and discuss the implications of the findings.
Finally, the researcher must communicate the results of the research through a research report, presentation, or publication. The research report should provide a detailed account of the research process, including the research question, literature review, research methodology, data analysis, findings, and conclusions. The report should also include recommendations for further research in the area.
The research process is an iterative one, and it is important to review and revise the research plan and methodology as necessary. Researchers should assess the quality of their data and methods, reflect on their findings, and consider areas for improvement.
Throughout the research process, ethical considerations must be taken into account. This includes ensuring that the research design protects the welfare of research participants, obtaining informed consent, maintaining confidentiality and privacy, and avoiding any potential harm to participants or their communities.
The final step in the research process is to disseminate the findings and apply the research to real-world settings. Researchers can share their findings through academic publications, presentations at conferences, or media coverage. The research can be used to inform policy decisions, develop interventions, or improve practice in the relevant field.
Following is a Research Process Example:
Research Question : What are the effects of a plant-based diet on athletic performance in high school athletes?
Step 1: Background Research Conduct a literature review to gain a better understanding of the existing research on the topic. Read academic articles and research studies related to plant-based diets, athletic performance, and high school athletes.
Step 2: Develop a Hypothesis Based on the literature review, develop a hypothesis that a plant-based diet positively affects athletic performance in high school athletes.
Step 3: Design the Study Design a study to test the hypothesis. Decide on the study population, sample size, and research methods. For this study, you could use a survey to collect data on dietary habits and athletic performance from a sample of high school athletes who follow a plant-based diet and a sample of high school athletes who do not follow a plant-based diet.
Step 4: Collect Data Distribute the survey to the selected sample and collect data on dietary habits and athletic performance.
Step 5: Analyze Data Use statistical analysis to compare the data from the two samples and determine if there is a significant difference in athletic performance between those who follow a plant-based diet and those who do not.
Step 6 : Interpret Results Interpret the results of the analysis in the context of the research question and hypothesis. Discuss any limitations or potential biases in the study design.
Step 7: Draw Conclusions Based on the results, draw conclusions about whether a plant-based diet has a significant effect on athletic performance in high school athletes. If the hypothesis is supported by the data, discuss potential implications and future research directions.
Step 8: Communicate Findings Communicate the findings of the study in a clear and concise manner. Use appropriate language, visuals, and formats to ensure that the findings are understood and valued.
The research process has numerous applications across a wide range of fields and industries. Some examples of applications of the research process include:
The purpose of the research process is to systematically and scientifically investigate a problem or question in order to generate new knowledge or solve a problem. The research process enables researchers to:
Here are some tips for the research process:
Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer
Rhode island school of design, create a research plan: research plan.
A research plan is a framework that shows how you intend to approach your topic. The plan can take many forms: a written outline, a narrative, a visual/concept map or timeline. It's a document that will change and develop as you conduct your research. Components of a research plan
1. Research conceptualization - introduces your research question
2. Research methodology - describes your approach to the research question
3. Literature review, critical evaluation and synthesis - systematic approach to locating,
reviewing and evaluating the work (text, exhibitions, critiques, etc) relating to your topic
4. Communication - geared toward an intended audience, shows evidence of your inquiry
Research conceptualization refers to the ability to identify specific research questions, problems or opportunities that are worthy of inquiry. Research conceptualization also includes the skills and discipline that go beyond the initial moment of conception, and which enable the researcher to formulate and develop an idea into something researchable ( Newbury 373).
Research methodology refers to the knowledge and skills required to select and apply appropriate methods to carry through the research project ( Newbury 374) .
Method describes a single mode of proceeding; methodology describes the overall process.
Method - a way of doing anything especially according to a defined and regular plan; a mode of procedure in any activity
Methodology - the study of the direction and implications of empirical research, or the sustainability of techniques employed in it; a method or body of methods used in a particular field of study or activity *Browse a list of research methodology books or this guide on Art & Design Research
Literature Review, critical evaluation & synthesis
A literature review is a systematic approach to locating, reviewing, and evaluating the published work and work in progress of scholars, researchers, and practitioners on a given topic.
Critical evaluation and synthesis is the ability to handle (or process) existing sources. It includes knowledge of the sources of literature and contextual research field within which the person is working ( Newbury 373).
Literature reviews are done for many reasons and situations. Here's a short list:
to learn about a field of study to understand current knowledge on a subject to formulate questions & identify a research problem to focus the purpose of one's research to contribute new knowledge to a field personal knowledge intellectual curiosity | to prepare for architectural program writing academic degrees grant applications proposal writing academic research planning funding |
Sources to consult while conducting a literature review:
Online catalogs of local, regional, national, and special libraries
meta-catalogs such as worldcat , Art Discovery Group , europeana , world digital library or RIBA
subject-specific online article databases (such as the Avery Index, JSTOR, Project Muse)
digital institutional repositories such as Digital Commons @RISD ; see Registry of Open Access Repositories
Open Access Resources recommended by RISD Research LIbrarians
works cited in scholarly books and articles
print bibliographies
the internet-locate major nonprofit, research institutes, museum, university, and government websites
search google scholar to locate grey literature & referenced citations
trade and scholarly publishers
fellow scholars and peers
Communication
Communication refers to the ability to
Research plan framework: Newbury, Darren. "Research Training in the Creative Arts and Design." The Routledge Companion to Research in the Arts . Ed. Michael Biggs and Henrik Karlsson. New York: Routledge, 2010. 368-87. Print.
Except where otherwise noted, this guide is subject to a Creative Commons Attribution license
Routledge Companion to Research in the Arts
Volume 70, 2019, review article, how to do a systematic review: a best practice guide for conducting and reporting narrative reviews, meta-analyses, and meta-syntheses.
Systematic reviews are characterized by a methodical and replicable methodology and presentation. They involve a comprehensive search to locate all relevant published and unpublished work on a subject; a systematic integration of search results; and a critique of the extent, nature, and quality of evidence in relation to a particular research question. The best reviews synthesize studies to draw broad theoretical conclusions about what a literature means, linking theory to evidence and evidence to theory. This guide describes how to plan, conduct, organize, and present a systematic review of quantitative (meta-analysis) or qualitative (narrative review, meta-synthesis) information. We outline core standards and principles and describe commonly encountered problems. Although this guide targets psychological scientists, its high level of abstraction makes it potentially relevant to any subject area or discipline. We argue that systematic reviews are a key methodology for clarifying whether and how research findings replicate and for explaining possible inconsistencies, and we call for researchers to conduct systematic reviews to help elucidate whether there is a replication crisis.
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Literature Cited
Most cited most cited rss feed, job burnout, executive functions, social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective, on happiness and human potentials: a review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it, mediation analysis, missing data analysis: making it work in the real world, grounded cognition, personality structure: emergence of the five-factor model, motivational beliefs, values, and goals.
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Methodology
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :
Second, decide how you will analyze the data .
Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.
Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.
Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.
For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .
If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .
Qualitative | to broader populations. . | |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | . |
You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
Primary | . | methods. |
---|---|---|
Secondary |
In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .
In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .
To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.
Descriptive | . . | |
---|---|---|
Experimental |
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Research method | Primary or secondary? | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|---|
Primary | Quantitative | To test cause-and-effect relationships. | |
Primary | Quantitative | To understand general characteristics of a population. | |
Interview/focus group | Primary | Qualitative | To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic. |
Observation | Primary | Either | To understand how something occurs in its natural setting. |
Secondary | Either | To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic. | |
Either | Either | To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study. |
Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.
Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.
Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:
Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .
Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).
You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:
Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.
Research method | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations). | |
Meta-analysis | Quantitative | To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner. |
Qualitative | To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated. | |
Either | To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words). |
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Research bias
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .
In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
Other students also liked, writing strong research questions | criteria & examples.
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Steps, Uses, and Key Terms
Verywell / Theresa Chiechi
How do researchers investigate psychological phenomena? They utilize a process known as the scientific method to study different aspects of how people think and behave.
When conducting research, the scientific method steps to follow are:
This process not only allows scientists to investigate and understand different psychological phenomena but also provides researchers and others a way to share and discuss the results of their studies.
Generally, there are five main steps in the scientific method, although some may break down this process into six or seven steps. An additional step in the process can also include developing new research questions based on your findings.
What is the scientific method and how is it used in psychology?
The scientific method consists of five steps. It is essentially a step-by-step process that researchers can follow to determine if there is some type of relationship between two or more variables.
By knowing the steps of the scientific method, you can better understand the process researchers go through to arrive at conclusions about human behavior.
While research studies can vary, these are the basic steps that psychologists and scientists use when investigating human behavior.
The following are the scientific method steps:
Before a researcher can begin, they must choose a topic to study. Once an area of interest has been chosen, the researchers must then conduct a thorough review of the existing literature on the subject. This review will provide valuable information about what has already been learned about the topic and what questions remain to be answered.
A literature review might involve looking at a considerable amount of written material from both books and academic journals dating back decades.
The relevant information collected by the researcher will be presented in the introduction section of the final published study results. This background material will also help the researcher with the first major step in conducting a psychology study: formulating a hypothesis.
Once a researcher has observed something and gained some background information on the topic, the next step is to ask a question. The researcher will form a hypothesis, which is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables
For example, a researcher might ask a question about the relationship between sleep and academic performance: Do students who get more sleep perform better on tests at school?
In order to formulate a good hypothesis, it is important to think about different questions you might have about a particular topic.
You should also consider how you could investigate the causes. Falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In other words, if a hypothesis was false, there needs to be a way for scientists to demonstrate that it is false.
Once you have a solid hypothesis, the next step of the scientific method is to put this hunch to the test by collecting data. The exact methods used to investigate a hypothesis depend on exactly what is being studied. There are two basic forms of research that a psychologist might utilize: descriptive research or experimental research.
Descriptive research is typically used when it would be difficult or even impossible to manipulate the variables in question. Examples of descriptive research include case studies, naturalistic observation , and correlation studies. Phone surveys that are often used by marketers are one example of descriptive research.
Correlational studies are quite common in psychology research. While they do not allow researchers to determine cause-and-effect, they do make it possible to spot relationships between different variables and to measure the strength of those relationships.
Experimental research is used to explore cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables. This type of research involves systematically manipulating an independent variable and then measuring the effect that it has on a defined dependent variable .
One of the major advantages of this method is that it allows researchers to actually determine if changes in one variable actually cause changes in another.
While psychology experiments are often quite complex, a simple experiment is fairly basic but does allow researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Most simple experiments use a control group (those who do not receive the treatment) and an experimental group (those who do receive the treatment).
Once a researcher has designed the study and collected the data, it is time to examine this information and draw conclusions about what has been found. Using statistics , researchers can summarize the data, analyze the results, and draw conclusions based on this evidence.
So how does a researcher decide what the results of a study mean? Not only can statistical analysis support (or refute) the researcher’s hypothesis; it can also be used to determine if the findings are statistically significant.
When results are said to be statistically significant, it means that it is unlikely that these results are due to chance.
Based on these observations, researchers must then determine what the results mean. In some cases, an experiment will support a hypothesis, but in other cases, it will fail to support the hypothesis.
So what happens if the results of a psychology experiment do not support the researcher's hypothesis? Does this mean that the study was worthless?
Just because the findings fail to support the hypothesis does not mean that the research is not useful or informative. In fact, such research plays an important role in helping scientists develop new questions and hypotheses to explore in the future.
After conclusions have been drawn, the next step is to share the results with the rest of the scientific community. This is an important part of the process because it contributes to the overall knowledge base and can help other scientists find new research avenues to explore.
The final step in a psychology study is to report the findings. This is often done by writing up a description of the study and publishing the article in an academic or professional journal. The results of psychological studies can be seen in peer-reviewed journals such as Psychological Bulletin , the Journal of Social Psychology , Developmental Psychology , and many others.
The structure of a journal article follows a specified format that has been outlined by the American Psychological Association (APA) . In these articles, researchers:
Why is such a detailed record of a psychological study so important? By clearly explaining the steps and procedures used throughout the study, other researchers can then replicate the results. The editorial process employed by academic and professional journals ensures that each article that is submitted undergoes a thorough peer review, which helps ensure that the study is scientifically sound.
Once published, the study becomes another piece of the existing puzzle of our knowledge base on that topic.
Before you begin exploring the scientific method steps, here's a review of some key terms and definitions that you should be familiar with:
The goals of psychological studies are to describe, explain, predict and perhaps influence mental processes or behaviors. In order to do this, psychologists utilize the scientific method to conduct psychological research. The scientific method is a set of principles and procedures that are used by researchers to develop questions, collect data, and reach conclusions.
Researchers seek not only to describe behaviors and explain why these behaviors occur; they also strive to create research that can be used to predict and even change human behavior.
Psychologists and other social scientists regularly propose explanations for human behavior. On a more informal level, people make judgments about the intentions, motivations , and actions of others on a daily basis.
While the everyday judgments we make about human behavior are subjective and anecdotal, researchers use the scientific method to study psychology in an objective and systematic way. The results of these studies are often reported in popular media, which leads many to wonder just how or why researchers arrived at the conclusions they did.
Now that you're familiar with the scientific method steps, it's useful to see how each step could work with a real-life example.
Say, for instance, that researchers set out to discover what the relationship is between psychotherapy and anxiety .
Of course, there are many details that go into planning and executing a study such as this. But this general outline gives you an idea of how an idea is formulated and tested, and how researchers arrive at results using the scientific method.
Erol A. How to conduct scientific research ? Noro Psikiyatr Ars . 2017;54(2):97-98. doi:10.5152/npa.2017.0120102
University of Minnesota. Psychologists use the scientific method to guide their research .
Shaughnessy, JJ, Zechmeister, EB, & Zechmeister, JS. Research Methods In Psychology . New York: McGraw Hill Education; 2015.
By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."
BMC Neurology volume 24 , Article number: 330 ( 2024 ) Cite this article
Metrics details
Chronic migraine poses a global health burden, particularly affecting young women, and has substantial societal implications. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of Greater Occipital Nerve Block (GONB) in individuals with chronic migraine, focusing on the impact of local anesthetics compared with placebo.
A meta-analysis and systematic review were conducted following the PRISMA principles and Cochrane Collaboration methods. Eligible studies included case-control, cohort, and randomized control trials in adults with chronic migraine, adhering to the International Classification of Headache Disorders, third edition (ICHD3). Primary efficacy outcomes included headache frequency, duration, and intensity along with safety assessments.
Literature searches across multiple databases yielded eight studies for qualitative analysis, with five included in the final quantitative analysis. A remarkable reduction in headache intensity and frequency during the first and second months of treatment with GONB using local anesthetics compared to placebo has been reported. The incidence of adverse events did not differ significantly between the intervention and placebo groups.
The analysis emphasized the safety and efficacy of GONB, albeit with a cautious interpretation due to the limited number of studies and relatively small sample size. This study advocates for further research exploring various drugs, frequencies, and treatment plans to enhance the robustness and applicability of GONB for chronic migraine management.
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Among headache disorders, migraine is particularly ranked second worldwide in terms of disability and is the leading cause of disability among young women, according to the Global Burden of Disease 2019 data [ 1 ]. Recent findings indicate that the global prevalence of migraine is approximately 15%, which translates to 4.9% of all ill health measured in years lived with disability (YLDs) [ 2 ]. Women are more likely to experience migraine than men, particularly those aged 15–49 years [ 3 ]. Migraine has a substantial societal and financial impact owing to both direct and indirect costs resulting from decreased productivity and missed work [ 4 ].
Migraine is a complex neurovascular disorder that affects sensory processing and is characterized by a range of symptoms, with headache being the most common symptom [ 5 ]. Chronic migraine (CM) is defined as the frequent occurrence of headache episodes, with at least 15 or more episodes (which, on at least 8 days/month, have the features of migraine headache) occurring per month for more than three months [ 6 ]. Several medications are available for the preventive treatment of migraine, including anticonvulsants, antidepressants, beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, botulinum toxin A, and more recently, drugs that block the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) pathway (i.e., monoclonal antibodies and antagonists) [ 7 ]. Despite the potential of anti-CGRP monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in managing chronic migraine, a remarkable proportion of patients do not respond to this treatment [ 8 ]. Approximately 25% of patients are unresponsive to anti-CGRP monoclonal antibodies [ 9 ].
An important component of the brainstem, the Trigeminocervical Complex (TCC) acts as a central processing unit for pain and sensory data from the head and neck. This is the point of convergence of the upper cervical spinal nerves and the trigeminal nerve, which supplies feeling to the face, head, and some regions of the neck [ 10 , 11 ].
One of the TCC’s primary functions is the confluence of the occipital and trigeminal nerves there. The trigeminal nerve transmits sensory data from the face, scalp, and meninges through its three main branches (ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular). In the meanwhile, feelings from the back of the head are transmitted by the occipital nerves, which originate from the upper cervical spinal roots [ 10 , 11 ]. Wide-ranging integration of sensory inputs from the head and neck is made possible by the network formed when these neurons converge at the TCC. The brainstem area known as the trigeminocervical complex is crucial to migraine pain processing since it is responsible for processing pain signals originating from the head and neck. [ 10 , 11 ]. The face, head, and neck region’s sensory data—especially pain—are integrated by the TCC. Because of this integration, the TCC is an important piece of the migraine jigsaw when it comes to interpreting the location and degree of pain. The trigeminal, occipital, and TCC nerves are intricately intertwined with one another. A series of neurological events are set off during a migraine episode, beginning with the stimulation of the trigeminal nerve. This activation increases pain signals by causing the production of inflammatory chemicals around the TCC and blood arteries in the brain [ 10 , 11 ]. Accompanying this, the occipital nerves may also be affected, particularly if the headache radiates to the rear of the head. Because of its connection, the TCC is further stimulated by pain signals from the occipital area, worsening the migraine sensation (it produces a feedback loop) [ 10 , 11 ].
The main sensory nerve that serves the occipital region is the Greater Occipital Nerve (GON), which predominantly originates from the C2 dorsal root. The GON block is used in acute and preventive headache treatments as it targets the anatomical and functional connections between the trigeminal and cervical fibers within the trigemino-cervical complex (TCC). The rationale for using GON blocks is based on the integration of sensory neurons from C2 in the upper cervical spinal cord with neurons in the trigeminal nucleus caudalis (TNC). However, the precise mechanisms by which GON blocks may affect the TCC and potentially reduce its activity are still being researched [ 12 ]. However, there is currently no standard protocol for GONB. Local anesthetics function by preventing the activation of voltage-gated sodium channels, which reduce the transmission of sensory signals originating from areas innervated by the greater occipital nerve, such as the medial region of the posterior scalp [ 13 , 14 ], thereby preventing the activation of convergent neurons in the trigeminal-cervical complex. Combination therapy with corticosteroids may reduce inflammation, thereby attenuating pain, however, this role of corticosteroids also seems to be under debate.
The current management of chronic migraines is inadequate, as it lacks clear guidelines despite the various treatment options available. The evidence supporting the efficacy of GONB in preventing chronic migraines is limited and not recent [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. However, the emergence of new clinical trials offers a promising opportunity for this study to provide valuable insights to healthcare providers. This study aims to fill the knowledge gaps by conducting a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis, providing healthcare professionals with a more complete understanding of the collective results of this approach for the treatment of chronic migraines.
A meta-analysis and a comprehensive systematic review were conducted to assess the efficacy of GONB in patients with CM, adhering to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [ 18 ]. The PICO framework, a cornerstone of evidence-based medicine, organizes clinical questions and study designs into Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome. In our research on chronic migraine treatment, we examine the efficacy of greater occipital nerve block (Intervention) with local anesthetics alone versus a placebo (Comparison) among adults with chronic migraine (Population), focusing on changes in migraine intensity measured by VAS, frequency, and adverse effects (Outcome).
Inclusion criteria for studies considered in this meta-analysis encompassed randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating the efficacy of greater occipital nerve block (GONB) with local anesthetics alone compared to a placebo in adult individuals diagnosed with chronic migraine. Studies were required to report outcomes including changes in migraine intensity measured by Visual Analog Scale (VAS), frequency of migraine episodes, and documentation of adverse effects. Exclusion criteria comprised studies that incorporated corticosteroids in conjunction with local anesthetics for GONB, non-randomized or non-controlled trials, studies with insufficient data for outcome assessment, and those involving populations other than adults with chronic migraine.
The primary efficacy endpoints were the change in headache intensity as measured by any scale, the frequency of headache (days per month) in the intervention group compared to the placebo group at a specific point in time, and the intensity of headache in the intervention group compared to the placebo group. To assess safety, the analysis focused on the number of participants who experienced at least one adverse event (AE) and the total number of participants who experienced AEs.
A systematic search of PubMed, Medline, Scopus, Embase, Cochrane, Web of Science, and PsycINFO was performed as of June 2023 by two authors AR and AH. All languages and publication dates were considered and the search strategy involved both free and restricted terms pertaining to migraine and GONB, using key word ‘Chronic migraine’ or Migraine’ or ‘Greater Occipital Nerve Block’. Duplicates were eliminated and the titles and abstracts of the remaining articles were assessed to identify relevant studies. Subsequently, a full-text assessment was performed by two independent investigators (AK and BSR) and any discrepancies were resolved by a third investigator (MSM). The PRISMA flowchart (Fig. 1 ) illustrates the selection process.
Prisma flow chart
We utilized a standard Microsoft Excel 2021 spreadsheet to gather data from each study included in a predetermined format. Two unbiased investigators (MAS and SMFZ) collected the following information from each study: author, year of publication, population, intervention and comparison drugs, techniques, primary and secondary outcomes, funding and potential conflicts of interest. If a disagreement arose, a third investigator made the final decision (GV).
Statistical analysis was conducted using Review Manager 5.3.22 and Comprehensive Meta-analysis. In order to account for anticipated between-study heterogeneity, we employed random-effects models in our meta-analysis of continuous outcomes. We reported the effect sizes as weighted mean differences (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for trials with similar results. The I 2 statistics were used to assess the statistical heterogeneity of the pooled estimates. While recognizing that statistical heterogeneity may not be significant when I 2 is < 40%, we performed this test. Regrettably, due to the limited number of included papers, we were unable to carry out a subgroup analysis or funnel plot assessment of publication bias.
The initial literature search yielded 3174 studies. After a detailed review of the selected studies and removal of duplicate entries, 1964 articles remained. These articles were then evaluated based on their titles and abstracts to determine whether they met the inclusion criteria for our study and those that did not were excluded. A comprehensive screening of the full text was performed in the remaining 30 studies. Studies which did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded. The final quantitative analysis included five studies and 3 studies were included in the qualitative assessment as these studies used other drugs like corticosteroids thus with different interventions. A visual representation of the PRISMA flowchart effectively illustrated the study selection process (Fig. 1 ).
In assessing the quality of RCTs, we extensively utilized the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool which categorizes studies into three risk levels: high, uncertain, and low, across seven specific domains encompassing aspects of selection, comparability, and outcome. Following rigorous evaluation, all studies included in our analysis were consistently classified as having low risk across these domains. A detailed presentation of the Risk of Bias assessment is shown in Fig. 2 .
Risk of bias Assessment ( A ) Qualitative ( B ) Quantitative
All the included studies assessed outcomes in patients aged 18–75 years. The intervention group in three studies [ 19 , 20 , 21 ] used bupivacaine 0.5% 1.5 ml with or without 1 ml of saline (0.9%); one study [ 22 ] used lidocaine 2% 1 ml with 1 ml of saline solution (0.9%); and lastly, one study [ 23 ] used lidocaine 2% 2 ml as the interventional group. In the control groups, a saline solution of 0.9% (1.5, 2, or 2.5 ml) was used as a placebo. A total of 268 patients were included in all studies, ranging in age from 18 to 75 years. The studies differed in their follow-up procedures. Two studies were followed up at 4 weeks, one study was followed up for up to 2 months, and two studies were checked every month for up to 3 months A summary of patients’ baseline characteristics is provided in Table 1 .
In the initial month following GONB treatment, the meta-analysis of three studies showed a significant reduction in headache intensity as measured by the Visual Analog Scale (VAS). The standardized mean difference (SMD) was − 0.653, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of -0.996 to -0.311 and a p-value of 0.0001. This indicates that the local anesthetic group experienced a greater reduction in headache intensity compared to the placebo group. Importantly, the I² value of 0% suggests that there was no observed heterogeneity among the studies, indicating consistent results across the studies analyzed. (Fig. 3 )
Forest plot illustrating the effect of GONB on headache intensity, evaluated using VAS within the initial month
In the second month, an analysis of five studies continued to show a significant reduction in headache intensity with an SMD of -0.628 (95% CI -1.148 to -0.107; p = 0.018). However, the I² value increased to 74%, indicating substantial heterogeneity among the studies. This heterogeneity was primarily due to one study (Inan et al.), which had an outlier SMD of 0.136. (Fig. 4 ) A leave-one-out analysis was conducted to address this issue and is shown in Fig. 5 .
Forest plot illustrating the impact of GONB on headache intensity, evaluated using VAS during the second month
Forest plot illustrating the effect of GONB on headache frequency within the initial month
Within the initial month, the analysis of two studies showed a significant reduction in headache frequency, with an SMD of -0.755 (95% CI -1.133 to -0.377; p = 0.0001). The results indicate a notable decrease in headache frequency in the local anesthetic group compared to the placebo group. The I² value of 0% indicates no heterogeneity between the studies, suggesting that the results were consistent. (Fig. 6 )
Forest plot illustrating the impact of GONB on headache frequency during the second month
At the two-month mark, the analysis of four studies also showed a significant reduction in headache frequency with an SMD of -0.577 (95% CI -0.887 to -0.266; p = 0.0001). The low I² value of 8.9% indicates minimal heterogeneity among the studies, reinforcing the consistency of the observed effect (Fig. 7 ).
Forest plot displaying adverse events associated with the use of GONB
The meta-analysis of two studies on adverse events revealed no significant difference between the GONB treatment and placebo groups. The odds ratio (OR) was 1.379 with a 95% CI of 0.599 to 3.177 and a p-value of 0.450. The confidence interval crosses one, indicating that there is no clear increased risk of adverse events associated with GONB treatment. Additionally, the I² value of 0% suggests no heterogeneity between the studies, indicating consistent findings regarding the safety profile of GONB (Fig. 7 ).
We conducted an updated meta-analysis of GONB in patients with CM, incorporating findings from five RCTs. All RCTs used local anesthetics for GONB, while 0.9% saline served as the placebo. Our study focused on evaluating the impact of GONB on headache frequency, intensity, and associated adverse effects. The results demonstrated the beneficial effects of local anesthetics in reducing both the frequency and intensity of headaches during the first and second months of treatment. However, the outcomes related to adverse effects did not reach statistical significance. This meta-analysis included studies employing two distinct local anesthetics: 0.5% bupivacaine and 2% lidocaine. This suggests that the use of any local anesthetic could yield positive outcomes when compared with the effects of a placebo. Despite the positive results observed, we approached the evidence with caution because of the assessment of low certainty. Therefore, additional studies are warranted to further substantiate our findings and to enhance the reliability of the conclusions drawn from our meta-analysis.
Our meta-analysis demonstrated that GONB treatment significantly reduces both headache intensity and frequency in the initial and subsequent months post-treatment compared to placebo. During the first month, the studies consistently showed a marked reduction in headache intensity with no observed heterogeneity, indicating uniform results across the studies analyzed. In the second month, while the reduction in headache intensity remained remarkable, some heterogeneity was noted due to an outlier study. Similarly, the analysis revealed a notable decrease in headache frequency within the first month, again with consistent findings and no heterogeneity between the studies. By the second month, the reduction in headache frequency continued to be noteworthy, with minimal heterogeneity observed, reinforcing the consistency of the treatment effect. Furthermore, the analysis of adverse events indicated no significant difference between the GONB treatment and placebo groups, suggesting that GONB does not increase the risk of adverse events. The studies consistently supported the safety profile of GONB, with no observed heterogeneity. In terms of both safety and efficacy, our findings suggest that the use of local anesthetics in GONB is generally safe, as we did not identify any notable adverse effects in our intervention group. However, the certainty of our evidence is moderate, primarily because our results did not reach statistical significance, potentially influenced by the limited number of studies and relatively short follow-up phase. In our updated meta-analysis, building upon the original study by Velezquez et al. [ 24 ], we included an additional randomized RCT, contributing to a more comprehensive quantitative analysis. Although most of our study findings align with Velezquez’s findings [ 24 ], demonstrating the safety and effectiveness of GONB in treating chronic migraine, it is important to acknowledge some variations. Velezquez highlighted occasional negative effects associated with local anesthetics but found no remarkable side effects. In contrast, our study did not yield statistically significant outcomes in defining these results. A noteworthy distinction lies in the consideration of adjuvants: while our study did not account for steroids or other adjuvants, Velezquez considered steroids for every study outcome. This discrepancy underscores the need for further exploration and standardization of variables in future research to establish a more definitive understanding of the safety and efficacy of GONB in the management of chronic migraine.
Our findings strongly suggest that GONB is a safe and effective method for treating migraine. This assertion is consistent with existing research that characterizes GONB as a highly effective and safe therapy with minimal adverse effects, recommending its consideration when alternative treatments are unsuccessful [ 21 ]. This viewpoint is further supported by another study that affirms our findings, emphasizing a preference for GONB in cases of resistant migraine [ 22 ]. Moreover, evidence suggests the potential applicability of GONB in the treatment of various types of headaches [ 23 , 25 ]. A retrospective cohort study also indicated that GONB may be beneficial in addressing acute migraine episodes, albeit with a cautionary note regarding the potential negative effects occurring during the procedure rather than during the follow-up period [ 26 ]. Additional observational studies [ 25 , 27 ] reinforce our findings. However, a study comparing the effectiveness of GONB with placebo in preventing migraine revealed that while there was no marked change in headache frequency, GONB still played a remarkable role in lowering intensity [ 28 ]. Notably, these studies underscored the benefits of GONB, often involving the adjunct use of steroids. In a randomized controlled trial that focused on patients treated with bilateral GONB, the results indicated that the administration of a local anesthetic was associated with lower frequency, reduced intensity, and increased pressure thresholds. However, it is important to note that this study predominantly involved female participants [ 29 ]. However, it is essential to acknowledge that trials exclusively assessing the independent use of local anesthetics in GONB are currently lacking, as steroids are commonly employed as adjuvants in the majority of studies. This finding suggests the need for further investigation to delineate the unique contributions of local anesthetics to GONB outcomes.
Prior research has emphasized the necessity of comparing various treatment plans for GONB, incorporating diverse anesthetics and adjuncts to comprehensively evaluate its effectiveness, the need for additional intervention, and safety considerations, it is crucial to note that we did not incorporate any adjuncts, preventing us from commenting on their potential impact on the treatment outcomes. The absence of adjunct utilization in our study underscores the need for further exploration of how these additions may influence the overall efficacy and safety of GONB. Most trials in our analysis used weekly injections, resulting in a lack of comprehensive data for comparing various frequencies. Nevertheless, some studies have suggested the potential advantages associated with monthly use [ 26 ]. The American Headache Society also suggests and has shown interest in the efficacy of nerve blocks for headache treatment. Their endorsement highlights the growing recognition of nerve blocks as a valuable therapeutic option for managing headaches [ 30 , 31 ].
Included studies present diverse methodologies in terms of dosage, injection sites, duration and timing of the intervention, and primary endpoints for the evaluation of GONB efficacy in migraine treatment. The administration and makeup of the GONB differed substantially across the studies. For example, Gul et al. [ 20 ] used 0.5% bupivacaine diluted in 1 ml, while Inan et al. [ 19 ] used a slightly larger volume of the same concentration. Ozer et al. [ 22 ] combined 2% lidocaine with saline, and Ashkenazi et al. [ 32 ] mixed lidocaine and bupivacaine. These variations could lead to differences in efficacy and side effects. The addition of corticosteroids, as observed in Dilli et al. [ 33 ], introduces another variable that may enhance the anti-inflammatory effects but could also influence the outcome independently of the nerve block’s anesthetic action. Although the studies targeted the GON, the exact injection sites varied slightly. Most studies, such as those by Gul et al. [ 20 ], Inan et al. [ 19 ], and Cuadrado et al. [ 34 ], selected a site approximately 2 cm lateral and 2 cm inferior to the external occipital protuberance. Palamar et al. [ 21 ] used ultrasound guidance, which might improve accuracy and potential efficacy. Ashkenazi et al. [ 32 ] included additional trigger point injections (TPIs), which could complicate the specific effects of the GONB.
The administration of GONB varied in frequency and duration among different studies. While some research, such as that conducted by Gul et al. [ 20 ] and Inan et al. [ 19 ], administered the blocks weekly for four weeks, others like Chowdury et al. [ 23 ] extended the injections over a period of 12 weeks. On the other hand, Cuadrado et al. [ 34 ] and Dilli et al. [ 33 ] examined single-time administrations. These discrepancies in timing may affect both short-term and long-term outcomes, with more frequent administrations potentially leading to more sustained relief, but also increasing the risks of cumulative side effects. The primary endpoints of the studies varied but generally included measures of headache frequency and intensity. For instance, Gul et al. [ 20 ] and Palamar et al. [ 21 ] focused on the number of headache days per month, while Inan et al. assessed both frequency and intensity. Ozer et al. [ 22 ] and Cuadrado et al. [ 34 ] emphasized the reduction in headache frequency, while Dilli et al. [ 33 ] sought a 50% reduction in migraine frequency as a measure of success. The variation in endpoints underscores the multifaceted nature of migraine impact and the significance of selecting appropriate, consistent measures for evaluating the efficacy of treatments.
Despite the differences in methodology, the studies collectively indicate that GONB can effectively decrease the frequency and severity of migraines. The consistent reporting of substantial improvements across a range of dosages, injection techniques, and primary outcomes reinforces the potential usefulness of GONB in clinical practice. However, the variation in methodologies highlights the need for standardized protocols to improve the comparability and generalizability of the findings. While the reviewed studies indicate promising outcomes for GONB in migraine treatment, the variability in dosage, injection sites, administration timing, and primary endpoints necessitates caution.
Examining these frequencies is particularly vital because of the invasive nature of the procedure, which offers valuable insights into its safety profile. An essential aspect of chronic migraine management is patient adherence, which markedly contributes to treatment success. It is imperative to assess the level of adherence to GONB. Unfortunately, we could not find relevant research on participants discontinuing their medication owing to side effects, hindering our ability to determine the tolerability of the treatment. Another unresolved concern revolves around the choice between unilateral and bilateral GONB and their relative efficacy. A retrospective cohort study comparing patients who underwent bilateral versus unilateral GONB demonstrated equal effectiveness [ 35 ]. However, a definitive conclusion remains elusive as additional evidence from diverse studies is lacking. Addressing these gaps in research would contribute substantially to refining our understanding of GONB’s optimal parameters for improved outcomes in chronic migraine management. Longitudinal studies and studies on the frequency of nerve block use are needed to assess long-term efficacy.
Although this meta-analysis offers valuable insights, it is crucial to acknowledge its limitations. First, the small sample size resulting from the limited availability of new studies may compromise the reliability and accuracy of our findings. Although incorporating more studies could alleviate this concern, the scarcity of available data remains an issue. Second, the absence of sufficient data from recent trials prevented consideration of baseline characteristics, hindering our ability to perform meta-regression. This limitation underscores the importance of comprehensive data collection in future studies to increase the depth of our analyses. Third, oversight of not accounting for pretreatment medications taken by patients during the procedure might introduce a confounding factor. Although the existing data may be insufficient to draw definitive conclusions, recognizing and addressing this aspect in future research is essential for a more nuanced understanding. Moreover, this meta-analysis did not explicitly address patient comorbidities. These factors could potentially influence the safety of the procedure in patients with various comorbidities. Future studies should delve into these aspects to provide a more comprehensive assessment of the safety profile of the procedure in diverse patient populations. In conclusion, although this meta-analysis provides valuable insights, researchers must remain cognizant of these limitations. Addressing these concerns in future studies will enhance the robustness and applicability of these findings in clinical settings.
Based on our investigation, we ascertained that the administration of Greater Occipital Nerve Blocks (GONB) with local anesthetic leads to a notable reduction in both the intensity and frequency of headaches when compared to placebo. Additionally, our research underscores the effectiveness of GONBs and affirms their satisfactory safety profile. However, it is important to acknowledge that our confidence in these findings is somewhat tempered by the limited number of studies and relatively modest sample size that underpins our conclusions. Therefore, we advocate that future studies should broaden their scope by incorporating larger and more diverse sample sizes. These studies should also explore a range of drugs, frequencies, and treatment plans to augment the robustness and applicability of the results, thereby providing a more comprehensive understanding of the potential benefits of GONBs for headache management.
The data are available within the article and supplementary files. The authors confirm that data supporting the findings of this study are available in the article and supplementary files.
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We would like to thank the Paolo Procacci Foundation for their support.
The study was funded by the Paolo Procacci Foundation.
Authors and affiliations.
Department of Medicine, Jinnah Sindh Medical University, Karachi, 75510, Pakistan
Muhamad Saqlain Mustafa, Muhammad Ashir Shafique, Burhanudin Sohail Rangwala & Abdul Haseeb
Department of Medicine, Shaheed Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto Medical College, Karachi, 75400, Pakistan
Shafin bin Amin, Aashish Kumar, Syed Ali Arsal & Adarsh Raja
Department of Medicine, Dow University of Health Science, Karachi, 74200, Pakistan
Syeda Mahrukh Fatima Zaidi, Muhammad Faheem Iqbal & Inshal Jawed
Fondazione Paolo Procacci, Roma, 00193, Italy
Giustino Varrassi
Faculty of Medicine, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, 11111, Sudan
Khabab Abbasher Hussien Mohamed Ahmed
Department of Medicine, Liaquat National Hospital and Medical College, Karachi, Pakistan
Syed Muhammad Sinaan Ali
Jinnah Sindh Medical University, Rafiqi H J Shaheed Road, Karachi, 75510, Pakistan
Shaheed Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto Medical College, Lyari Hospital Rd, Rangiwara Karachi, Karachi, 75400, Pakistan
Dow University of Health Sciences, Mission Rd, New Labour Colony Nanakwara, Karachi, 74200, Pakistan
Liaquat National Hospital & Medical College, Stadium Road, Karachi, 74800, Pakistan
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Integrating city master plans with sustainable and smart urban development: a systematic literature review.
2. materials and methods, elaboration of the systematic review of the literature, 3. smart cities: concepts, structure, and planning towards sustainability, 4.1. bibliometric analysis, 4.2. models for urban planning and sustainability, 4.3. frameworks for urban planning and sustainability.
Region | Country | Project | Reference | Number of Articles |
---|---|---|---|---|
Asia | China | Framework that presents the relationship between the e-urban plan and the current reality of new cities. | [ ] | 12 |
It presents an optimised GLP-ESA-ACO coupling model for landscape pattern allocation, aiming at ecological security and economic coordination. | [ ] | |||
SLEUTH model is used to predict the future of land use. Predicts a population prediction model. | [ ] | |||
Hybrid weighting model for evaluating urban underground space resources, integrating the classic entropy weighting method with the time dimension method. | [ ] | |||
It presents multinomial logistic regression models to explore the relationships between urban growth patterns and urban planning in Shenzhen. | [ ] | |||
Framework for planning and designing an urban flood ecosystem. | [ ] | |||
Model to characterise the urban spatial structure using data from taxi trips. | [ ] | |||
Conceptual framework for illustrating ideas. | [ ] | |||
Citizen participation in the development of the Shanghai 2035 Master Plan. | [ ] | |||
FUTURES model for simulating urban sprawl and assessing impacts on ecosystem services in Hohhot, China. | [ ] | |||
Framework to explain the failure of urban planning in China. | [ ] | |||
Differences model to explore the relationship between smart cities and clean energy development. We used panel data from prefecture-level cities in China from 2009 to 2019. | [ ] | |||
Jordan | Criterion to help select the ideal site for a sustainable city in Jordan. | [ ] | 4 | |
Singapore | New paradigm of integrated urban mobility planning is derived from a different concept of a city centred on accessibility. | [ ] | ||
Vietnam | Smart energy-system model for smart cities. | [ ] | ||
Saudi Arabia | Willingness of the public to participate in the urban planning process through technologies applied in Saudi Arabia. Discussion of the implications of these findings for inclusive urban planning. | [ ] | ||
South Asia | India | Discusses approaches and solutions for transport planning (GIFT City). | [ ] | 6 |
Taxonomy of mixed land-use types presents indicators and practice parameters. | [ ] | |||
Typology of smart city approaches based on analysis of smart city policy documents. | [ ] | |||
Systems-thinking approach to examine the concept of smart cities, and it proposes a conclusive definition. | [ ] | |||
It uses multi-temporal satellite imagery and road network data to examine urban growth and its relationship to the transport network. | [ ] | |||
Framework for the development of an index of urban ecological efficiency (UEE) in the metropolitan area of Kolkata, India, from 2000 to 2020. | [ ] | |||
Far East of Asia | South Korea | Transit Oriented Development (TOD) and Traditional Neighborhood Development (TND) models as frameworks to plan the urban structure of Sejong City. | [ ] | 5 |
Co-creative planning approach based on design thinking for regional innovation in declining industrial areas. | [ ] | |||
System dynamics model that analyses the effect of smart city planning in the urban region of Anyang. | [ ] | |||
Comparative framework between the smart city services offered by the South Korea National Strategic Smart Cities Program (NSSP) with other regions. | [ ] | |||
Gender analysis model is applied in three phases: planning phase, implementation phase, and post-occupation evaluation phase. | [ ] | |||
West Asia | Abu Dhabi | Masdar City is an example of an eco-city. Assessment of its effectiveness in terms of social sustainability. | [ ] | 1 |
Central Asia | Afghanistan | Travel demand model forecasts using the traditional four-step method to assess the current number of passengers on public transport in 22 districts. | [ ] | 1 |
Southeast Asia | Iran | Theoretical framework for the design process. | [ ] | 2 |
Interviews with different planning actors and public and private sector planners, investigating what they perceive as barriers to employing e-participation in the Iranian planning system. | [ ] | |||
Asia and Oceania | Indonesia | Parametric simulation as a tool to examine the relationship between lot characters and regulations in a commercial corridor. | [ ] | 3 |
Evaluation of six large cities in Indonesia in the development of smart city projects. | [ ] | |||
Geotext data-processing framework, which consists of four workflows: data retrieval, data analysis, data evaluation, and data visualisation. | [ ] | |||
Oceania | Australia | Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) model to identify statistically significant factors influencing UHI intensities in Brisbane. | [ ] | 3 |
New Zealand | Theoretical framework that positions spatial decision support tools (SDST) in relation to planning processes and results. | [ ] | ||
Australia | Introduction of the iHUB platform, Australia’s national urban research and development platform. | [ ] | ||
Europe | Spain | Intelligenter Method as a model for making smarter urban policies and regulations. | [ ] | 4 |
Germany | Various approaches and strategies for improving sustainable urban mobility in German cities. | [ ] | ||
Hungary | Different trends in urban planning based on the use of ICT. | [ ] | ||
Türkiye | Participatory design model for the urban transformation process in Istanbul. | [ ] | ||
Northern Europe | Finland | It discusses the idea of a city as a platform, addressing how cities support innovation by creating smart environments. | [ ] | 5 |
It discusses the role of participatory innovation platforms in urban economic development. | [ ] | |||
It presents a crowdsourcing model that combines different data sources. | [ ] | |||
It presents an exploratory analysis guided by digital urban platforms. It discusses platformization and its impact on urban planning. | [ ] | |||
City-planning tool to measure the spatial distribution of urban green space diversity within a city. | [ ] | |||
Western Europe | UK | Conceptual framework for aligning infrastructure assets with citizen requirements in smart cities. | [ ] | 2 |
Framework based on habitat–species models to predict bird counts in urban development plans. | [ ] | |||
Central Europe | Slovakia | Participatory integrated model that uses opportunities incorporated in grassroots actions to foster the development of green infrastructure. | [ ] | 1 |
North America | USA | It discusses the use of a set of highway air rights and transit-oriented development as a smart growth strategy. | [ ] | 3 |
Framework Knowledge Product Evaluation (KnoPE) tool to evaluate knowledge products developed to support decision-making. | [ ] | |||
Model called emotional data framework for the use of emotional data in the governance of smart cities. | [ ] | |||
South America | Brazil | It presents the concept of human mobility transition, relating ideas of major changes in mobility dynamics and how these affect the constitution and development of urban settlements. | [ ] | 4 |
Brazil | It discusses the importance of articulations in the anti-asylum struggle with participatory master plans in Brazilian cities. | [ ] | ||
Brazil | Procedural model for understanding e-participation practices and the mechanisms used over time to influence decision-making. | [ ] | ||
Chile | RayMan model for conducting a parametric study in two urban development schemes: filling and expansion. | [ ] | ||
East Africa | Ethiopia | Identification of factors that impede the implementation of the urban structure plan in Nekemte, Ethiopia. | [ ] | 1 |
5.1. technological approaches, 5.2. innovative sustainable strategies for e-urban planning in smart cities, 6. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.
Click here to enlarge figure
Keyword Combination | Scopus | Web of Science | Science Direct | Gross Total of Articles |
---|---|---|---|---|
(“e-urban planning” OR “urban e-planning” OR “city master planning”) AND “Cidades Inteligentes” | 112 | 14 | 38 | 164 |
Model | Application/Description | Authors |
---|---|---|
Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) | Identification of factors influencing Urban Heat Island (UHI) intensities in Brisbane | [ ] |
Intelligenter Method | Elaboration of smarter urban policies and regulations | [ ] |
Evaluation model | Measurement of the degree of success of a city’s smart growth plan | [ ] |
GLP-ESA-ACO coupling model | Optimization of landscape-pattern allocation under the objective of ecological security and economic coordination | [ ] |
Hybrid weighting model | Evaluation of urban underground space resources using entropy weighting method and time-dimension-weighting method | [ ] |
Smart energy-system model | Development of smart energy systems for smart cities | [ ] |
Multinomial logistic regression models | Exploration of relationships between urban growth patterns and urban planning in Shenzhen, China | [ ] |
Participatory design model | Facilitation of urban transformation process in Istanbul | [ ] |
Integrated participatory model | Utilisation of grassroots actions to foster the development of green infrastructure | [ ] |
FUTURES model | Simulation of urban expansion and assessment of impacts on ecosystem services in Hohhot, China | [ ] |
Panel data model | Exploration of relationship between smart cities and clean energy development using data from prefecture-level cities | [ ] |
Framework | Description | Authors |
---|---|---|
Urban Transport Intelligence Indices Framework | Measures the intelligence indices of different subsystems of the urban transport system | [ ] |
Relationship Framework between City Master Plans and New Cities | Illustrates the relationship between city master plans and the current reality of new cities | [ ] |
Infrastructure Alignment Conceptual Framework for Smart Cities | Conceptual framework designed to align infrastructure assets with citizen requirements within smart cities | [ ] |
Knowledge Product Evaluation (KnoPE) Framework | Tool for evaluating knowledge products developed to support decision-making in urban resilience | [ ] |
Smart City Services Comparison Framework | Framework comparing smart city services between the National Strategic Smart Cities Program of South Korea (NSSP) and 15 Smart Cities globally | [ ] |
Urban Flood Ecosystem Planning and Design Framework | Framework for planning and designing urban flood ecosystems with the aim of enriching smart cities | [ ] |
Index of Urban Ecological Efficiency (UEE) Development Framework | Framework for developing an index of Urban Ecological Efficiency (UEE) in Kolkata, India, from 2000 to 2020 | [ ] |
Sustainable Urban Development Framework | General framework addressing 10 topics relevant to sustainable urban development | [ ] |
Technology | Authors | |
---|---|---|
Remote sensing | [ , ] | |
ICT, IoT, 5G communication technology, data structure, AI, autonomous vehicles, wireless networks, and renewable energy, among others. | [ ] | |
Renewable energy technologies, integrated systems, and smart grid techniques. | [ , , ] | |
e-participation, digital platforms, ICT decision-making, citizen engagement, urban transformation, internet, smartphones, public participation, and urban planning | [ , , ] | |
Smart cities, digital urbanism, technology, urban infrastructure, technological innovations, job creation, and residents’ quality of life. | [ , ] |
Strategy | Authors | |
---|---|---|
Innovation hubs. | [ , ] | |
Integration platforms. | [ ] | |
Sponge City and solutions for urban surfaces. | [ , ] | |
AI technologies/digital technologies; smart city planning. | [ , ] | |
3D visualisations and urban simulation. | [ ] | |
Automation of road vehicles. | [ ] |
Technological Tools | Uses and Purpose | Authors | |
---|---|---|---|
ICT-based solutions. | Application of technologies such as IoT, cloud computing, big data, mobile, and AI to improve the efficiency and quality of urban services. | [ ] | |
3D and simulation tools. | Use of 3D modelling tools and simulations to plan and visualise urban projects and their impacts. | [ ] | |
5G and advanced connectivity. | Deployment of 5G communication networks to support connectivity and real-time data exchange between devices and systems. | [ ] | |
e-participation Tools. | Digital platforms that allow citizen participation in the decision-making process and in urban planning. | [ , , ] | |
Sensors and monitoring. | Use of sensors to collect real-time data on different urban aspects, such as traffic, air quality, and energy consumption, among others. | [ , ] | |
Integration of systems and regions. | Connection and integration of different urban infrastructure systems. Collaborations across different regions for efficiency and sustainability improvements. | [ ] | |
Innovation to solve complex problems. | Continuous use of cutting-edge technologies and innovative projects to face increasingly complex urban challenges and search for sustainable solutions. | [ , ] |
The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
Przybysz, A.L.; Lima, A.D.; Sá, C.P.d.; Resende, D.N.; Pagani, R.N. Integrating City Master Plans with Sustainable and Smart Urban Development: A Systematic Literature Review. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7692. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177692
Przybysz AL, Lima AD, Sá CPd, Resende DN, Pagani RN. Integrating City Master Plans with Sustainable and Smart Urban Development: A Systematic Literature Review. Sustainability . 2024; 16(17):7692. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177692
Przybysz, André Luiz, Angelica Duarte Lima, Clayton Pereira de Sá, David Nunes Resende, and Regina Negri Pagani. 2024. "Integrating City Master Plans with Sustainable and Smart Urban Development: A Systematic Literature Review" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7692. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177692
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Pitchai balakumar.
Pharmacology Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling, 08100 Bedong. Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia
1 Department of Pharmacology, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
2 Division of Cardiovascular and Renal Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, USA
An interactive workshop on ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing’ was conducted in conjunction with the 64 th Annual Conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012 at Chennai, India. In essence, research is performed to enlighten our understanding of a contemporary issue relevant to the needs of society. To accomplish this, a researcher begins search for a novel topic based on purpose, creativity, critical thinking, and logic. This leads to the fundamental pieces of the research endeavor: Question, objective, hypothesis, experimental tools to test the hypothesis, methodology, and data analysis. When correctly performed, research should produce new knowledge. The four cornerstones of good research are the well-formulated protocol or proposal that is well executed, analyzed, discussed and concluded. This recent workshop educated researchers in the critical steps involved in the development of a scientific idea to its successful execution and eventual publication.
Creativity and critical thinking are of particular importance in scientific research. Basically, research is original investigation undertaken to gain knowledge and understand concepts in major subject areas of specialization, and includes the generation of ideas and information leading to new or substantially improved scientific insights with relevance to the needs of society. Hence, the primary objective of research is to produce new knowledge. Research is both theoretical and empirical. It is theoretical because the starting point of scientific research is the conceptualization of a research topic and development of a research question and hypothesis. Research is empirical (practical) because all of the planned studies involve a series of observations, measurements, and analyses of data that are all based on proper experimental design.[ 1 – 9 ]
The subject of this report is to inform readers of the proceedings from a recent workshop organized by the 64 th Annual conference of the ‘ Indian Pharmaceutical Congress ’ at SRM University, Chennai, India, from 05 to 06 December 2012. The objectives of the workshop titled ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing,’ were to assist participants in developing a strong fundamental understanding of how best to develop a research or study protocol, and communicate those research findings in a conference setting or scientific journal. Completing any research project requires meticulous planning, experimental design and execution, and compilation and publication of findings in the form of a research paper. All of these are often unfamiliar to naïve researchers; thus, the purpose of this workshop was to teach participants to master the critical steps involved in the development of an idea to its execution and eventual publication of the results (See the last section for a list of learning objectives).
The two-day workshop was formatted to include key lectures and interactive breakout sessions that focused on protocol development in six subject areas of the pharmaceutical sciences. This was followed by sessions on scientific writing. DAY 1 taught the basic concepts of scientific research, including: (1) how to formulate a topic for research and to describe the what, why , and how of the protocol, (2) biomedical literature search and review, (3) study designs, statistical concepts, and result analyses, and (4) publication ethics. DAY 2 educated the attendees on the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper and thesis, and preparation of poster as well as oral presentations.
The final phase of the workshop was the ‘Panel Discussion,’ including ‘Feedback/Comments’ by participants. There were thirteen distinguished speakers from India and abroad. Approximately 120 post-graduate and pre-doctoral students, young faculty members, and scientists representing industries attended the workshop from different parts of the country. All participants received a printed copy of the workshop manual and supporting materials on statistical analyses of data.
A research project generally comprises four key components: (1) writing a protocol, (2) performing experiments, (3) tabulating and analyzing data, and (4) writing a thesis or manuscript for publication.
A protocol, whether experimental or clinical, serves as a navigator that evolves from a basic outline of the study plan to become a qualified research or grant proposal. It provides the structural support for the research. Dr. G. Jagadeesh (US FDA), the first speaker of the session, spoke on ‘ Fundamentals in research process and cornerstones of a research project .’ He discussed at length the developmental and structural processes in preparing a research protocol. A systematic and step-by-step approach is necessary in planning a study. Without a well-designed protocol, there would be a little chance for successful completion of a research project or an experiment.
The first and the foremost difficult task in research is to identify a topic for investigation. The research topic is the keystone of the entire scientific enterprise. It begins the project, drives the entire study, and is crucial for moving the project forward. It dictates the remaining elements of the study [ Table 1 ] and thus, it should not be too narrow or too broad or unfocused. Because of these potential pitfalls, it is essential that a good or novel scientific idea be based on a sound concept. Creativity, critical thinking, and logic are required to generate new concepts and ideas in solving a research problem. Creativity involves critical thinking and is associated with generating many ideas. Critical thinking is analytical, judgmental, and involves evaluating choices before making a decision.[ 4 ] Thus, critical thinking is convergent type thinking that narrows and refines those divergent ideas and finally settles to one idea for an in-depth study. The idea on which a research project is built should be novel, appropriate to achieve within the existing conditions, and useful to the society at large. Therefore, creativity and critical thinking assist biomedical scientists in research that results in funding support, novel discovery, and publication.[ 1 , 4 ]
Elements of a study protocol
The next most crucial aspect of a study protocol is identifying a research question. It should be a thought-provoking question. The question sets the framework. It emerges from the title, findings/results, and problems observed in previous studies. Thus, mastering the literature, attendance at conferences, and discussion in journal clubs/seminars are sources for developing research questions. Consider the following example in developing related research questions from the research topic.
Hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna and Apium graveolens on paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.
How is paracetamol metabolized in the body? Does it involve P450 enzymes? How does paracetamol cause liver injury? What are the mechanisms by which drugs can alleviate liver damage? What biochemical parameters are indicative of liver injury? What major endogenous inflammatory molecules are involved in paracetamol-induced liver damage?
A research question is broken down into more precise objectives. The objectives lead to more precise methods and definition of key terms. The objectives should be SMART-Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-framed,[ 10 ] and should cover the entire breadth of the project. The objectives are sometimes organized into hierarchies: Primary, secondary, and exploratory; or simply general and specific. Study the following example:
To evaluate the safety and tolerability of single oral doses of compound X in normal volunteers.
To assess the pharmacokinetic profile of compound X following single oral doses.
To evaluate the incidence of peripheral edema reported as an adverse event.
The objectives and research questions are then formulated into a workable or testable hypothesis. The latter forces us to think carefully about what comparisons will be needed to answer the research question, and establishes the format for applying statistical tests to interpret the results. The hypothesis should link a process to an existing or postulated biologic pathway. A hypothesis is written in a form that can yield measurable results. Studies that utilize statistics to compare groups of data should have a hypothesis. Consider the following example:
All biological research, including discovery science, is hypothesis-driven. However, not all studies need be conducted with a hypothesis. For example, descriptive studies (e.g., describing characteristics of a plant, or a chemical compound) do not need a hypothesis.[ 1 ]
Another important section to be included in the protocol is ‘significance of the study.’ Its purpose is to justify the need for the research that is being proposed (e.g., development of a vaccine for a disease). In summary, the proposed study should demonstrate that it represents an advancement in understanding and that the eventual results will be meaningful, contribute to the field, and possibly even impact society.
A literature search may be defined as the process of examining published sources of information on a research or review topic, thesis, grant application, chemical, drug, disease, or clinical trial, etc. The quantity of information available in print or electronically (e.g., the internet) is immense and growing with time. A researcher should be familiar with the right kinds of databases and search engines to extract the needed information.[ 3 , 6 ]
Dr. P. Balakumar (Institute of Pharmacy, Rajendra Institute of Technology and Sciences, Sirsa, Haryana; currently, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Malaysia) spoke on ‘ Biomedical literature: Searching, reviewing and referencing .’ He schematically explained the basis of scientific literature, designing a literature review, and searching literature. After an introduction to the genesis and diverse sources of scientific literature searches, the use of PubMed, one of the premier databases used for biomedical literature searches world-wide, was illustrated with examples and screenshots. Several companion databases and search engines are also used for finding information related to health sciences, and they include Embase, Web of Science, SciFinder, The Cochrane Library, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, Scopus, and Google Scholar.[ 3 ] Literature searches using alternative interfaces for PubMed such as GoPubMed, Quertle, PubFocus, Pubget, and BibliMed were discussed. The participants were additionally informed of databases on chemistry, drugs and drug targets, clinical trials, toxicology, and laboratory animals (reviewed in ref[ 3 ]).
Referencing and bibliography are essential in scientific writing and publication.[ 7 ] Referencing systems are broadly classified into two major types, such as Parenthetical and Notation systems. Parenthetical referencing is also known as Harvard style of referencing, while Vancouver referencing style and ‘Footnote’ or ‘Endnote’ are placed under Notation referencing systems. The participants were educated on each referencing system with examples.
Dr. Raj Rajasekaran (University of California at San Diego, CA, USA) enlightened the audience on ‘ bibliography management ’ using reference management software programs such as Reference Manager ® , Endnote ® , and Zotero ® for creating and formatting bibliographies while writing a manuscript for publication. The discussion focused on the use of bibliography management software in avoiding common mistakes such as incomplete references. Important steps in bibliography management, such as creating reference libraries/databases, searching for references using PubMed/Google scholar, selecting and transferring selected references into a library, inserting citations into a research article and formatting bibliographies, were presented. A demonstration of Zotero®, a freely available reference management program, included the salient features of the software, adding references from PubMed using PubMed ID, inserting citations and formatting using different styles.
The workshop systematically instructed the participants in writing ‘ experimental protocols ’ in six disciplines of Pharmaceutical Sciences.: (1) Pharmaceutical Chemistry (presented by Dr. P. V. Bharatam, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab); (2) Pharmacology (presented by Dr. G. Jagadeesh and Dr. P. Balakumar); (3) Pharmaceutics (presented by Dr. Jayant Khandare, Piramal Life Sciences, Mumbai); (4) Pharmacy Practice (presented by Dr. Shobha Hiremath, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); (5) Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry (presented by Dr. Salma Khanam, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); and (6) Pharmaceutical Analysis (presented by Dr. Saranjit Singh, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab). The purpose of the research plan is to describe the what (Specific Aims/Objectives), why (Background and Significance), and how (Design and Methods) of the proposal.
The research plan should answer the following questions: (a) what do you intend to do; (b) what has already been done in general, and what have other researchers done in the field; (c) why is this worth doing; (d) how is it innovative; (e) what will this new work add to existing knowledge; and (f) how will the research be accomplished?
In general, the format used by the faculty in all subjects is shown in Table 2 .
Elements of a research protocol
Biostatistics is a key component of biomedical research. Highly reputed journals like The Lancet, BMJ, Journal of the American Medical Association, and many other biomedical journals include biostatisticians on their editorial board or reviewers list. This indicates that a great importance is given for learning and correctly employing appropriate statistical methods in biomedical research. The post-lunch session on day 1 of the workshop was largely committed to discussion on ‘ Basic biostatistics .’ Dr. R. Raveendran (JIPMER, Puducherry) and Dr. Avijit Hazra (PGIMER, Kolkata) reviewed, in parallel sessions, descriptive statistics, probability concepts, sample size calculation, choosing a statistical test, confidence intervals, hypothesis testing and ‘ P ’ values, parametric and non-parametric statistical tests, including analysis of variance (ANOVA), t tests, Chi-square test, type I and type II errors, correlation and regression, and summary statistics. This was followed by a practice and demonstration session. Statistics CD, compiled by Dr. Raveendran, was distributed to the participants before the session began and was demonstrated live. Both speakers worked on a variety of problems that involved both clinical and experimental data. They discussed through examples the experimental designs encountered in a variety of studies and statistical analyses performed for different types of data. For the benefit of readers, we have summarized statistical tests applied frequently for different experimental designs and post-hoc tests [ Figure 1 ].
Conceptual framework for statistical analyses of data. Of the two kinds of variables, qualitative (categorical) and quantitative (numerical), qualitative variables (nominal or ordinal) are not normally distributed. Numerical data that come from normal distributions are analyzed using parametric tests, if not; the data are analyzed using non-parametric tests. The most popularly used Student's t -test compares the means of two populations, data for this test could be paired or unpaired. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to compare the means of three or more independent populations that are normally distributed. Applying t test repeatedly in pair (multiple comparison), to compare the means of more than two populations, will increase the probability of type I error (false positive). In this case, for proper interpretation, we need to adjust the P values. Repeated measures ANOVA is used to compare the population means if more than two observations coming from same subject over time. The null hypothesis is rejected with a ‘ P ’ value of less than 0.05, and the difference in population means is considered to be statistically significant. Subsequently, appropriate post-hoc tests are used for pairwise comparisons of population means. Two-way or three-way ANOVA are considered if two (diet, dose) or three (diet, dose, strain) independent factors, respectively, are analyzed in an experiment (not described in the Figure). Categorical nominal unmatched variables (counts or frequencies) are analyzed by Chi-square test (not shown in the Figure)
The legitimate pursuit of scientific creativity is unfortunately being marred by a simultaneous increase in scientific misconduct. A disproportionate share of allegations involves scientists of many countries, and even from respected laboratories. Misconduct destroys faith in science and scientists and creates a hierarchy of fraudsters. Investigating misconduct also steals valuable time and resources. In spite of these facts, most researchers are not aware of publication ethics.
Day 1 of the workshop ended with a presentation on ‘ research and publication ethics ’ by Dr. M. K. Unnikrishnan (College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal University, Manipal). He spoke on the essentials of publication ethics that included plagiarism (attempting to take credit of the work of others), self-plagiarism (multiple publications by an author on the same content of work with slightly different wordings), falsification (manipulation of research data and processes and omitting critical data or results), gift authorship (guest authorship), ghostwriting (someone other than the named author (s) makes a major contribution), salami publishing (publishing many papers, with minor differences, from the same study), and sabotage (distracting the research works of others to halt their research completion). Additionally, Dr. Unnikrishnan pointed out the ‘ Ingelfinger rule ’ of stipulating that a scientist must not submit the same original research in two different journals. He also advised the audience that authorship is not just credit for the work but also responsibility for scientific contents of a paper. Although some Indian Universities are instituting preventive measures (e.g., use of plagiarism detecting software, Shodhganga digital archiving of doctoral theses), Dr. Unnikrishnan argued for a great need to sensitize young researchers on the nature and implications of scientific misconduct. Finally, he discussed methods on how editors and peer reviewers should ethically conduct themselves while managing a manuscript for publication.
Research outcomes are measured through quality publications. Scientists must not only ‘do’ science but must ‘write’ science. The story of the project must be told in a clear, simple language weaving in previous work done in the field, answering the research question, and addressing the hypothesis set forth at the beginning of the study. Scientific publication is an organic process of planning, researching, drafting, revising, and updating the current knowledge for future perspectives. Writing a research paper is no easier than the research itself. The lectures of Day 2 of the workshop dealt with the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper.
Dr. Amitabh Prakash (Adis, Auckland, New Zealand) spoke on ‘ Learning how to write a good scientific paper .’ His presentation described the essential components of an original research paper and thesis (e.g., introduction, methods, results, and discussion [IMRaD]) and provided guidance on the correct order, in which data should appear within these sections. The characteristics of a good abstract and title and the creation of appropriate key words were discussed. Dr. Prakash suggested that the ‘title of a paper’ might perhaps have a chance to make a good impression, and the title might be either indicative (title that gives the purpose of the study) or declarative (title that gives the study conclusion). He also suggested that an abstract is a succinct summary of a research paper, and it should be specific, clear, and concise, and should have IMRaD structure in brief, followed by key words. Selection of appropriate papers to be cited in the reference list was also discussed. Various unethical authorships were enumerated, and ‘The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) criteria for authorship’ was explained ( http://www.icmje.org/ethical_1author.html ; also see Table 1 in reference #9). The session highlighted the need for transparency in medical publication and provided a clear description of items that needed to be included in the ‘Disclosures’ section (e.g., sources of funding for the study and potential conflicts of interest of all authors, etc.) and ‘Acknowledgements’ section (e.g., writing assistance and input from all individuals who did not meet the authorship criteria). The final part of the presentation was devoted to thesis writing, and Dr. Prakash provided the audience with a list of common mistakes that are frequently encountered when writing a manuscript.
The backbone of a study is description of results through Text, Tables, and Figures. Dr. S. B. Deshpande (Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India) spoke on ‘ Effective Presentation of Results .’ The Results section deals with the observations made by the authors and thus, is not hypothetical. This section is subdivided into three segments, that is, descriptive form of the Text, providing numerical data in Tables, and visualizing the observations in Graphs or Figures. All these are arranged in a sequential order to address the question hypothesized in the Introduction. The description in Text provides clear content of the findings highlighting the observations. It should not be the repetition of facts in tables or graphs. Tables are used to summarize or emphasize descriptive content in the text or to present the numerical data that are unrelated. Illustrations should be used when the evidence bearing on the conclusions of a paper cannot be adequately presented in a written description or in a Table. Tables or Figures should relate to each other logically in sequence and should be clear by themselves. Furthermore, the discussion is based entirely on these observations. Additionally, how the results are applied to further research in the field to advance our understanding of research questions was discussed.
Dr. Peush Sahni (All-India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi) spoke on effectively ‘ structuring the Discussion ’ for a research paper. The Discussion section deals with a systematic interpretation of study results within the available knowledge. He said the section should begin with the most important point relating to the subject studied, focusing on key issues, providing link sentences between paragraphs, and ensuring the flow of text. Points were made to avoid history, not repeat all the results, and provide limitations of the study. The strengths and novel findings of the study should be provided in the discussion, and it should open avenues for future research and new questions. The Discussion section should end with a conclusion stating the summary of key findings. Dr. Sahni gave an example from a published paper for writing a Discussion. In another presentation titled ‘ Writing an effective title and the abstract ,’ Dr. Sahni described the important components of a good title, such as, it should be simple, concise, informative, interesting and eye-catching, accurate and specific about the paper's content, and should state the subject in full indicating study design and animal species. Dr. Sahni explained structured (IMRaD) and unstructured abstracts and discussed a few selected examples with the audience.
The next lecture of Dr. Amitabh Prakash on ‘ Language and style in scientific writing: Importance of terseness, shortness and clarity in writing ’ focused on the actual sentence construction, language, grammar and punctuation in scientific manuscripts. His presentation emphasized the importance of brevity and clarity in the writing of manuscripts describing biomedical research. Starting with a guide to the appropriate construction of sentences and paragraphs, attendees were given a brief overview of the correct use of punctuation with interactive examples. Dr. Prakash discussed common errors in grammar and proactively sought audience participation in correcting some examples. Additional discussion was centered on discouraging the use of redundant and expendable words, jargon, and the use of adjectives with incomparable words. The session ended with a discussion of words and phrases that are commonly misused (e.g., data vs . datum, affect vs . effect, among vs . between, dose vs . dosage, and efficacy/efficacious vs . effective/effectiveness) in biomedical research manuscripts.
The appropriateness in selecting the journal for submission and acceptance of the manuscript should be determined by the experience of an author. The corresponding author must have a rationale in choosing the appropriate journal, and this depends upon the scope of the study and the quality of work performed. Dr. Amitabh Prakash spoke on ‘ Working with journals: Selecting a journal, cover letter, peer review process and impact factor ’ by instructing the audience in assessing the true value of a journal, understanding principles involved in the peer review processes, providing tips on making an initial approach to the editorial office, and drafting an appropriate cover letter to accompany the submission. His presentation defined the metrics that are most commonly used to measure journal quality (e.g., impact factor™, Eigenfactor™ score, Article Influence™ score, SCOPUS 2-year citation data, SCImago Journal Rank, h-Index, etc.) and guided attendees on the relative advantages and disadvantages of using each metric. Factors to consider when assessing journal quality were discussed, and the audience was educated on the ‘green’ and ‘gold’ open access publication models. Various peer review models (e.g., double-blind, single-blind, non-blind) were described together with the role of the journal editor in assessing manuscripts and selecting suitable reviewers. A typical checklist sent to referees was shared with the attendees, and clear guidance was provided on the best way to address referee feedback. The session concluded with a discussion of the potential drawbacks of the current peer review system.
Posters have become an increasingly popular mode of presentation at conferences, as it can accommodate more papers per meeting, has no time constraint, provides a better presenter-audience interaction, and allows one to select and attend papers of interest. In Figure 2 , we provide instructions, design, and layout in preparing a scientific poster. In the final presentation, Dr. Sahni provided the audience with step-by-step instructions on how to write and format posters for layout, content, font size, color, and graphics. Attendees were given specific guidance on the format of text on slides, the use of color, font type and size, and the use of illustrations and multimedia effects. Moreover, the importance of practical tips while delivering oral or poster presentation was provided to the audience, such as speak slowly and clearly, be informative, maintain eye contact, and listen to the questions from judges/audience carefully before coming up with an answer.
Guidelines and design to scientific poster presentation. The objective of scientific posters is to present laboratory work in scientific meetings. A poster is an excellent means of communicating scientific work, because it is a graphic representation of data. Posters should have focus points, and the intended message should be clearly conveyed through simple sections: Text, Tables, and Graphs. Posters should be clear, succinct, striking, and eye-catching. Colors should be used only where necessary. Use one font (Arial or Times New Roman) throughout. Fancy fonts should be avoided. All headings should have font size of 44, and be in bold capital letters. Size of Title may be a bit larger; subheading: Font size of 36, bold and caps. References and Acknowledgments, if any, should have font size of 24. Text should have font size between 24 and 30, in order to be legible from a distance of 3 to 6 feet. Do not use lengthy notes
After all the presentations were made, Dr. Jagadeesh began a panel discussion that included all speakers. The discussion was aimed at what we do currently and could do in the future with respect to ‘developing a research question and then writing an effective thesis proposal/protocol followed by publication.’ Dr. Jagadeesh asked the following questions to the panelists, while receiving questions/suggestions from the participants and panelists.
The panelists and audience expressed a variety of views, but were unable to arrive at a decisive conclusion.
At the end of this fast-moving two-day workshop, the participants had opportunities in learning the following topics:
Overall, the workshop was deemed very helpful to participants. The participants rated the quality of workshop from “ satisfied ” to “ very satisfied .” A significant number of participants were of the opinion that the time allotted for each presentation was short and thus, be extended from the present two days to four days with adequate time to ask questions. In addition, a ‘hands-on’ session should be introduced for writing a proposal and manuscript. A large number of attendees expressed their desire to attend a similar workshop, if conducted, in the near future.
We gratefully express our gratitude to the Organizing Committee, especially Professors K. Chinnasamy, B. G. Shivananda, N. Udupa, Jerad Suresh, Padma Parekh, A. P. Basavarajappa, Mr. S. V. Veerramani, Mr. J. Jayaseelan, and all volunteers of the SRM University. We thank Dr. Thomas Papoian (US FDA) for helpful comments on the manuscript.
The opinions expressed herein are those of Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh and do not necessarily reflect those of the US Food and Drug Administration
Source of Support: Nil
Conflict of Interest: None declared.
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Scientific method should be neutral, objective, rational, and as a result, should be able to approve or disapprove the hypothesis. The research plan should include the procedure to obtain data and evaluate the variables. It should ensure that analyzable data are obtained. It should also include plans on the statistical analysis to be performed.
Systematic reviews are characterized by a methodical and replicable methodology and presentation. They involve a comprehensive search to locate all relevant published and unpublished work on a subject; a systematic integration of search results; and a critique of the extent, nature, and quality of evidence in relation to a particular research question.
With your research plan in place, it's time to dive into the data collection phase. As you conduct your research, adhere to the established research process steps to ensure the integrity and quality of your findings. Compliance; Conduct your research in accordance with federal regulations, state laws, institutional SOPs, and policies.
Topic selection and planning. In recent years, there has been an explosion in the number of systematic reviews conducted and published (Chalmers & Fox 2016, Fontelo & Liu 2018, Page et al 2015) - although a systematic review may be an inappropriate or unnecessary research methodology for answering many research questions.Systematic reviews can be inadvisable for a variety of reasons.
Image: https://pixabay.com Steps to conducting a systematic review: PIECES. P: Planning - the methods of the systematic review are generally decided before conducting it. I: Identifying - searching for studies which match the preset criteria in a systematic manner E: Evaluating - sort all retrieved articles (included or excluded) and assess the risk of bias for each included study
To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data. To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure ...
Systematic Review | Definition, Example & Guide
1. INTRODUCTION. Evidence synthesis is a prerequisite for knowledge translation. 1 A well conducted systematic review (SR), often in conjunction with meta‐analyses (MA) when appropriate, is considered the "gold standard" of methods for synthesizing evidence related to a topic of interest. 2 The central strength of an SR is the transparency of the methods used to systematically search ...
Research is a rigorous problem-solving process whose ultimate goal is the discovery of new knowledge. Research may include the description of a new phenomenon, definition of a new relationship, development of a new model, or application of an existing principle or procedure to a new context. Research is systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, replicable and transmittable, and generalizable.
Abstract. It can be challenging to conduct a systematic review with limited experience and skills in undertaking such a task. This chapter provides a practical guide to undertaking a systematic review, providing step-by-step instructions to guide the individual through the process from start to finish. The chapter begins with defining what a ...
Research Process is a systematic and structured approach that involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data or information to answer a specific research question or solve a particular problem. ... This step involves designing a research plan and methodology that will enable the researcher to collect and analyze data to test the ...
Education research leads to new knowledge about teaching, learning, and educational administration. The goal of educational research is to generate knowledge that describes, predicts, improves, and explains processes and practices related to education (Gall, Gall, and Borg, 2007). Developing and implementing an educational study plan can lead ...
A research plan is a framework that shows how you intend to approach your topic. The plan can take many forms: a written outline, a narrative, a visual/concept map or timeline. It's a document that will change and develop as you conduct your research. Components of a research plan. 1. Research conceptualization - introduces your research question.
guiding reviewers on conducting a systematic review, using examples from published systematic reviews and different types of studies. To illustrate the approach, we use example research questions and elaborate the stepwise proposed methodology for conducting a systematic review. Some of the potential research questions are: 1.
Literature reviews establish the foundation of academic inquires. However, in the planning field, we lack rigorous systematic reviews. In this article, through a systematic search on the methodology of literature review, we categorize a typology of literature reviews, discuss steps in conducting a systematic literature review, and provide suggestions on how to enhance rigor in literature ...
Systematic reviews are characterized by a methodical and replicable methodology and presentation. They involve a comprehensive search to locate all relevant published and unpublished work on a subject; a systematic integration of search results; and a critique of the extent, nature, and quality of evidence in relation to a particular research question. The best reviews synthesize studies to ...
Qualitative research, conducted thoughtfully, is internally consistent, rigorous, and helps us answer important questions about people and their lives (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). These fundamental epistemological foundations are key for developing the right research mindset before designing and conducting qualitative research.
Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples
To conduct a risk of bias in medical research, it is crucial to adhere to a specific sequence: choose tools that are specifically designed for systematic reviews. These tools should have proven acceptable validity and reliability, specifically address items related to methodological quality (internal validity), and ideally be based on empirical ...
A systematic review is a means of identifying, evaluating and interpreting all available research relevant to a particular research question, or topic area, or phenomenon of interest. Individual studies contributing to a systematic review are called primary studies; a systematic review is a form of secondary study.
Scientific Method Steps in Psychology Research
This study advocates for further research exploring various drugs, frequencies, and treatment plans to enhance the robustness and applicability of GONB for chronic migraine management. ... This study aims to fill the knowledge gaps by conducting a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis, providing healthcare professionals with a more ...
Reasons for inclusion and exclusion should be recorded. Step 3: Assessing the quality of studies. Study quality assessment is relevant to every step of a review. Question formulation (Step 1) and study selection criteria (Step 2) should describe the minimum acceptable level of design.
In the pursuit of sustainable mobility and the decarbonization of transport systems, public authorities are increasingly scrutinizing the impact of travel speed on emissions within both low-speed and high-speed environments. This study critically examines the evidence concerning emission impacts associated with speed limit changes in different traffic environments by conducting a systematic ...
Urban configurations have substantial impacts on lifestyles, behaviors, and people's daily lives. Elaborating urban plans based on smart and sustainable initiatives is a challenging task as it encompasses numerous multidisciplinary premises due to the dynamics of the urban context. This research aims to conduct a systematic review of the literature in three axes: sustainable urban ...
Our initial systematic search across various databases yielded a total of 117 studies. After removing duplicate entries, we were left with 46 unique articles. ... blocking neuralgia-conducting nerves for extended periods. ... highlighting the need for further research and standardization in RFA procedures to enhance clarity for clinicians and ...
INTRODUCTION. Creativity and critical thinking are of particular importance in scientific research. Basically, research is original investigation undertaken to gain knowledge and understand concepts in major subject areas of specialization, and includes the generation of ideas and information leading to new or substantially improved scientific insights with relevance to the needs of society.