size of font in research paper

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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

APA 7th ed. Style Guide

• Formatting Your Paper
• In-text Citations
• Textual Works
• Data Sets, Software, Tests
• Audiovisual Media
• Online Media

Formatting guidelines and sample papers are found in chapter 2 of the APA 7th edition Publication Manual

Sample papers.

You can find sample papers from Purdue OWL's website, APA 7th edition Publication Manual, or APA style website.

• APA Style Student Paper with Annotations in the Comments A Word Document featuring an APA 7th edition Style Student Paper that includes annotations as comments.
• APA Style Professional Paper with Annotations in Comments A Word Document featuring an APA 7th edition Style Professional Paper that includes annotations as comments.
• Purdue OWL Sample Papers

General Formatting Guidelines

Follow these guidelines throughout your paper:

• Double space text
• Header for student and professional papers includes the page number in the upper right hand corner
• Single space after ending punctuation
• Font size and style: Times New Roman 12 pt, Arial 11 pt, Calibri 11 pt, or Georgia 11 pt
• Use the same font type and size throughout the paper (exceptions for figure images, computer code, and footnotes - see 2.19 in APA Manual)
• Margins: 1 inch on all sides
• Left align paragraphs and leave ragged (uneven) margins on the right
• Indention: use 0.5 inch indention for the first line of every paragraph (use tab key for consistency)

Formatting Title Page

The 7th edition Publication Manual for APA introduced the student and professional papers. The major difference between these two types of papers is found on the title page. Please, see the guidelines below for formatting the title page of your document. Also note, follow your professors' guidelines for formatting the title page.

General Title Page Guidelines:

• Double space
• The title should summarize the main idea and be focused/succinct (avoid unnecessary words)
• Title written in title case (the first letter of each word is capitalized), bold, centered, and positioned in the upper half of the title page
• Use the author(s) first name, middle initial, and last name as the author's byline

Student Papers:

• title of the paper
• name of the author(s)
• author affiliation (department and institution name)
• course number and name 
• instructor name
• assignment due date (i.e. November 4, 2020)
• page number (in the header)

Professional Papers:

• author affiliation
• author note
• running head (abbreviated title) - Flush with left margin and written in all capital letters

Formatting Headings

Follow this format for headings (see 2.27 of the Publication Manual for additional details):

Level 1 headings are written in bold title case and aligned to the center. The text begins as a new paragraph.

Level 2 headings are written in bold title case and aligned flush to the left. The text begins as a new paragraph.

Level 3 headings are written in bold, italicized title case, and aligned flush to the left. The text begins as a new paragraph.

Level 4 headings are written in bold title case, indented from the left, and end with a period. The text begins after the period and continues like a regular paragraph.

Level 5 headings are written in bold, italicized title case, indented from the left, and end with a period. The text begins after the period and continues like a regular paragraph.

Formatting Reference List

The following are guidelines for formatting your reference list:

• Start on a new page after the last page of text
• Label the page Reference(s) with a capitalized R, written in bold and centered
• Double space all entries
• Use hanging indent for reference entries (first line of the reference is flush with left margin, subsequent lines are indented 0.5 inches)
• Order alphabetically (see chapter 9 section 44-49 for additional instructions on entry order)
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What is the standard/recommended font to use in papers?

I looked around but did not find that anyone has asked this before, but what are the fonts that are standard/recommended while writing academic reports/papers?

• publications

• 19 No need to search for the perfect font. You just download the latex/word template that the journal / conference provides and you stick to it. –  Alexandros Aug 7, 2014 at 10:12
• 3 In my case there isn't a template, that is the problem. –  Man Aug 7, 2014 at 10:12
• 1 @O.R.Mapper yes very true, although I assume if the OP was looking for the standard font of every language in the world for academic publishing, we could close it as "too broad" –  user-2147482637 Aug 7, 2014 at 15:35
• 10 People stick with the Computer Modern default in LaTeX so much that I once had someone tell me a paper where I intentionally chose a different serif font "looked unprofessional." –  Matt Reece Aug 7, 2014 at 17:32
• 3 Please do not be "that person" who has the only paper in the journal or proceedings with a different font from the others. –  Max Aug 8, 2014 at 8:42

4 Answers 4

If there's no template, then the choice is yours. However, you should make sure to pick a font that's easy to read. The usual standards in academia tend to be the Times, Helvetica/Arial, and Computer Modern families. This doesn't restrict you from using fonts like Book Antiqua, Myriad Pro, Goudy Old Style, or Garamond, but they're definitely not standard.

• 9 As to Helvetica/Arial: I think conventional wisdom is that serif fonts are preferred for large bodies of text, while sans serif should be reserved for short chunks like labels, headings, etc. I've certainly never seen a published paper set entirely in Helvetica. Then again, in my field everyone uses LaTeX, so unless you make a special effort, everything comes out in Computer Modern. –  Nate Eldredge Aug 7, 2014 at 15:52
• @NateEldredge: You are correct that serif fonts are easier to handle in large doses, but Helvetica is the "default" font for most "official" documents and reports throughout most of Europe. And this extends to preprints when not done in LaTeX. –  aeismail Aug 7, 2014 at 15:56
• 14 Eurghhhhhhhhhhh. –  Nate Eldredge Aug 7, 2014 at 16:14
• @NateEldredge: This is not undisputed. @ aeismail: It’s rather Arial due that popular operating system (which does not make this any better; not because of serif vs. sans-serif, but because I do not want to see that font anymore to the extent that I tweaked my browser to auto-replace any resembling fonts). –  Wrzlprmft ♦ Aug 8, 2014 at 8:35
• @Wrzlprmft: True, it is normally Arial that is specified; fortunately the differences are small enough that I use Helvetica and no one complains. (And actually I'm starting to see more references to Helvetica nowadays.) –  aeismail Aug 8, 2014 at 12:00

For an academic paper each publisher journal have their standards. These do not affect or are affected by the manuscripts sent in to the journal. Some journals specify fonts, commonly standard Times Roman, for their manuscripts. If the journal specifies something, follow that specification. Otherwise use a font that is easy to read. There is no need to use anything but a standard font for whatever typesetting/word processor system.

There isn't any.

Focus on the content, write using your favorite writing software's default font, and let the journal's typesetting staff worry about the looks of the published version.

For the subset of journals that do not take care of typesetting, first make sure they are legitimate, then use the template they provide.

If no template is provided discuss with your supervisor and colleagues whether the journal is really worth your time, if it is then use your favorite software's default font.

As others have mentioned, the standard font varies, but is usually a serif font such as Times New Roman, although sans serif fonts such as Arial and Helvetica seem to be gaining traction as well. Their is major disagreement over which is easier to read--serif or sans serif fonts, with no clear consensus on the outcome. For example, see this paper .

Font size is typically twelve point. Follow the guidelines on this one, and make sure to keep your font consistent. Nothing is more likely to get you minus points than some obvious monkeying with the font size, whether to lengthen your manuscript (most commonly seen in undergrad papers) or to fit your text into the page limit (the rest of us!).

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APA 7 Style: Formatting Guidelines

Common guidelines for apa-format papers.

APA 7 (2020) has introduced new guidelines for student papers that differ from the guidelines for professional papers being submitted for publication. Make sure to check with your professor or teaching assistant on whether they prefer that you use the student or professional format for your work.

Common Guidelines for All APA-Format Papers

Line Spacing

Paragraph alignment and indentation, page numbers.

• Figures and Tables

References Page

Guidelines Specific to Student Papers

Guidelines Specific to Professional Papers Being Submitted for Publication

• Headers with Running Head and Page Numbers

Guidelines for All APA-Format Papers

APA 7 (2020) accepts the use of a wider range of fonts than previous editions. Use a consistent font throughout the paper. While the size of the font in the text of the paper should confirm to one of the options below, figures may include a smaller or larger font size as needed.

Font options include:

• Times New Roman (12-point)
• Calibri (11-point)
• Arial (11-point)
• Lucinda (10-point)
• Sans Unicode (10-point)
• Georgia (11-point)
• Computer Modern (10-point)

The entire paper, including the title page, body of the paper, references and appendices, should be double-spaced. The bodies of figures and tables are excluded from this rule. Do not add extra line spaces between paragraphs or after a heading. 

Use 2.54 CM (1 inch) margins on all sides of the paper.

All paragraphs should be left-aligned (do not full-justify text). For each new paragraph indent five spaces or ½ inch.  Use the tab key to indent paragraphs.

All papers should have a page number in the top right corner of the header. Page numbers should be on every page of the paper, with the title page being page 1.

APA 7 (2020) recommends the use of headings in order to clarify the organization of papers. Note that a heading for the introduction is not needed or recommended. The number and level of headings required depend on the length and complexity of the paper.

• Level One headings are centred and bolded and use title case capitalization (all key words capitalized). The text of the paper begins on the next line as a new paragraph.
• Level 2 Headings are left-aligned and bolded and use title case capitalization (all key words capitalized). The text of the paper begins on the next line as a new paragraph.
• Level 3 Headings are left-aligned, bolded, and italicized . They use title case capitalization (all key words capitalized). The text of the paper begins on the next line as a new paragraph.
• Level 4 Headings are indented, bolded and use title case capitalization (all key words capitalized). There is a period at the end of a level 4 heading, and the text of the paragraph begins immediately after the period.
• Level 5 Headings are indented, bolded, and italicized . They use title case capitalization (all key words capitalized). There is a period at the end of a level 5 heading, and the text of the paragraph begins immediately after the period.

Sample Paper with Different Levels of Headers  

Tables and Figures

Label both tables and figures, numbering them consecutively in the order that they are discussed in the text. 

Tables include a numbered label, such as “Table 1”, and this bolded label is placed above the title. Below the label, insert a table title in italics; this title should briefly identify the data in the table that follows the label.

Figures can include maps, graphs, charts or other images. Place a label, such as "Figure 1", above the figure; this label is in bold. Below the label, insert a figure title using title case and italics. Below the image, place a caption to offer more detailed information on the figure.

Refer to all tables and figures in the text of your paper by their label: “In Table 1, it is clear that . . .” or “. . . area is separated into five geographically distinct sections (see Figure 2).

APA 7 (2020) offers two options for the placement of tables and figures. They can either be integrated into the text of the paper soon after it is first mentioned in the text. Or, tables and figures can be included after the references. If you choose to position tables and figures after the references page, each table should be positioned on a separate page followed by each figure positioned on a separate page.

More advice on figures and tables from the APA Style website

• APA (2020) recommends that you ask your professor or the editor to which you are submitting a manuscript for publication whether they have a preference as to whether figures and tables be integrated into the text or included on separate pages after the references.

All sources cited in the paper (except for personal communications) should be included in a references list. Begin the references page on a separate page, following the conclusion on the text of the paper. On the top line of the references page, the word References should be centred and bolded. The first reference begins on the next line of the reference page.

For further information on how to format the references page, see APA 7 Style: References . 

Sample References Page

Appendices 

An appendix includes relevant, supplementary information to the paper. Appendices should be placed after the references page and tables and figures (if relevant).

• Each appendix should begin on a separate page and should have a label and title.
• The appendix label and title should be centred and bolded. Write the label on one line and then the title on the next line.
• If you have only one appendix, label it Appendix.
• If you have more than one appendix, label them Appendix A, Appendix B, or Appendix C etc. in the order that it is discussed in the text of the paper.
• You must refer to all appendices in the text of your paper by their label (see Appendix) or (see Appendix A).

Sample Appendix 

A step-by-step guide for creating and formatting APA Style student papers

The start of the semester is the perfect time to learn how to create and format APA Style student papers. This article walks through the formatting steps needed to create an APA Style student paper, starting with a basic setup that applies to the entire paper (margins, font, line spacing, paragraph alignment and indentation, and page headers). It then covers formatting for the major sections of a student paper: the title page, the text, tables and figures, and the reference list. Finally, it concludes by describing how to organize student papers and ways to improve their quality and presentation.

The guidelines for student paper setup are described and shown using annotated diagrams in the Student Paper Setup Guide (PDF, 3.40MB) and the A Step-by-Step Guide to APA Style Student Papers webinar . Chapter 1 of the Concise Guide to APA Style and Chapter 2 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association describe the elements, format, and organization for student papers. Tables and figures are covered in Chapter 7 of both books. Information on paper format and tables and figures and a full sample student paper are also available on the APA Style website.

Basic setup

The guidelines for basic setup apply to the entire paper. Perform these steps when you first open your document, and then you do not have to worry about them again while writing your paper. Because these are general aspects of paper formatting, they apply to all APA Style papers, student or professional. Students should always check with their assigning instructor or institution for specific guidelines for their papers, which may be different than or in addition to APA Style guidelines.

Seventh edition APA Style was designed with modern word-processing programs in mind. Most default settings in programs such as Academic Writer, Microsoft Word, and Google Docs already comply with APA Style. This means that, for most paper elements, you do not have to make any changes to the default settings of your word-processing program. However, you may need to make a few adjustments before you begin writing.

Use 1-in. margins on all sides of the page (top, bottom, left, and right). This is usually how papers are automatically set.

Use a legible font. The default font of your word-processing program is acceptable. Many sans serif and serif fonts can be used in APA Style, including 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, 12-point Times New Roman, and 11-point Georgia. You can also use other fonts described on the font page of the website.

Line spacing

Double-space the entire paper including the title page, block quotations, and the reference list. This is something you usually must set using the paragraph function of your word-processing program. But once you do, you will not have to change the spacing for the entirety of your paper–just double-space everything. Do not add blank lines before or after headings. Do not add extra spacing between paragraphs. For paper sections with different line spacing, see the line spacing page.

Paragraph alignment and indentation

Align all paragraphs of text in the body of your paper to the left margin. Leave the right margin ragged. Do not use full justification. Indent the first line of every paragraph of text 0.5-in. using the tab key or the paragraph-formatting function of your word-processing program. For paper sections with different alignment and indentation, see the paragraph alignment and indentation page.

Page numbers

Put a page number in the top right of every page header , including the title page, starting with page number 1. Use the automatic page-numbering function of your word-processing program to insert the page number in the top right corner; do not type the page numbers manually. The page number is the same font and font size as the text of your paper. Student papers do not require a running head on any page, unless specifically requested by the instructor.

Title page setup

Title page elements.

APA Style has two title page formats: student and professional (for details, see title page setup ). Unless instructed otherwise, students should use the student title page format and include the following elements, in the order listed, on the title page:

• Paper title.
• Name of each author (also known as the byline).
• Affiliation for each author.
• Course number and name.
• Instructor name.
• Assignment due date.
• Page number 1 in the top right corner of the page header.

The format for the byline depends on whether the paper has one author, two authors, or three or more authors.

• When the paper has one author, write the name on its own line (e.g., Jasmine C. Hernandez).
• When the paper has two authors, write the names on the same line and separate them with the word “and” (e.g., Upton J. Wang and Natalia Dominguez).
• When the paper has three or more authors, separate the names with commas and include “and” before the final author’s name (e.g., Malia Mohamed, Jaylen T. Brown, and Nia L. Ball).

Students have an academic affiliation, which identities where they studied when the paper was written. Because students working together on a paper are usually in the same class, they will have one shared affiliation. The affiliation consists of the name of the department and the name of the college or university, separated by a comma (e.g., Department of Psychology, George Mason University). The department is that of the course to which the paper is being submitted, which may be different than the department of the student’s major. Do not include the location unless it is part of the institution’s name.

Write the course number and name and the instructor name as shown on institutional materials (e.g., the syllabus). The course number and name are often separated by a colon (e.g., PST-4510: History and Systems Psychology). Write the assignment due date in the month, date, and year format used in your country (e.g., Sept. 10, 2020).

Title page line spacing

Double-space the whole title page. Place the paper title three or four lines down from the top of the page. Add an extra double-spaced blank like between the paper title and the byline. Then, list the other title page elements on separate lines, without extra lines in between.

Title page alignment

Center all title page elements (except the right-aligned page number in the header).

Title page font

Write the title page using the same font and font size as the rest of your paper. Bold the paper title. Use standard font (i.e., no bold, no italics) for all other title page elements.

Text elements

Repeat the paper title at the top of the first page of text. Begin the paper with an introduction to provide background on the topic, cite related studies, and contextualize the paper. Use descriptive headings to identify other sections as needed (e.g., Method, Results, Discussion for quantitative research papers). Sections and headings vary depending on the paper type and its complexity. Text can include tables and figures, block quotations, headings, and footnotes.

Text line spacing

Double-space all text, including headings and section labels, paragraphs of text, and block quotations.

Text alignment

Center the paper title on the first line of the text. Indent the first line of all paragraphs 0.5-in.

Left-align the text. Leave the right margin ragged.

Block quotation alignment

Indent the whole block quotation 0.5-in. from the left margin. Double-space the block quotation, the same as other body text. Find more information on the quotations page.

Use the same font throughout the entire paper. Write body text in standard (nonbold, nonitalic) font. Bold only headings and section labels. Use italics sparingly, for instance, to highlight a key term on first use (for more information, see the italics page).

Headings format

For detailed guidance on formatting headings, including headings in the introduction of a paper, see the headings page and the headings in sample papers .

• Alignment: Center Level 1 headings. Left-align Level 2 and Level 3 headings. Indent Level 4 and Level 5 headings like a regular paragraph.
• Font: Boldface all headings. Also italicize Level 3 and Level 5 headings. Create heading styles using your word-processing program (built into AcademicWriter, available for Word via the sample papers on the APA Style website).

Tables and figures setup

Tables and figures are only included in student papers if needed for the assignment. Tables and figures share the same elements and layout. See the website for sample tables and sample figures .

Table elements

Tables include the following four elements: 

• Body (rows and columns)
• Note (optional if needed to explain elements in the table)

Figure elements

Figures include the following four elements: 

• Image (chart, graph, etc.)
• Note (optional if needed to explain elements in the figure)

Table line spacing

Double-space the table number and title. Single-, 1.5-, or double-space the table body (adjust as needed for readability). Double-space the table note.

Figure line spacing

Double-space the figure number and title. The default settings for spacing in figure images is usually acceptable (but adjust the spacing as needed for readability). Double-space the figure note.

Table alignment

Left-align the table number and title. Center column headings. Left-align the table itself and left-align the leftmost (stub) column. Center data in the table body if it is short or left-align the data if it is long. Left-align the table note.

Figure alignment

Left-align the figure number and title. Left-align the whole figure image. The default alignment of the program in which you created your figure is usually acceptable for axis titles and data labels. Left-align the figure note.

Bold the table number. Italicize the table title. Use the same font and font size in the table body as the text of your paper. Italicize the word “Note” at the start of the table note. Write the note in the same font and font size as the text of your paper.

Figure font

Bold the figure number. Italicize the figure title. Use a sans serif font (e.g., Calibri, Arial) in the figure image in a size between 8 to 14 points. Italicize the word “Note” at the start of the figure note. Write the note in the same font and font size as the text of your paper.

Placement of tables and figures

There are two options for the placement of tables and figures in an APA Style paper. The first option is to place all tables and figures on separate pages after the reference list. The second option is to embed each table and figure within the text after its first callout. This guide describes options for the placement of tables and figures embedded in the text. If your instructor requires tables and figures to be placed at the end of the paper, see the table and figure guidelines and the sample professional paper .

Call out (mention) the table or figure in the text before embedding it (e.g., write “see Figure 1” or “Table 1 presents”). You can place the table or figure after the callout either at the bottom of the page, at the top of the next page, or by itself on the next page. Avoid placing tables and figures in the middle of the page.

Embedding at the bottom of the page

Include a callout to the table or figure in the text before that table or figure. Add a blank double-spaced line between the text and the table or figure at the bottom of the page.

Embedding at the top of the page

Include a callout to the table in the text on the previous page before that table or figure. The table or figure then appears at the top of the next page. Add a blank double-spaced line between the end of the table or figure and the text that follows.

Embedding on its own page

Embed long tables or large figures on their own page if needed. The text continues on the next page.

Reference list setup

Reference list elements.

The reference list consists of the “References” section label and the alphabetical list of references. View reference examples on the APA Style website. Consult Chapter 10 in both the Concise Guide and Publication Manual for even more examples.

Reference list line spacing

Start the reference list at the top of a new page after the text. Double-space the entire reference list (both within and between entries).

Reference list alignment

Center the “References” label. Apply a hanging indent of 0.5-in. to all reference list entries. Create the hanging indent using your word-processing program; do not manually hit the enter and tab keys.

Reference list font

Bold the “References” label at the top of the first page of references. Use italics within reference list entries on either the title (e.g., webpages, books, reports) or on the source (e.g., journal articles, edited book chapters).

Final checks

Check page order.

• Start each section on a new page.
• Arrange pages in the following order:
• Title page (page 1).
• Text (starts on page 2).
• Reference list (starts on a new page after the text).

Check headings

• Check that headings accurately reflect the content in each section.
• Start each main section with a Level 1 heading.
• Use Level 2 headings for subsections of the introduction.
• Use the same level of heading for sections of equal importance.
• Avoid having only one subsection within a section (have two or more, or none).

Check assignment instructions

• Remember that instructors’ guidelines supersede APA Style.
• Students should check their assignment guidelines or rubric for specific content to include in their papers and to make sure they are meeting assignment requirements.

Tips for better writing

• Ask for feedback on your paper from a classmate, writing center tutor, or instructor.
• Budget time to implement suggestions.
• Use spell-check and grammar-check to identify potential errors, and then manually check those flagged.
• Proofread the paper by reading it slowly and carefully aloud to yourself.
• Consult your university writing center if you need extra help.

About the author

Undergraduate student resources

Paper Format

Consistency in the order, structure, and format of a paper allows readers to focus on a paper’s content rather than its presentation.

To format a paper in APA Style, writers can typically use the default settings and automatic formatting tools of their word-processing program or make only minor adjustments.

The guidelines for paper format apply to both student assignments and manuscripts being submitted for publication to a journal. If you are using APA Style to create another kind of work (e.g., a website, conference poster, or PowerPoint presentation), you may need to format your work differently in order to optimize its presentation, for example, by using different line spacing and font sizes. Follow the guidelines of your institution or publisher to adapt APA Style formatting guidelines as needed.

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Course Adoption

Teaching APA Style? Become a course adopter of the 7th edition Publication Manual

Instructional Aids

Guides, checklists, webinars, tutorials, and sample papers for anyone looking to improve their knowledge of APA Style

Turabian Style

• Cite: Why? When?
• Books or Ebooks
• Theses and Manuscripts
• Reference and Sacred Works
• Audio/Visual
• Government Documents
• Music Resources
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) Tools

Format Your Paper

• Shortened Notes

Turabian Paper Examples

• Turabian Paper Example
• Turabian Annotated Bibliography Example
• Chicago Paper Example (Purdue Owl)

Formatting Guidelines

Margins (a.1.1).

• Paper size - 8 1/2 x 11 inches
• 1 inch at top, bottom, and both sides

Font (A.1.2)

• Use easy to read font, such as Times New Roman
• 12-point font size

Spacing and Indentation (A.1.3)

• Block quotations
• Table elements (titles and captions)
• Lists in appendixes
• Footnotes/endnotes and bibliography lists are single-spaced but with a blank line between items.

Pagination  (A.1.4)

• Do not number the title page
• Page numbers start on the first page of the text using arabic numbers
• Can be placed in the center or right side of top or bottom of the paper

Title Page (A.1.5)

• Center all elements on the page
• Font size can increase slightly for the title.
• Preferred format is  boldface  for  title          
• Title placed approximately 1/3 down page.
• Two-thirds down page place name, class title, and date

Text  (A.2.2)

• Align the text to the left with a 1/2-inch left indent
• Double-space
• Include sections:  introduction, chapters/sections , and conclusion
• Spell out long organization names and add the abbreviation in parenthesis, then just use the abbreviation
• Write out numbers up to nine and use a number for 10 or more
• Use a number for units of measurement, in tables, to represent statistical or math functions, and dates or times
• Capitalize major words in the titles of books and articles

Bibliography  (A.2.3.5)

Begins on a new page following the text of your paper and includes complete citations for the resources you've used in your writing.

• Center "Bibliography" at the top of the new page, leaving two spaces between title and first entry
• Single-space and use hanging indents (where the first line is on the left margin and the following lines are indented a half inch from the left)
• List authors' last name first followed by the first and middle initials (ex. Skinner, B.F.) t
• Alphabetize the list by the first author's last name of of each citation, hen alphabetically by title if you list multiple works by one author. 
• Add full-sentence annotations on a new line indented from the left margin.
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Academic Appeal: The 11 Best Fonts for Academic Papers

• BY Bogdan Sandu
• 26 February 2024

Imagine settling into the rhythm of crafting your academic magnum opus—the words flow, ideas chime, yet it all hinges on how your prose meets the reader’s eye. You’re well aware that  the best fonts for academic papers  don’t just whisper to the intellect; they shout to the discerning critic in each evaluator. Here unfolds a narrative, not merely of  typography  but your academic saga’s silent ambassador.

In forging this guide, I’ve honed focus on one pivotal, often underestimated player in the academic arena:  font selection .

Navigate through this roadmap and emerge with a treasure trove of  legible typefaces  and format tips that ensure your paper stands hallmark to clarity and professionalism.

Absorb insights—from the revered  Times New Roman  to the understated elegance of  Arial —paired with indispensable  formatting nuggets  that transcend mere compliance with  university guidelines .

Dive deep, and by article’s end, unlock a dossier of sage advice, setting your documents a class apart in the scrutinous world of academic scrutiny. Here’s to  typography  serving not just as a vessel but as your ally in the scholarly discourse.

The Best Fonts for Academic Papers

Traditional Choices and Their Limitations

Times new roman : ubiquity and readability vs. overuse.

Cambria : Designed for readability on screen, good for electronic submissions

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

APA Sample Paper

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style  can be found here .

Media Files: APA Sample Student Paper  ,  APA Sample Professional Paper

This resource is enhanced by Acrobat PDF files. Download the free Acrobat Reader

Note: The APA Publication Manual, 7 th Edition specifies different formatting conventions for student  and  professional  papers (i.e., papers written for credit in a course and papers intended for scholarly publication). These differences mostly extend to the title page and running head. Crucially, citation practices do not differ between the two styles of paper.

However, for your convenience, we have provided two versions of our APA 7 sample paper below: one in  student style and one in  professional  style.

Note: For accessibility purposes, we have used "Track Changes" to make comments along the margins of these samples. Those authored by [AF] denote explanations of formatting and [AWC] denote directions for writing and citing in APA 7. 

APA 7 Student Paper:

Apa 7 professional paper:.

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Best Research Paper Font and Size: Best Styles for an Essay

The Best Word Font in Research Paper

As you edit and polish your research paper, you should know the suitable font when formatting. Many students struggle to locate suitable fonts that are appropriate for academia. Thankfully, most of the writing styles such as APA or MLA end this frustration by indicating the right fonts to use in your work.

Many instructors indicate the type of fonts students should use in their assignments. That is because some fonts are large hence prompting one to use more pages than indicated in the instructions section.

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Best Font for Research Paper

The choice of fonts can affect your academic writing work. The right font should make your work remain credible and professional. Dressing your work with the right fonts is procuring a suitable image.

Ideally, the best font for a research paper is the Times New Roman as it is clear and most requested by university and college faculties. Other common ones are the Arial and Calibri fonts, which are preferred because of their large size compared with New Times Roman.

Some fonts can be attractive but hard to read because they have several curls and curves.

When handling research work, use the correct font which has enough allowance between letters to avoid overcrowding.

The professional fonts should be easy to read. The good news for you is that Times New Roman is a popular choice for academic documents.

It is the safest option because most examiners are comfortable with it. Notably, New Times Roman has sound APA support.

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Best Font Size for Research Paper

The best font size for a research paper is point 12. This size is the most common ones, especially for New Times Roman, Arial or Calibri fonts. Basically, the size of the fonts should make your work to be readable without straining the audience. We measure size using ‘points’.

Most academic research papers use MLA, APA, and Harvard references and formats.

The point is a percentage of the screen that the font is occupying. For academic papers, the recommended size is 12 points. It is the most comfortable size for the audience without looking oversized or bulky.

 The font size plays a critical role in making your research work impressive and appealing.

The writer should use the official font size when submitting the project.

This size is key when you want to determine the number of pages that your project should carry.

We use font 12 to calculate and know the number of pages the entire work will have to avoid going beyond or under the given guideline.

If you use a different font size, you may exceed or hit below the word count leading to disqualification or any other penalty as the lecturer may decide.

Commonly Used Fonts for Academic Work

Different writing styles recommend certain fonts for students to use while tackling academic work. Some of them are as follows:

Times New Roman

Times New Roman has an authoritative look and feel. It became into practice in 1932 to enhance the legibility and economy of space. This Times New Roman has a narrow printing point that is easily readable.

Arial has been the most used font for the past thirty years. One of the characteristics of Arial fonts is that they have rounded faces. Furthermore, the edges of the letters do not manifest in the horizontal line. Instead, these edges are at an angle.

Besides, this font is easy to read whether used in both large and small blocks. It is a perfect format that one can use in academic work.

Calibri is a humanist font with variable strokes and designs. It is a pretty-looking font suitable for large displays such as presentations.

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Factors Determining the Font and Size for Academic Writing

1. teachers instructions.

When you receive your essay assignment, peruse through and find the preferred font type and size. Some professors are comfortable with particular fonts.

The professor will indicate the preferred font for your work. You can begin by writing and polishing your work with your font and size and later format it according to instructions.

Most academic papers target certain pages of the assignments.

For example, when the instructions demand that you use Times New Roman, you should stick to that for you to produce the right number of pages as guided by the instructions.

Teachers know that when you use a particular font and size for your research, you will produce the correct quantity after researching.

2. Your Eye Ability

One will feel comfortable when using certain fonts than others. Reading and writing while you are straining your eyes to see your work can be disastrous. The cool thing is you can settle for the fonts that can make your eye enjoy beholding your work.

Several fonts exist to use for your work without straining your eyes. However, you should ensure that you settle for the right font when formatting your final documents.

For example, some fonts have curls or curves that make affect the readability of your work. Such can make your professor respond unkindly.

If the professor did not offer guidance to you, then you can use the correct font according to the writing styles recommendations.

3. Teacher’s Font Preference and Eye Abilities

A teacher may instruct that you use certain fonts when submitting your project work. More importantly, even if it is not your favorite font to use, you should stick to the instructions and complete your work as guided.  

We have varying eye abilities. Some are comfortable and safe to use a particular font like Arial because they do not strain the eyes while using it. Some fonts are not friendly to some people when working, making your entire writing experience to be hostile.

If you can work well with 12 point font size, well and good. In case the lecturer wants point size 10, use a comfortable font during your writing and editing process then change it to the recommended size before submitting.

4. Type of the Academic work, Essays vs Graphics

The type of academic work dictates the type of font to use for effective delivery. If you are writing an essay, you should use the recommended fonts and sizes as per the writing styles. These styles are MLA, APA, and so on.

You should not use any font which is not official to any writing style. If unsure, it is sensible to consult your instructor and remain on the correct track.

On the other hand, you should also use the correct font when you are working with graphics in your academic projects.

Just like essays, the graphics also have official fonts that students should use when designing and captioning them. Sticking to the rules makes your work hold a professional appeal.

Graphics are the perfect ways of presenting information to make readers create the right perceptions at a glance. Luckily, you should caption them with the recommended fonts and sizes for better delivery.

5. Personal Preference

What appeals to one writer differs from what makes a different writer excited and comfortable. What does that mean? Different writers have varying impressions about what fonts and sizes work for them.

If the instructions for your projects are open to allow you to use multiple fonts from the given list, you should settle for your favorite from the list.

That implies that the instructor may be marking papers that will come with varying font types according to the writer’s preference from the given list of options.

6. Readability

There is no secret in this. Some fonts are more readable than others.

For example, when you are using Times New Roman as your favorite font, it will consume less space but score high on legibility.

Remember, a readable document is an attractive document. Do not compromise on this. Use the right font that is legible and easy to read.

Based on the recommended fonts for particular styles, choose the one that looks more attractive.

Check out our tips on how to name a research paper for more guidance on how to prepare your paper before submitting it. This may improve the clarity of your file and promote grading.

When not handling complex essays and academic writing tasks, Josh is busy advising students on how to pass assignments. In spare time, he loves playing football or walking with his dog around the park.

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KU Thesis and Dissertation Formatting: Fonts and Spacing

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Office of Graduate Studies Thesis and Dissertation Formatting Guidelines

These rules are taken from the KU Office of Graduate Studies Thesis or Dissertation Formatting Guidelines. To see the full thesis or dissertation formatting requirements, visit https://graduate.ku.edu/submitting

• Students should use the same font size (11- or 12-point) and style (typically Times New Roman) through the thesis, including labels and references.
• Tables, captions, and footnotes should use the same font style but may be smaller in size (usually 10-point).
• Chapter and section headings may be bold and no more than 2 points larger than the text size.
• Non-standard typefaces, such as script, are generally not acceptable except for commonly used symbols.
• The Office of Graduate Studies recommends that students get their font choice approved by their department and their graduate division before the thesis defense.
• Lettering and symbols in tables and figures should be no less than 10 points.
• Normally theses and dissertations use double-spaced formatting.
• Single-spaced formatting is acceptable in the table of contents, footnotes, end notes, charts, graphs, tables, block quotations, captions, glossary, appendices and bibliography.
• Students may use singe- or one-and-a-half-spacing for the body of the text with prior written approval of their thesis committee and graduate division.

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Top Research Papers: The Essential Guide To Writing Research Papers

When it comes to presentation and how things look, the small details matter. A stain on a candidate’s suit at a job interview could be what the manager remembers when she’s making her final decision. Mismatched drawer handles in a kitchen remodel could be the reason why a couple doesn’t recommend the contractor to their friends. In the same way small details of presentation will impact on how well your research paper is received. Even font size. But how can you make sure your work is always received well?

What Font Size Should You Use In Research Papers?

In academic work, the standard and most widely accepted font is Times New Roman 12-point font size. But your most important consideration for presentation should be any standards or guidelines you have been given by your institution. Follow these rules, know your citation style, spend time perfecting your presentation and always ask someone to look over your work. An editor or proofreader, such as those at r3ciprocity.com , may catch mistakes you have missed.

Follow The Rules

Your research might be innovative and creative but the way you present it in your research paper shouldn’t be. When it comes to citation style guides and any guidelines given to you by your university you need to be a boring rule-follower. Bending, stretching or just plain breaking the rules when it comes to things like references, layout and word count is a big no. It gives the impression that you are someone who cannot follow instructions or work within limitations and will distract from the content of your paper.

The first step in following the rules is knowing exactly what they are. Dig out any information you have been given on this topic. Search your university portal, journal website, or relevant website. Do not make assumptions or guess. Unless you are 100% sure that you know what is expected of you then ask. Ask friends or peers who are also submitting research papers. Ask your advisor. It is worth a moment of awkwardness to avoid missing some vital piece of information.

A big part of what you need to know is which citation style you are expected to use. No one reading your work will be impressed if they told you to use MLA and you are using APA. They will also not be impressed if you use a citation style inaccurately or inconsistently. If it is the first time you are using a particular style then find some examples of it being used correctly and refer to them regularly.

Key Elements of Presentation

Your first point of reference should ALWAYS be any guidelines you have been given but some universal and widely accepted norms for academic work presentation include:

Standard white 8.5 x 11-inch paper

1-inch margins on all sides

Times New Roman 12-point font size

A table of contents and headings/ subheadings to improve readability in papers larger than 5-6 pages. (You may not need to in journal articles)

Clear display of the title, your name and other information such as student ID number or advisor’s name

Page numbers

Perfection Is Your Friend

When actually writing the content of your research paper, perfection is your enemy. Any attempt to try and make your work perfect will most likely hinder progress and cause you to overthink. But, when the words are written and it is time to prepare your work for submission, perfection is your friend.

Nothing in this world will ever truly be perfect. Your research paper will never be perfect. But with care, consideration and time you can ensure that your paper adheres exactly to any requirements and citation styles you have been given. Perfection in the presentation of academic work is ticking all the boxes of what your reader wants to see. And that is something you can do. You can make sure that your title page, in text citations and bibliography are all formatted in the expected way. You can check and double check every full stop, page number and indent.

Why go to all this extra effort? Because your research is the point of your research paper and you want nothing to distract or frustrate your reader. Well-presented and formatted work is easier to read and navigate. It makes both the research and you as the researcher appear more professional.

What Not To Do

A well-presented research paper will often impress anyone who reads it. But, unfortunately, the opposite is also true. A badly presented research paper will not be received well, even if the actual ideas and work it contains are extraordinary.

A major mistake in research paper presentation is not citing sources correctly. Your research, no matter what the subject, will mention the ideas, writings and work of others. All of these sources need to be properly referenced in the format expected by your citation style. Not doing so will always make your work look unprofessional and in some cases may lead to concerns about plagiarism.

Not sticking to the word limit for your research paper is another common mistake. By greatly exceeding your word limit or failing to reach it you give the impression that you don’t know how to follow guidelines or work within limitations. Sometimes you will have a word limit with acceptable boundaries, for example 5000 words plus or minus 10%. If you have been given a boundary your word count needs to be within it, between 4500 and 5500 words for the example. If you are not given a boundary then stay as close to the given word count as you can and make sure you do not go more than 10% over or under.

Yet another big mistake is submitting a research paper that no one else has read. When you read your own work you will quite often miss small mistakes, reading what you think it should say rather than what is actually on the page. Then you submit an important paper with disordered grammar, spelling mistakes and an unfinished paragraph you forgot about. Don’t let this happen – find someone to read your work before you submit it.

Affordable Proofreading / Editing

A proofreader or editor is someone who reads the work of someone else and suggests changes to make the writing better. This could be a friend, flatmate, classmate, colleague or family member. They do not have to be an expert in your subject or necessarily understand all the concepts you are writing about. All they need to do is read your work and highlight any mistakes or areas that could be improved.

Another option for help improving your writing is r3ciprocity.com . We are a unique online platform that connects editors with people who need an editor to look over their work.

Simply create an account, buy some credits and upload your work. Within a few days it will be sent back to you edited by another member of the r3ciprocity.com platform. All editors have been approved by r3ciprocity.com admin and consistently provide high quality editing for their peers. Go to How To Get Feedback On Your Writing On R3ciprocity.com for more details on uploading your work to be edited.

We are always looking for more r3ciprocity.com editors. If you think you have what it takes to help others improve their writing then go to How Do You Perform A Test Review on R3ciprocity? for a step-by-step guide to starting the process.

Once you are approved as a r3ciprocity.com editor you will earn credits for editing the work of others. These credits can be used to get free editing of your own work through the platform. This is the reciprocity of r3ciprocity.com . Credits can also be saved up and transferred into real money.

More from the r3ciprocity blog:

• How To Get Started As a Proofreader (And Earn Some Money Doing It)
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• How To Find Research Topics (During Your PhD)

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Font To Choose for Your Research Paper: Best Font for Essays

We’ve all, at some time in our lives, pondered the question of how to create an essay that gets good grades. You may find millions of instructions that will walk you through the process of writing an excellent essay by doing a simple search on Google or pay for research paper . However, a lot of individuals neglect to think about typefaces. In addition to learning how to acquire material and present it in an organized manner, students should also be taught how to style their written assignments, such as essays. When it concerns font for essay , typefaces are also a very important factor.

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What About the Font Size?

When it comes to standard font size for essays, it’s usually 12 or 14. But 12 is usually recommended font size for college papers. New Times Roman, Arial, and Calibri are most often seen in this size. The typefaces you choose should be large enough so that your work can be read without putting undue strain on the eyes of the reader. Points are the standard unit of measurement for distances. MLA, American Psychological Association, and Harvard are the most used citation styles and conventions for scientific research publications. The value indicates the proportion of the display that the typeface uses.

Generally, 12 points are considered the minimum acceptable size for academic writing. Size-wise, it’s ideal for the target demographic without seeming too big or cumbersome. The text size you choose for your research paper is crucial in letting it seem professional and attractive. When completing the assignment, the author should utilize the prescribed font size. In figuring out how many webs pages your work needs, this aspect ratio is crucial. To ensure that we don’t go over or under the page count for the whole project, we’ve been using a font size of 12 to do the calculations.

Wensley Modern Serif Font Family

This one is a standard essay font that people use nowadays. Wensley is a contemporary serif font design that is widely used by undergraduates in a variety of educational institutions. This is the ideal look to go for if you wish to give off an air of sophistication and competence to your teachers, which is exactly what you should strive for. This typeface supports a variety of non-English letters, making it suitable for use in any language.

Serif Or Sans Serif, That’s Always A Dilemma

Serif and Sans Serif are always in sort of a rivalry within academic fonts. When deciding whether to choose one of them for your study, the level of formality of the document and the environment in which it will be presented are the two most important factors to consider. The informality of sans serif typefaces makes them a good choice for casual presentations, while the beauty of serif fonts makes them a good choice for more official scholarly articles. It is often advised to choose a sans serif since it is more readable and less tiresome to write on a pc screen. If we are thinking about the place it will be released, we should take this into consideration.

The majority of analyses and publications, regardless of the publication venue in which they appear, benefit from having either serif or sans serif font for college essay included in the same document. The headlines or restricted quotations in a piece of writing will often benefit link from using one style, whereas the main section of the text may benefit from using the other.

Our further font research leads us to Calibri. The popularity of this typeface is comparable to that of the font Times New Roman. In addition to that, Calibri is a Sans typeface. There are a number of advantages to using this font, including the fact that it is not unusual, that it is simple to read, that it is user-friendly for cell devices, and many more. It is one of the safest options for some of the best research paper writing services too. However, this does not always imply that every aspect of this typeface has solely positive qualities. The fact that it is easy to forget about and not particularly thrilling is another one of its many drawbacks. On the other hand, it is commonly used by electronic firms who are responsible for the creation of websites.

Times New Roman

If you ask any best essay writer service which font is the most appropriate to choose, he or she will pick Times New Roman. The Times of London, a magazine published in the United Kingdom, is where this typeface got its name. A new font was commissioned to be designed by the Times in 1929 by typographer Stanley Morison. He was in charge of leading the project, while Victor Lardent, an advertisement designer for the Times, was the one who designed the letterings under his supervision.

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Creating an essay for high school or university requires the student to pay attention to numerous details. Among the most crucial aspects of an excellent college essay are its subject, structure, substance, trustworthiness of resources, the writer’s voice, simplicity of ideas, and continuity of views. There is, nevertheless, a factor that many university learners grossly undervalue. Making sure you choose a legible typeface is just as important as providing a well-thought-out argument throughout your academic paper.

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Title: gpt-4 technical report.

Abstract: We report the development of GPT-4, a large-scale, multimodal model which can accept image and text inputs and produce text outputs. While less capable than humans in many real-world scenarios, GPT-4 exhibits human-level performance on various professional and academic benchmarks, including passing a simulated bar exam with a score around the top 10% of test takers. GPT-4 is a Transformer-based model pre-trained to predict the next token in a document. The post-training alignment process results in improved performance on measures of factuality and adherence to desired behavior. A core component of this project was developing infrastructure and optimization methods that behave predictably across a wide range of scales. This allowed us to accurately predict some aspects of GPT-4's performance based on models trained with no more than 1/1,000th the compute of GPT-4.

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AI image misinformation has surged, Google researchers find

Fake images generated by artificial intelligence have proliferated so quickly that they’re now nearly as common as those manipulated by text or traditional editing tools like Photoshop, according to researchers at Google and several fact-checking organizations.

The findings offer an indication of just how quickly the technology has been embraced by people seeking to spread false information. But researchers warned that AI is still just one way in which pictures are used to mislead the public — the most common continues to be real images taken out of context.

In a paper released online this month but not yet peer-reviewed, the researchers tracked misinformation trends by analyzing nearly 136,000 fact-checks dating back to 1995, with the majority of them published after 2016 and ending in November 2023. They found that AI accounted for very little image-based misinformation until spring of 2023, right around when fake photos of Pope Francis in a puffer coat went viral.

“The sudden prominence of AI-generated content in fact checked misinformation claims suggests a rapidly changing landscape,” the researchers wrote.

The lead researchers and representatives for Google did not comment in time for publication.

Alexios Mantzarlis, who first flagged and reviewed the latest research in his newsletter, Faked Up , said the democratization of generative AI tools has made it easy for almost anyone to spread false information online.

“We go through waves of technological advancements that shock us in their capacity to manipulate and alter reality, and we are going through one now,” said Mantzarlis, who is the director of the Security, Trust, and Safety Initiative at Cornell Tech, Cornell University’s graduate campus in New York City. “The question is, how quickly can we adapt? And then, what safeguards can we put in place to avoid their harms?”

We go through waves of technological advancements that shock us in their capacity to manipulate and alter reality, and we are going through one now.

-Alexios Mantzarlis, director of the Security, Trust, and Safety Initiative at Cornell Tech

The researchers found that about 80% of fact-checked misinformation claims involve media such as images and video, with video increasingly dominating those claims since 2022.

Even with AI, the study found that real images paired with false claims about what they depict or imply continue to spread without the need for AI or even photo-editing. 

“While AI-generated images did not cause content manipulations to overtake context manipulations, our data collection ended in late 2023 and this may have changed since,” the researchers wrote. “Regardless, generative-AI images are now a sizable fraction of all misinformation-associated images.”

Text is also a component in about 80% of all image-based misinformation, most commonly seen in screenshots.

“We were surprised to note that such cases comprise the majority of context manipulations,” the paper stated. “These images are highly shareable on social media platforms, as they don’t require that the individual sharing them replicate the false context claim themselves: they’re embedded in the image.”

Cayce Myers, a public relations professor and graduate studies director at Virginia Tech’s School of Communication, said context manipulations can be even harder to detect than AI-generated images because they already look authentic.

“In that sense, that’s a much more insidious problem,” Myers, who reviewed the recent findings prior to being interviewed, said. “Because if you have, let’s say, a totally AI-generated image that someone can look at and say, ‘That doesn’t look quite right,’ that’s a lot different than seeing an actual image that is captioned in a way that is misrepresenting what the image is of.”

Even AI-based misinformation, however, is quickly growing harder to detect as technology advances. Myers said traditional hallmarks of an AI-generated image — abnormalities such as misshapen hands, garbled text or a dog with five legs — have diminished “tremendously” since these tools first became widespread.

Earlier this month, during the Met Gala, two viral AI-generated images of Katy Perry (who wasn’t at the event) looked so realistic at first glance that even her mom mistakenly thought the singer was in attendance.

And while the study stated AI models aren’t typically trained to generate images like screenshots and memes, it’s possible they will quickly learn to reliably produce those types of images as new iterations of advanced language models continue to roll out.

To reliably distinguish misinformation as AI tools grow more sophisticated, Mantzarlis said people will have to learn to question the content’s source or distributor rather than the visuals themselves.

“The content alone is no longer going to be sufficient for us to make an assessment of truthfulness of trustworthiness veracity,” Mantzarlis said. “I think you need to have the full context: Who shared it with you? How was it shared? How do you know it was them?”

But the study noted that relying solely on fact-checked claims doesn’t capture the whole scope of misinformation out there, as it’s often the images that go viral that end up being fact checked. It also relied only on misinformation claims made in English. This leaves out many lesser-viewed or non-English pieces of misinformation that float unchecked in the wild.

Still, Mantzarlis said he believes the study reflects a “good sample” of English-language misinformation cases online, particularly those that have reached a substantial enough audience for fact-checkers to take notice.

For Myers, the bigger limitation affecting any study on disinformation — especially in the age of AI — will be the fast-changing nature of the disinformation itself.

“The problem for people who are looking at how to get a handle on disinformation is that it’s an evolving technological reality,” Myers said. “And capturing that is difficult, because what you study in May of 2024 may already be a very different reality in June of 2024.”

Angela Yang is a culture and trends reporter for NBC News.

• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

Eligibility exclusion reasons are not mutually exclusive. DSMB, indicates data and safety monitoring board; ITT, intent-to-treat, and mITT, modified intent-to-treat.

Dashed line on the left marks the end of the 15-day treatment period, and on the right, it marks the 10-week primary end point. NMV/r indicates nirmatrelvir-ritonavir, and PBO/r, placebo-ritonavir.

Likert plots depict the distribution of PGIS (A) and PGIC (B) scores at each week, by treatment group. NMV/r indicates nirmatrelvir-ritonavir; PBO/r, placebo-ritonavir; PGIC, Patient Global Impression of Change; and PGIS, Patient Global Impression of Severity.

Trial Protocol

Statistical Plan

eFigure 1. Trial schematic

eFigure 2. Stool RT-PCR on baseline samples

eFigure 3. Forest plots of core symptoms severity at different time points

eFigure 4. Forest plots of expanded symptoms severity at different time points

eFigure 5. Density plots of summative severity scores for core symptoms at 5, 10, and 15 weeks by group

eFigure 6. Mean core symptoms severity score over time by group

eFigure 7. Heatmaps of raw severity scores for each core symptom over time

eFigure 8. Heatmaps of change from baseline severity for each core symptom over time

eFigure 9. Percentage of participants experiencing aes for each system organ class by severity and group

eTable 1. Additional secondary outcomes

eTable 2. Post-hoc subgroup analyses for select outcomes

eReferences

Data Sharing Statement

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Geng LN , Bonilla H , Hedlin H, et al. Nirmatrelvir-Ritonavir and Symptoms in Adults With Postacute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infection : The STOP-PASC Randomized Clinical Trial . JAMA Intern Med. Published online June 07, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2024.2007

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Nirmatrelvir-Ritonavir and Symptoms in Adults With Postacute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infection : The STOP-PASC Randomized Clinical Trial

• 1 Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
• 2 Kaiser Permanente Northern California Division of Research, Oakland
• 3 Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California
• 4 Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
• 5 Stanford University, Stanford, California
• 6 Pfizer Research and Development, Pfizer Inc, Cambridge, Massachusetts
• 7 Clinical Research Collaborations COE, Worldwide Medical and Safety, Pfizer Inc, Groton, Connecticut
• 8 Strategic Planning, Worldwide Medical and Safety, Pfizer Inc, New York, New York
• 9 Institute for Immunity, Transplantation and Infection, Stanford University, Stanford, California
• 10 Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California

Question   What is the efficacy of 15 days of nirmatrelvir-ritonavir for improving select symptoms of postacute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC)?

Findings   This randomized clinical trial including 155 participants with PASC symptoms (≥3 months’ duration) found that a 15-day course of nirmatrelvir-ritonavir in a mostly vaccinated study cohort was generally safe, but did not show significant benefit in improving fatigue, brain fog, body aches, cardiovascular symptoms, shortness of breath, or gastrointestinal symptoms.

Meaning   These findings indicate that further studies are needed to determine the role of antivirals in the treatment of PASC.

Importance   There is an urgent need to identify treatments for postacute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC).

Objective   To assess the efficacy of a 15-day course of nirmatrelvir-ritonavir in reducing the severity of select PASC symptoms.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This was a 15-week blinded, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial conducted from November 2022 to September 2023 at Stanford University (California). The participants were adults with moderate to severe PASC symptoms of 3 months or longer duration.

Interventions   Participants were randomized 2:1 to treatment with oral nirmatrelvir-ritonavir (NMV/r, 300 mg and 100 mg) or with placebo-ritonavir (PBO/r) twice daily for 15 days.

Main Outcomes and Measures   Primary outcome was a pooled severity of 6 PASC symptoms (fatigue, brain fog, shortness of breath, body aches, gastrointestinal symptoms, and cardiovascular symptoms) based on a Likert scale score at 10 weeks. Secondary outcomes included symptom severity at different time points, symptom burden and relief, patient global measures, Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) measures, orthostatic vital signs, and sit-to-stand test change from baseline.

Results   Of the 155 participants (median [IQR] age, 43 [34-54] years; 92 [59%] females), 102 were randomized to the NMV/r group and 53 to the PBO/r group. Nearly all participants (n = 153) had received the primary series for COVID-19 vaccination. Mean (SD) time between index SARS-CoV-2 infection and randomization was 17.5 (9.1) months. There was no statistically significant difference in the model-derived severity outcome pooled across the 6 core symptoms at 10 weeks between the NMV/r and PBO/r groups. No statistically significant between-group differences were found at 10 weeks in the Patient Global Impression of Severity or Patient Global Impression of Change scores, summative symptom scores, and change from baseline to 10 weeks in PROMIS fatigue, dyspnea, cognitive function, and physical function measures. Adverse event rates were similar in NMV/r and PBO/r groups and mostly of low grade.

Conclusions and Relevance   The results of this randomized clinical trial showed that a 15-day course of NMV/r in a population of patients with PASC was generally safe but did not demonstrate a significant benefit for improving select PASC symptoms in a mostly vaccinated cohort with protracted symptom duration. Further studies are needed to determine the role of antivirals in the treatment of PASC.

Trial Registration   ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05576662

Postacute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC), also known as long COVID or post−COVID-19 condition , has affected millions of people worldwide and encompasses a variety of conditions and symptoms that can persist months to years with impact on quality of life and function. 1 - 6 Evolving definitions, growing mechanistic understanding, and clinical heterogeneity present challenges to the diagnosis and treatment of PASC. 7 - 9 There is an urgent need for evidence-based treatments for PASC but currently a paucity of published trials testing interventions that target underlying pathophysiology. 10 - 13

SARS-CoV-2 virus or viral particle persistence is one of several proposed casual mechanisms for PASC. 14 - 17 Prolonged SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA shedding for months in the upper respiratory tract and in the stool has been observed. 18 - 21 Although no reservoir of live replicating virus has been identified in individuals with PASC, SARS-CoV-2 RNA and/or protein has been found to persist in various tissues such as blood, 22 - 24 periodontal pockets, 25 gastrointestinal tract, 26 , 27 the central nervous system, 28 and other anatomic sites. 28 - 32 Residual viral presence may trigger ongoing inflammation and immune dysregulation, resulting in a diverse array of symptoms. 17 Thus, antiviral agents against SARS-CoV-2 present a therapeutic avenue for investigation to address a potential root cause of PASC.

Some studies suggest that antivirals such as nirmatrelvir, molnupiravir, and remdesivir taken during the acute infection period may reduce the risk of select post−COVID-19 sequelae, 33 - 36 while others demonstrate mixed results in different cohorts. 37 - 39 Nirmatrelvir is a peptidomimetic inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2 main protease (M pro ) preventing viral replication. Nirmatrelvir, in combination with low-dose ritonavir that slows nirmatrelvir metabolism via inhibition of CYP3A4 (nirmatrelvir-ritonavir), was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of mild to moderate COVID-19 in adults at high risk for progression to severe COVID-19. 40 We and others have reported anecdotal cases of patients with PASC who noted improvement of symptoms after taking nirmatrelvir-ritonavir for SARS-CoV-2 reinfection, 41 , 42 but there are no published randomized clinical trials testing nirmatrelvir-ritonavir for treatment of PASC.

The landscape of PASC research is dynamic. Smaller studies that are more focused and agile can scout the terrain ahead of larger and more definitive studies. The objectives of the Selective Trial of Paxlovid for PASC (STOP-PASC) were to assess the effect of a 15-day course of NMV/r vs PBO/r in improving PASC symptoms and other patient-reported outcomes. The secondary and exploratory objectives were to explore the potential biologic and digital wearable biomarkers of PASC and to collect multidimensional data to inform future research.

This randomized clinical trial was approved by the Stanford Institutional Review Board. All participants gave written informed consent. A Community Advisory Board that included patients with PASC provided input on the study. A data and safety monitoring board provided independent oversight. The study followed the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials ( CONSORT ) guidelines.

STOP-PASC was a double-blind randomized clinical trial to investigate orally administered nirmatrelvir-ritonavir (NMV/r) compared with placebo-ritonavir (PBO/r) in outpatient adult participants with PASC of 3 or more months’ duration. The trial was conducted from November 8, 2022, to September 12, 2023, at Stanford University (California). The full trial protocol, statistical plan, and trial schematic are available in Supplements 1 and 2 and in eFigure 1 in Supplement 3 , respectively.

Participant inclusion criteria were being 18 years or older; weight greater than 40 kg; estimated glomerular filtration rate of 60 mL/min or higher; history of confirmed COVID-19 infection from early 2020 to more than 90 days before the end of enrollment; and PASC symptoms, as determined by clinician, persisting more than 90 days after the initial (index) COVID-19 infection and with at least 2 self-reported moderate or severe core symptoms or symptom clusters defined as fatigue, brain fog, body aches, cardiovascular symptoms, shortness of breath, and gastrointestinal symptoms. Key exclusion criteria included pregnancy or breastfeeding, severe liver disease, SARS-CoV-2 infection, and use of SARS-CoV-2−specific treatment within 30 days of randomization, SARS-CoV-2 vaccination within 28 days, or other vaccine within 14 days of randomization, or medications that interact with study drug. Full eligibility criteria are available in Supplement 1 .

Between November 2022 and May 2023, a total of 784 individuals were prescreened of whom 168 proceeded to consent and screening ( Figure 1 ). Eligible participants were randomized 2:1 to NMV/r and PBO/r and included in the intent-to-treat analyses. Enrollment was stopped early in June 2023 when the prespecified threshold for futility had been met (conditional power <10%).

Participants were randomized 2:1 to receive nirmatrelvir, 300 mg, with ritonavir, 100 mg, or placebo with ritonavir, 100 mg, taken orally twice daily for 15 days and followed up until 15 weeks from randomization, stratified by the number of moderate or severe core symptoms (2 or 3 vs >3) and vaccination status (completed primary series vs not completed). 43 Additional details are included in the eMethods in Supplement 3 . A schedule of events, including assessments and procedures, are detailed in Supplement 1 and eFigure 1 in Supplement 3 .

The primary end point was core symptoms severity during the past 7 days based on Likert scale score (where 0 is none, 1 mild, 2 moderate, 3 severe) pooled at 10 weeks postrandomization in participants treated with NMV/r vs PBO/r (eMethods in Supplement 3 ). Core symptoms were selected based on mechanistic rationale, clinical experience, and reported PASC symptoms prevalence and severity. 5 , 44 - 47 A 10-week time point was chosen to assess durability of response to treatment.

Secondary end points included individual core symptom severity at 10 weeks and other time points, proportion of participants reporting relief (defined as reduction of severity from moderate to none or severe to mild or none for at least 1 core symptom) or alleviation (improvement of all core symptoms from none or mild at baseline to none or moderate to severe to none or mild) at 10 weeks, severity of most bothersome symptom, time to relief of each core symptom, change from baseline to 10 weeks in Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) SF v2.0 Physical Function 4a; SF v1.0 Fatigue 7a; SF v1.0 Dyspnea Severity 5a; SF v2.0 Cognitive Abilities 4a scores 48 ; change in orthostatic vital signs (seated and standing blood pressure and heart rate); sit-to-stand test at 10 weeks 49 ; and Patient Global Impression of Severity (PGIS) and Patient Global Impression of Change (PGIC) at day 15, week 5, week 10, and week 15 in NMV/r vs PBO/r groups. 50 Exploratory stool reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was performed on all available baseline samples (eMethods in Supplement 3 ).

The primary analysis followed the intent-to-treat (ITT) principle. Sensitivity analyses were conducted excluding (1) participants with no follow-up (modified ITT) and (2) participants with no follow-up and those taking more than 80% of intervention doses (per protocol).

The primary analysis involved first fitting a proportional odds logistic regression model for severity level of each core symptom at week 10. Each model was adjusted for baseline severity of the corresponding symptom and fit using only participants who experienced the corresponding symptoms at baseline. If participants missed the week-10 survey, their week 9 survey during the week-10 visit window was used for the primary analysis. A test statistic measuring the overall efficacy was calculated as the weighted average of the regression coefficient for the treatment indicator in the proportional odds model for each core symptom with inverse variance weighting. 51 , 52 The P value for testing the overall efficacy was obtained by a nonparametric permutation test.

We initially determined that a sample size of 200 would provide power of at least 77% at the 2-sided significance level of P  = .05 to detect an odds ratio (OR) of 1.6 for having a better Likert scale score at week 10 (NMV/r vs PBO/r) across all 6 core symptoms, assuming 10% attrition. An interim analysis for futility and safety was preplanned after 50% of participants completed week 10 with enrollment to be stopped if conditional power for concluding efficacy was less than 10% assuming that the underlying treatment effect size was the same as that observed in the interim analysis.

Proportional odds models were used to compare ordinal secondary end points. Linear regression was used to compare PGIS, PGIC, PROMIS measures, 1 minute sit-to-stand test, orthostatic vital signs, and the sum of the Likert scale scores for the core symptoms (summative score). Logistic regression was used to compare the probability of experiencing relief and the proportion of weeks with mild or no symptoms. Cox proportional hazards models were used to compare the time to relief of the most bothersome symptom and the core symptoms. Participants who did not experience any relief were right censored at the time of their last observation. We used a cumulative link mixed model with a participant-specific random intercept to compare the trajectory of symptoms between study groups in an exploratory analysis. In a post hoc analysis, we repeated selected analyses (the primary outcome, the proportion of weeks with mild or no symptoms, and PGIC) separately in patients who had their index infection before December 2021 and in patients who were infected later when the Omicron variant was dominant.

All models were adjusted for the stratification factor, ie, the number of moderate to severe core symptoms at baseline (2 or 3 vs >3), except the primary analysis and the proportion of weeks where participants had mild or no symptoms, where we adjusted for baseline severity instead. All tests were performed at the 2-sided .05 significance level. Analyses were performed in R, version 4.2.1 (The Foundation for Statistical Computing). 53

Additional analysis information is included in Supplement 2 and the eMethods in Supplement 3 . Per prespecified analysis plan, P values for secondary and exploratory analyses were not adjusted for multiple comparisons because these end points were intended to provide a global picture of the treatment effect, and therefore, individual secondary outcomes should be interpreted as exploratory given potential inflation for type I error due to multiple comparisons.

Among the 155 participants randomized (median [IQR] age, 43 [34-54] years), there were 92 (59.4%) females and 63 (40.6%) males, with 20 (12.9%) Asian, 3 (1.9%) Black, 19 (12.3%) Hispanic, 1 (1%) Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, 115 (74.2%) White, and 6 (3.9%) participants of more than one race; for 10 participants’ (6.5%) race was unknown. The 2 groups were similar with respect to baseline characteristics ( Table 1 ). The mean (SD) time between index SARS-CoV-2 infection and randomization was 17.5 (9.1) months. Only 1 participant in each group had not received the initial COVID-19 vaccination series. Before enrollment, 41 participants (26.5%) had used SARS-CoV-2 acute antiviral medication including NMV/r ( Table 1 ). The most common PASC symptoms at enrollment were fatigue, reported by all participants, and brain fog, reported by 148 (95.5%). Overall, baseline severity of symptoms similar in both groups with a slightly higher distribution of severity scores for body aches and lower for cardiovascular and gastrointestinal symptoms in NMV/r than in PBO/r groups ( Table 1 ; Figure 2 ). No baseline stool specimens had detectable SARS-CoV-2 RNA (eFigure 2 in Supplement 3 ).

At the 10-week primary end point, 99 of 102 participants in the NMV/r group (97.1%) and 49 of 53 participants in the PBO/r group (92.5%) had primary outcome data available. Considering the 6 core symptoms together (fatigue, brain fog, body aches, cardiovascular symptoms, shortness of breath, gastrointestinal symptoms), there was no statistically significant difference in the pooled symptom severity between NMV/r and PBO/r groups at 10 weeks, adjusted for baseline severity. The 6 core symptoms progressed toward lower severity in both groups ( Table 2 ; Figure 2 ).

Evaluating individual symptoms at different time points during 15 weeks resulted in no consistent patterns to distinguish NMV/r from PBO/r groups (eFigures 3 and 4 in Supplement 3 ). The “most bothersome” core symptoms reported by participants most commonly were fatigue (n = 70; 45.2%) and brain fog (n =38; 24.5%), and there was no significant difference in severity of the most bothersome symptom between the 2 groups at 5 weeks but there were slightly higher odds of a more severe score for those in the NMV/r group compared with those in the PBO/r group at 10 weeks (OR, 1.99; 95% CI, 1.06-3.72; P  = .03) and 15 weeks (OR, 2.42; 95% CI, 1.27-4.60; P  = .01). There were no statistically significant differences in proportion of participants experiencing relief at 5, 10, and 15 weeks; alleviation at 10 weeks; or time to relief of each core symptom and the most bothersome symptom between the 2 groups ( Table 2 ; eTable 1 in Supplement 3 ).

Total summative severity scores for all core symptoms at 5, 10, and 15 weeks were similar between the intervention and control groups (eFigure 5 in Supplement 3 ). Mean severity scores for all core symptoms in both groups generally improved (eFigure 6 in Supplement 3 ); the difference between groups for the change in severity scores across 15 weeks was statistically significant for brain fog only. A post hoc analysis found no statistically significant difference between the 2 groups in the proportion of total postrandomization weeks with mild or no symptoms for each core symptom when adjusted for baseline symptom severity, except for brain fog for which the NMV/r group had decreased odds of experiencing mild or no symptoms ( Table 2 ). Heatmaps of symptom severity scores and change from baseline over time showed week-to-week variability and heterogeneity within both groups (eFigures 7 and 8 in Supplement 3 ).

Changes from baseline in PGIS and PGIC scores at 2, 5, 10, and 15 weeks and PROMIS scales for physical function, fatigue, dyspnea, and cognitive abilities showed no statistically significant between-group difference at 10 weeks ( Table 2 ; Figure 3 ). One minute sit-to-stand test and orthostatic vital signs also showed no significant between-group differences from baseline at 10 weeks (eTable 1 in Supplement 3 ).

Sensitivity analyses excluding participants with no follow-up were similar to the ITT analyses. The results of the subgroup analyses of the pre- and post-Omicron subgroups were similar to the overall results (eTable 2 in Supplement 3 ).

Throughout the 15-week study, 101 of 102 participants (99%) in the NMV/r group and 49 of 53 participants (92.5%) in the PBO/r reported at least 1 adverse event (AE), almost all of which were grade 1 or 2 ( Table 2 ). Four serious AEs were reported: 3 in the NMV/r group (blood loss anemia, forearm fracture, and melanoma), assessed to have been unrelated to intervention; and 1 in the PBO/r group (hepatitis), assessed to have been possibly related to the intervention. The most common AEs reported during the 15-day treatment period were dysgeusia (63 [61.8%] in NMV/r group and 4 [7.5%] in the PBO/r group) and diarrhea (44 [43.1%] in NMV/r group and 19 [35.8%] in the PBO/r group). Six participants (3 [2.9%] in NMV/r group and 3 [5.7%] in PBO/r group) discontinued the intervention due to intolerability or AE. In the NMV/r group, 12 participants (11.8%) and in the PBO/r group, 5 (9.4%) reported COVID-19 reinfections during the study period. One reinfection in the PBO/r group occurred within the first 15 days; all others occurred after the 15-day treatment period. Additional information on AEs is reported in (eFigure 9 in Supplement 3 ).

STOP-PASC is the first randomized clinical trial testing NMV/r for the treatment of PASC, to our knowledge. We found that a 15-day course of NMV/r had a safety profile similar to the 5-day acute treatment course and was generally tolerated; however, when compared to placebo-ritonavir, it did not improve select PASC symptoms (fatigue, brain fog, body aches, cardiovascular symptoms, shortness of breath, and gastrointestinal symptoms) or other health outcomes as measured by the PROMIS scales, global impression scales, and clinical measures of physical function and vital signs. Notably, both the intervention and control groups exhibited improvements in PASC symptoms over time. It is important to underscore that this study alone does not rule out NMV/r as a potential therapy for PASC. There are multiple reasons that would explain why this trial did not detect a benefit for the selected outcomes, and several key themes warrant further discussion to inform future trials in PASC.

PASC is likely not a single entity, and therefore, treatment will likely differ among PASC subtypes. Six core symptoms and symptom clusters were included in this exploratory study, but future trials—especially any smaller studies that are not well powered to detect subgroup differences—may benefit from targeting a specific phenotype. Our study cohort had protracted PASC illness averaging more than 16 months, and antivirals may need to be administered earlier in the illness, before downstream and possibly less reversible adverse effects occur. Our mostly vaccinated outpatient cohort likely differs from unvaccinated and previously hospitalized cohorts that often comprise older patients with multiple comorbidities, ie, risk factors for PASC. 54 - 56

The natural history of PASC is varied and is still under investigation. 57 We found that many participants with PASC in the PBO/r group improved over time, as did a control group in another trial in PASC. 11 Therefore, an effective intervention needs to substantially accelerate that process to see a meaningful difference. There were week-to-week variations in symptoms severity in some participants, consistent with fluctuating patterns that have been described for PASC elsewhere. 58 - 60 The heterogeneity and fluctuations of symptoms severity may mask signals, especially smaller ones. Thus, global trajectory assessments should be considered in addition to individual time points.

To date, there are no validated clinical end points or biomarkers of PASC established for clinical trials, to our knowledge. The symptoms selected for this study were based on mechanistic rationale and prevalence and severity in patients. 5 , 44 - 47 Other symptoms or clinical end points that were not captured in this study may be responsive to the intervention. The PASC symptoms survey developed and used in this study shares similarities with other patient-informed surveys used in clinical practice and by other studies, 46 , 61 , 62 and the findings in this study are consistent across a variety of different measures. With the urgent need to find therapies for PASC, exploratory studies such as ours have pushed forward to simultaneously assess efficacy and safety while investigating biomarkers. We underscore the need to establish validated clinical and biological end points for PASC.

This trial’s results do not reject the hypothesis that viral persistence may lead to PASC but they will help inform further studies in this area. 63 - 67 None of the participant baseline stool specimens had detectable SARS-CoV-2 RNA; other tissues were not assessed. As assays to detect SARS-CoV-2 reservoirs become optimized and validated, they could help to identify individuals who may benefit from antiviral therapy. 17 Longer treatment durations, dose variations, optimal timing, and different phenotypes of PASC should be investigated in larger studies. 63 Additionally, multiple pathways may contribute to PASC pathogenesis; therefore, in addition to testing single therapies, combination therapies (eg, antivirals with immunomodulators) warrant exploration. 13 , 14 Adaptive platform trials would allow randomized controlled comparisons of multiple interventions simultaneously, with the flexibility to adapt key design features of the study in response to accumulating information, thereby maximizing efficiency and prioritizing more promising interventions. 68

The strengths of this study include longitudinal follow-up with a high retention rate and multidimensional data collection with clinical, biospecimen, and digital wearable data that will be integrated in future analyses. The study’s limitations include enrollment at a single academic center, which impacts generalizability, and a smaller sample size than originally planned due to early enrollment closure. The high rate of exclusion due to eligibility criteria, such as drug-drug interaction, also limits generalizability and potentially misses subgroups of patients who could be responders. Although PASC symptoms were assessed as not being attributable to another cause for eligibility, it is still possible that non-PASC factors impacted some participants’ symptoms over the course of the study, which may bias outcomes. Co-interventions, such as concomitant medications, may also influence outcomes. Ritonavir is known to be associated with dysgeusia and was therefore part of the control intervention to minimize unmasking, but the higher rate of dysgeusia reported in the NMV/r group may have impacted self-reported outcomes if unintended unmasking occurred. Severity of the acute COVID-19 infection may impact outcomes and was not captured in depth aside from hospitalization status.

This randomized clinical trial demonstrated the overall safety of a 15-day course of NMV/r in patients with PASC but did not find a significant benefit of this therapy for a subset of PASC symptoms among a mostly vaccinated cohort with prolonged PASC symptoms. Ancillary analyses and evaluation for molecular and digital biomarkers from the STOP-PASC trial are forthcoming. Findings from this and other randomized clinical trials of NMV/r will collectively determine whether this antiviral is beneficial for treating PASC.

Accepted for Publication: March 30, 2024.

Published Online: June 7, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2024.2007

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND License . © 2024 Geng LN et al. JAMA Internal Medicine .

Corresponding Authors: Linda N. Geng, MD, PhD, Standford Medicine, 211 Quarry Rd, Ste 301, Palo Alto, CA 94304 ( [email protected] ); Upinder Singh, MD, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Dr, Grant Building S-143, Stanford, CA 94305 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Drs Geng and Singh had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. Drs Bonilla, Hedlin, and Jacobson contributed equally.

Concept and design: Geng, Bonilla, Hedlin, Jacobson, Jagannathan, Yang, Subramanian, Liang, Desai, Pathak, Banerjee, Lopez, De Jesus, Utz, Singh.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Geng, Bonilla, Hedlin, Jacobson, Tian, Jagannathan, Yang, Subramanian, Liang, Shen, Deng, Shaw, Botzheim, Desai, Jazayeri, Thai, O’Donnell, Mohapatra, Leang, Reynolds, Brooks, Bhatt, Shafer, Miglis, Quach, Tiwari, Lopez, Charnas, Singh.

Drafting of the manuscript: Geng, Bonilla, Hedlin, Jacobson, Tian, Liang, Shaw, Jazayeri, Thai, Reynolds, Brooks, Bhatt, De Jesus, Charnas, Singh.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Geng, Bonilla, Hedlin, Jacobson, Jagannathan, Yang, Subramanian, Liang, Shen, Deng, Shaw, Botzheim, Desai, Pathak, Jazayeri, O’Donnell, Mohapatra, Leang, Shafer, Miglis, Quach, Tiwari, Banerjee, Lopez, De Jesus, Charnas, Utz, Singh.

Statistical analysis: Bonilla, Hedlin, Tian, Liang, Shen, Deng, Shaw, Botzheim, Desai, Reynolds.

Obtained funding: Geng, Charnas, Utz, Singh.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Geng, Jacobson, Jagannathan, Yang, Shaw, Pathak, Jazayeri, O’Donnell, Mohapatra, Leang, Brooks, Shafer, Quach, Banerjee, Lopez, De Jesus, Charnas, Utz, Singh.

Supervision: Geng, Jagannathan, Yang, Subramanian, Thai, Bhatt, De Jesus, Utz, Singh.

Other−literature review: Quach.

Other−development of protocol: De Jesus.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Geng reported grants from Pfizer during the conduct of the study; personal fees from UnitedHealth Group; and grants from the US National Institutes of Health (NIH), and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) outside the submitted work. Dr Bonilla reported grants from Pfizer during the conduct of the study and consulting fees from Resverlogix outside the submitted work. Dr Hedlin reported financial support by Pfizer during the conduct of the study and grants from the NIH outside the submitted work. Dr Jacobson reported grants from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases outside the submitted work. Dr Jagannathan reported grants from Pfizer for an industry-sponsored trial during the conduct of the study. Dr Subramanian reported grants from Moderna outside the submitted work. Dr Botzheim reported grants from Pfizer during the conduct of the study. Dr Desai reported grants from the NIH outside the submitted work. Dr Bhatt reported grants and honorarium from the NIH; grants from Emerson Collective, Stand Up 2 Cancer, Stanford University, and the Paul Allen Foundation; consulting and advisory board membership for Stylus Medicine, Caribou Biosciences, and BiomX outside the submitted work. Dr Shafer reported Speaking honorarium from Gilead, ViiV Healthcare, and advisory fees from GlaxoSmithKline outside the submitted work. Dr Miglis reported consulting/advisory fees from 2nd MD, Alight Health, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, and Pfizer; grants from Dysautonomia International, NIH, Embr Wave, Argenx; and royalty fees from Elsevier outside the submitted work. Dr Banerjee reported equity in Pfizer during the conduct of the study. Dr Utz reported funding including partial salary and financial support of laboratory during the conduct of the study. Dr Singh reported grants from Pfizer during the conduct of the study; grants from the NIH and AHRQ, advisory fees from Gilead and Regeneron for COVID-19 studies outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This study was funded by Pfizer Inc. The Stanford Quantitative Sciences Unit was partially supported by the NIH (grant UL1 TR003142). The Stanford REDCap platform, which was used to conduct the study’s prescreening survey was developed and is operated by the Stanford Medicine Research IT team and is subsidized by the Stanford School of Medicine Research Office, and the NIH’s National Center for Research Resources and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (UL1 TR001085). The Stanford Clinical and Translational Research Unit is supported by the Stanford CTSA Award from the NIH’s National Center for Advancing Translational Science (NIH-NCATS-CTSA grant 5UL1TR003142).

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: Pfizer Inc collaborated on design and execution of the trial and review of the manuscript.

Meeting Presentation: This study was presented at the Demystifying Long COVID North American Conference; June 7, 2024; Boston, Massachusetts.

Additional Contributions: We thank the trial participants and their caregivers; the clinicians; the research, pharmacy, and laboratory staff members; Department of Medicine leadership; Stanford Center for Clinical Research leadership and staff; Clinical and Translational Research Unit leadership and staff; Data and Safety Monitoring Board members; Community Advisory Board members. We also thank specific contributors, Makeda Robinson, MD (formerly of Stanford) and our Pfizer colleagues: Holly Soares, PhD; Erin Stevens, PhD; Xuemei Cai, MD; Robert Fountaine, PharmD; Jennifer Hammond, PhD; Arthur Bergman, PhD; Santos Carvajal-Gonzalez, PhD; Ruth Mokgokong, PhD; and Romina Quercia, MD, PhD. These contributors were not compensated beyond their regular salaries.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 4 .

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The state of AI in early 2024: Gen AI adoption spikes and starts to generate value

If 2023 was the year the world discovered generative AI (gen AI) , 2024 is the year organizations truly began using—and deriving business value from—this new technology. In the latest McKinsey Global Survey  on AI, 65 percent of respondents report that their organizations are regularly using gen AI, nearly double the percentage from our previous survey just ten months ago. Respondents’ expectations for gen AI’s impact remain as high as they were last year , with three-quarters predicting that gen AI will lead to significant or disruptive change in their industries in the years ahead.

About the authors

This article is a collaborative effort by Alex Singla , Alexander Sukharevsky , Lareina Yee , and Michael Chui , with Bryce Hall , representing views from QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey, and McKinsey Digital.

Organizations are already seeing material benefits from gen AI use, reporting both cost decreases and revenue jumps in the business units deploying the technology. The survey also provides insights into the kinds of risks presented by gen AI—most notably, inaccuracy—as well as the emerging practices of top performers to mitigate those challenges and capture value.

AI adoption surges

Interest in generative AI has also brightened the spotlight on a broader set of AI capabilities. For the past six years, AI adoption by respondents’ organizations has hovered at about 50 percent. This year, the survey finds that adoption has jumped to 72 percent (Exhibit 1). And the interest is truly global in scope. Our 2023 survey found that AI adoption did not reach 66 percent in any region; however, this year more than two-thirds of respondents in nearly every region say their organizations are using AI. 1 Organizations based in Central and South America are the exception, with 58 percent of respondents working for organizations based in Central and South America reporting AI adoption. Looking by industry, the biggest increase in adoption can be found in professional services. 2 Includes respondents working for organizations focused on human resources, legal services, management consulting, market research, R&D, tax preparation, and training.

Also, responses suggest that companies are now using AI in more parts of the business. Half of respondents say their organizations have adopted AI in two or more business functions, up from less than a third of respondents in 2023 (Exhibit 2).

Gen AI adoption is most common in the functions where it can create the most value

Most respondents now report that their organizations—and they as individuals—are using gen AI. Sixty-five percent of respondents say their organizations are regularly using gen AI in at least one business function, up from one-third last year. The average organization using gen AI is doing so in two functions, most often in marketing and sales and in product and service development—two functions in which previous research  determined that gen AI adoption could generate the most value 3 “ The economic potential of generative AI: The next productivity frontier ,” McKinsey, June 14, 2023. —as well as in IT (Exhibit 3). The biggest increase from 2023 is found in marketing and sales, where reported adoption has more than doubled. Yet across functions, only two use cases, both within marketing and sales, are reported by 15 percent or more of respondents.

Gen AI also is weaving its way into respondents’ personal lives. Compared with 2023, respondents are much more likely to be using gen AI at work and even more likely to be using gen AI both at work and in their personal lives (Exhibit 4). The survey finds upticks in gen AI use across all regions, with the largest increases in Asia–Pacific and Greater China. Respondents at the highest seniority levels, meanwhile, show larger jumps in the use of gen Al tools for work and outside of work compared with their midlevel-management peers. Looking at specific industries, respondents working in energy and materials and in professional services report the largest increase in gen AI use.

Investments in gen AI and analytical AI are beginning to create value

The latest survey also shows how different industries are budgeting for gen AI. Responses suggest that, in many industries, organizations are about equally as likely to be investing more than 5 percent of their digital budgets in gen AI as they are in nongenerative, analytical-AI solutions (Exhibit 5). Yet in most industries, larger shares of respondents report that their organizations spend more than 20 percent on analytical AI than on gen AI. Looking ahead, most respondents—67 percent—expect their organizations to invest more in AI over the next three years.

Where are those investments paying off? For the first time, our latest survey explored the value created by gen AI use by business function. The function in which the largest share of respondents report seeing cost decreases is human resources. Respondents most commonly report meaningful revenue increases (of more than 5 percent) in supply chain and inventory management (Exhibit 6). For analytical AI, respondents most often report seeing cost benefits in service operations—in line with what we found last year —as well as meaningful revenue increases from AI use in marketing and sales.

Inaccuracy: The most recognized and experienced risk of gen AI use

As businesses begin to see the benefits of gen AI, they’re also recognizing the diverse risks associated with the technology. These can range from data management risks such as data privacy, bias, or intellectual property (IP) infringement to model management risks, which tend to focus on inaccurate output or lack of explainability. A third big risk category is security and incorrect use.

Respondents to the latest survey are more likely than they were last year to say their organizations consider inaccuracy and IP infringement to be relevant to their use of gen AI, and about half continue to view cybersecurity as a risk (Exhibit 7).

Conversely, respondents are less likely than they were last year to say their organizations consider workforce and labor displacement to be relevant risks and are not increasing efforts to mitigate them.

In fact, inaccuracy— which can affect use cases across the gen AI value chain , ranging from customer journeys and summarization to coding and creative content—is the only risk that respondents are significantly more likely than last year to say their organizations are actively working to mitigate.

Some organizations have already experienced negative consequences from the use of gen AI, with 44 percent of respondents saying their organizations have experienced at least one consequence (Exhibit 8). Respondents most often report inaccuracy as a risk that has affected their organizations, followed by cybersecurity and explainability.

Our previous research has found that there are several elements of governance that can help in scaling gen AI use responsibly, yet few respondents report having these risk-related practices in place. 4 “ Implementing generative AI with speed and safety ,” McKinsey Quarterly , March 13, 2024. For example, just 18 percent say their organizations have an enterprise-wide council or board with the authority to make decisions involving responsible AI governance, and only one-third say gen AI risk awareness and risk mitigation controls are required skill sets for technical talent.

Bringing gen AI capabilities to bear

The latest survey also sought to understand how, and how quickly, organizations are deploying these new gen AI tools. We have found three archetypes for implementing gen AI solutions : takers use off-the-shelf, publicly available solutions; shapers customize those tools with proprietary data and systems; and makers develop their own foundation models from scratch. 5 “ Technology’s generational moment with generative AI: A CIO and CTO guide ,” McKinsey, July 11, 2023. Across most industries, the survey results suggest that organizations are finding off-the-shelf offerings applicable to their business needs—though many are pursuing opportunities to customize models or even develop their own (Exhibit 9). About half of reported gen AI uses within respondents’ business functions are utilizing off-the-shelf, publicly available models or tools, with little or no customization. Respondents in energy and materials, technology, and media and telecommunications are more likely to report significant customization or tuning of publicly available models or developing their own proprietary models to address specific business needs.

Respondents most often report that their organizations required one to four months from the start of a project to put gen AI into production, though the time it takes varies by business function (Exhibit 10). It also depends upon the approach for acquiring those capabilities. Not surprisingly, reported uses of highly customized or proprietary models are 1.5 times more likely than off-the-shelf, publicly available models to take five months or more to implement.

Gen AI high performers are excelling despite facing challenges

Gen AI is a new technology, and organizations are still early in the journey of pursuing its opportunities and scaling it across functions. So it’s little surprise that only a small subset of respondents (46 out of 876) report that a meaningful share of their organizations’ EBIT can be attributed to their deployment of gen AI. Still, these gen AI leaders are worth examining closely. These, after all, are the early movers, who already attribute more than 10 percent of their organizations’ EBIT to their use of gen AI. Forty-two percent of these high performers say more than 20 percent of their EBIT is attributable to their use of nongenerative, analytical AI, and they span industries and regions—though most are at organizations with less than $1 billion in annual revenue. The AI-related practices at these organizations can offer guidance to those looking to create value from gen AI adoption at their own organizations.

To start, gen AI high performers are using gen AI in more business functions—an average of three functions, while others average two. They, like other organizations, are most likely to use gen AI in marketing and sales and product or service development, but they’re much more likely than others to use gen AI solutions in risk, legal, and compliance; in strategy and corporate finance; and in supply chain and inventory management. They’re more than three times as likely as others to be using gen AI in activities ranging from processing of accounting documents and risk assessment to R&D testing and pricing and promotions. While, overall, about half of reported gen AI applications within business functions are utilizing publicly available models or tools, gen AI high performers are less likely to use those off-the-shelf options than to either implement significantly customized versions of those tools or to develop their own proprietary foundation models.

What else are these high performers doing differently? For one thing, they are paying more attention to gen-AI-related risks. Perhaps because they are further along on their journeys, they are more likely than others to say their organizations have experienced every negative consequence from gen AI we asked about, from cybersecurity and personal privacy to explainability and IP infringement. Given that, they are more likely than others to report that their organizations consider those risks, as well as regulatory compliance, environmental impacts, and political stability, to be relevant to their gen AI use, and they say they take steps to mitigate more risks than others do.

Gen AI high performers are also much more likely to say their organizations follow a set of risk-related best practices (Exhibit 11). For example, they are nearly twice as likely as others to involve the legal function and embed risk reviews early on in the development of gen AI solutions—that is, to “ shift left .” They’re also much more likely than others to employ a wide range of other best practices, from strategy-related practices to those related to scaling.

In addition to experiencing the risks of gen AI adoption, high performers have encountered other challenges that can serve as warnings to others (Exhibit 12). Seventy percent say they have experienced difficulties with data, including defining processes for data governance, developing the ability to quickly integrate data into AI models, and an insufficient amount of training data, highlighting the essential role that data play in capturing value. High performers are also more likely than others to report experiencing challenges with their operating models, such as implementing agile ways of working and effective sprint performance management.

About the research

The online survey was in the field from February 22 to March 5, 2024, and garnered responses from 1,363 participants representing the full range of regions, industries, company sizes, functional specialties, and tenures. Of those respondents, 981 said their organizations had adopted AI in at least one business function, and 878 said their organizations were regularly using gen AI in at least one function. To adjust for differences in response rates, the data are weighted by the contribution of each respondent’s nation to global GDP.

Alex Singla and Alexander Sukharevsky  are global coleaders of QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey, and senior partners in McKinsey’s Chicago and London offices, respectively; Lareina Yee  is a senior partner in the Bay Area office, where Michael Chui , a McKinsey Global Institute partner, is a partner; and Bryce Hall  is an associate partner in the Washington, DC, office.

They wish to thank Kaitlin Noe, Larry Kanter, Mallika Jhamb, and Shinjini Srivastava for their contributions to this work.

This article was edited by Heather Hanselman, a senior editor in McKinsey’s Atlanta office.

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