scaffolding in education

7 Scaffolding Learning Strategies for the Classroom

What is Scaffolding in Education?

Scaffolding is a classroom teaching technique in which instructors deliver lessons in distinct segments, providing less and less support as students master new concepts or material. Much like scaffolding on a building, this technique is meant to provide students with a framework for learning as they build and strengthen their understanding. When students reach the intended level of comprehension or mastery, the teacher can step back and gradually remove their support. 

For example, a middle school biology teacher may show students a video on mitosis, then have them take a short, open-book quiz aided by a glossary. After a classwide discussion on the topic, during which the teacher shows examples of mitosis and answers students’ questions, students may retake the quiz without textbooks to measure their comprehension. 

The scaffolding approach differs from traditional “independent learning” model, in which a teacher asks students to read an article as homework, write a five-page essay and hand it in by the end of the week without providing any additional structured support. (Students are typically able to ask questions, but many are hesitant.) In this scenario, students would be responsible for navigating their own way through new course content, which would likely prove challenging for students who do not learn well via independent study. 

The term “scaffolding” was first used in an educational context in the mid-1970s, coined by American psychologist Jerome Bruner. In The Child’s Conception of Language (ed. A. Sinclair, et al, 1978) Bruner describes scaffolding as: 

“…the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out some task so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of acquiring.” 

Scaffolding can also be explained by the phrase “I do, we do, you do,” wherein the teacher demonstrates, guides, then hands the reins to the students.  

Scaffolding vs. Differentiation

Unlike scaffolding, which involves all students following discrete steps to master a concept, differentiation presents students with different types of lessons based on their abilities and preferences. 

For example, a teacher may assign most of the class to read a chapter of a book, then write a short paragraph discussing the chapter. However, there may be one or more students in the class for whom this type of assignment poses a challenge. For these students, the teacher may ask them to read a shortened or altered version of the text, then show they understand by answering some multiple choice questions about the text. The teacher is differentiating the type of assessments these students need in order to  be successful.    

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Scaffolding and differentiation are used to achieve similar goals, in that they provide a way for educators to help students succeed while still being challenged and building upon existing knowledge. Both approaches may also be combined in a single lesson. Teachers may identify students who need differentiated lessons by first scaffolding their lessons, then determining whether students need alternative assignments to keep pace with their peers.

It may take some time for teachers to identify which students respond best to scaffolding or differentiation, if they don’t receive insight from students’ previous teachers and guidance counselors. However, knowing how to effectively engage all of their students can be extremely beneficial for overall classroom management .   The concepts of scaffolding and the “zone of proximal development” are sometimes used interchangeably, as both were developed around the same time. Psychologist Lev Vygotsy explained his zone of proximal development , or ZPD, as the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance from a teacher. Therefore, the ZPD refers to the skills a learner is on the cusp of mastering, while scaffolding provides the support needed for the student to reach successive points of comprehension.

Benefits of Scaffolding in Education

Even before it was given a name, the concept of scaffolding has proven itself an essential approach to education. Teachers find that scaffolding: 

• Improves the likelihood that students will retain new information
• Helps connect foundational knowledge to new concepts 
• Engages students with their learning and tracking their own progress
• Gives students more autonomy and independence in the classroom
• Bridges student learning gaps in traditionally difficult course content
• Reduces students’ feelings of frustration, confusion and negative self-perceptions in the classroom
• Improves communication between students and teachers 
• Allows students to “fail productively” and encourages asking for help
• Keeps classes organized and on schedule

When both teachers and students can follow an instructional roadmap and actively participate in the transfer of knowledge, fewer students are likely to become lost and give up on difficult concepts. If a teacher chooses to scaffold differentiated lessons for certain students, overall student performance is likely to soar. 

If teachers are new to scaffolding, implementing the strategy into practice can be challenging or time consuming. However, the benefits of improved learning retention and better overall performance far outweigh the effort expended. Soon, scaffolding will become a natural part of the lesson planning process. 

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4 Strategies for Scaffolding in the Classroom

No matter the instructional approach, teachers should always introduce new concepts to students in a way that meets their current level of comprehension. A tenth-grade geometry teacher wouldn’t begin a unit on the Pythagorean theorem without first ensuring that students knew what a hypotenuse was. 

Once teachers establish their students’ starting point, they can scaffold new course content by following this process: 

• Break the new lesson into discrete units
• Create assignments for each unit
• Talk students through each assignment before they begin work
• Explain the purpose of the lesson or assignment — answer the age-old question, “Why do we need to know this?”
• Divide students into groups to discuss the assignment, plan their approach and support each other
• Provide students with tips or examples of the completed assignment so they can compare their progress
• Have students present their work for feedback and/or take an assessment to gauge understanding   

Examples of some of these steps can be illustrated with specific scaffolding strategies, including:

Show and tell: The teacher models a process or final product so students can see what they are meant to be creating. Show and tell can be used to demonstrate algebra equations, scientific models, artistic techniques and much more. Teachers can even extend show and tell to doing the first assignment along with the students following their initial demonstration. 

Making real-life connections: Sometimes, it can be challenging for students to understand why they need to know something or how it connects to the world outside of school. As the teacher, share an example of how an academic concept applies to your own life, then ask students if they have any similar examples. 

Start with vocabulary: If a student encounters a word they don’t recognize in a text about a new concept, they may start to feel out of their depth, and their engagement may falter. Before embarking on a new lesson or assigning independent reading, make sure students understand key vocabulary words so they don’t become lost. Again, connect new words to concepts students are already familiar with, and have students create their own vocabulary flash cards or “cheat sheets” (with examples) to refer back to. 

Use visual aids: There are countless studies demonstrating the increase in retention of visual over auditory information ( like this one from the University of Tennessee). Specifically, it’s been found that seeing images or visual demonstrations helps students understand and remember key concepts better than simply listening to the teacher explain them. Charts, models, slideshows, videos and other visual tools can all support student learning. 

Not every student will feel they need the same amount of scaffolding as others; some students may be able to demonstrate certain algebraic equations after one lesson, while others may need a week’s worth of teacher demonstrations and in-class exercises before they grasp the concept. It’s best to structure lessons to serve the greatest number of learners possible at once, and build in a chance to address both high achievers and those who need extra support. 

3 Scaffolding Learning Activities

As they scaffold a lesson on new material, teachers must first confirm that students have adequate context. This can even be basic, foundational information — for example, as a teacher embarks on a lesson about the Boston Tea Party, they need to confirm that their students know where Boston is, what taxes are, why tea was so important at the time and why Britain might care if a shipload of it ended up in Boston Harbor. “No taxation without representation!” means nothing if students don’t understand what each of those words means.  

Once the teacher establishes a baseline for student understanding, whether through an in-class discussion or short exploratory quiz, they can identify the goals of the lesson and begin to create a lesson plan.

Here are some activities students can follow as they begin to explore new concepts: 

Give students a topic to discuss, perhaps guided by a set of questions. Select about one quarter of the class to sit in a circle or group in the middle of the classroom. Have all other students sit around the edges of the central group and listen while this group discusses the topic. Observers are not allowed to speak while the smaller group is talking amongst themselves. 

After about 15–20 minutes of discussion, divide the smaller group up among the rest of the class and divide into new groups of equal size. The observers can now discuss what they heard with members of the smaller group, offer different perspectives, ask questions and come to new conclusions together. 

Think-alouds

This technique works well for reading comprehension exercises, but can also work for mathematical exercises. The teacher reads a passage aloud as the students follow along. Whenever the teacher reaches a potential point of confusion for students — such as an unfamiliar vocabulary word or place name — they stop and think through the issue aloud, perhaps with the aid of some predetermined questions. As they continue to read the passage aloud, the teacher will stop and pose some of their questions for the students to answer. 

Eventually, students are asked to take over reading aloud (if they are able), pausing to think through or pose questions to their classmates. 

Mind maps and concept maps

To demonstrate their grasp of a new topic, teachers can direct students to create a mind map as a visual representation of that topic. For example, if students have just learned about penguins in the Arctic, they should begin to draw a diagram with “penguin” at the center, then make “branches” off of that central topic that lead to the penguin’s characteristics, including what it eats, where it lives and what its predators are. 

In a concept map, students are asked to take everything they know about a larger topic — for instance, the Arctic — and connect all the disparate concepts they know about that topic. An Arctic concept map might connect penguins to elements of the landscape and climate, other animals and the effect of humans on their habitat. 

Often, a lack of engagement results from students not understanding the purpose of school work, or the intended end result of a certain lesson or assignment. Showing and explaining to students what they are meant to create or achieve is not giving them the answers. Rather, providing students with a blueprint can help them take ownership of the learning process and, by extension, the finished product — their new knowledge. 

FAQs About Scaffolding in Education

What’s the difference between scaffolding and differentiation.

While these are two approaches to classroom instruction, they are not interchangeable, although they can be combined. Scaffolding is the process of breaking lessons into manageable units, with the teacher providing decreasing levels of support as students grasp new concepts and master new skills. Differentiation is the act of giving certain students different types of assignments or learning engagements based on the way they receive and retain information, so as to help them succeed alongside their peers.

What are some examples of scaffolding in education?

Teachers use all sorts of scaffolding tools to help students along the path to comprehension. Show and tell, visual aids, flashcards and making real-world connections are all ways that teachers can transfer ownership of core concepts to students.

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Scaffolding in Education: A teacher's guide

August 16, 2021

Scaffolding in Education: A practical guide for classroom teachers. How can you use scaffolding to promote deeper learning outcomes?

Main, P (2021, August 16). Scaffolding in Education: A teacher's guide. Retrieved from https://www.structural-learning.com/post/scaffolding-in-education-a-teachers-guide

What is scaffolding in education?

Scaffolding in education is a teaching method that aligns with Vygotsky's notion of the zone of proximal development . It involves providing tailored support to students based on their current level of expertise and gradually withdrawing that support as they become more proficient. The aim is to foster a student's ability to achieve positive learning outcomes independently.

Instructional scaffolding is strategically executed by setting clear learning objectives and offering a level of guidance that is adjusted to the academic level of the student. Teachers might employ scaffolding techniques in both traditional and online learning environments to bolster successful learning. These techniques can include breaking down tasks into smaller, more manageable parts, using leading questions, or demonstrating tasks to guide students through the learning experiences.

Conceptual scaffolding is vital, particularly in problem-based and inquiry learning , where students engage in discovery learning. It helps students to navigate complex concepts by connecting new information with existing knowledge, considering various learning styles in the process. This key concept ensures that the learning experiences are meaningful and that the transition towards independent learning is smooth and effective.

An expert in educational psychology, Jerome Bruner , once remarked, “We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development.” This underscores the benefits of scaffolding—teachers can adjust the academic content to suit the learner's cognitive abilities, leading to successful learning outcomes.

As the teacher's level of expertise and understanding of the students' needs shape the level of guidance provided, scaffolding remains an adaptable approach . Online courses, with their diverse and broad reach, stand to benefit significantly from this approach, as it allows for personalized learning paths that can be adjusted in real-time.

In essence, scaffolding is about empowering students to build upon their existing knowledge base and to encourage self-reliance in the learning process. It is a testament to the belief that with the right support, students can achieve higher levels of understanding and skill than they would independently.

Adopting scaffolding techniques to improve learning outcomes

Learning is a complicated process but in recent years several researchers and writers have helped draw our attention to some simple evidence informed principles that are easy to understand and implement. Placing these principles at the centre of classroom practice gives educators a strong direction when developing their instructional practice.

At Structural Learning, we encourage students to break their learning tasks into chunks. Using the universal thinking framework , learning goals can be broken down into bite-size chunks. This makes the learning process manageable for everyone. A learning task will have several different components to it. For example, a learning task might include 1) research 2) Planning 3) Drafting 4) Writing. Each of these separate stages can be scaffolded with templates and organisational support.

Student learning outcomes can be improved quite drastically if we demonstrate how any given learning task can be approached in this way. Instead of seeing the learning process as an overwhelming task that cannot be undertaken, breaking learning into chunks using our frameworks command words quickly dissolves any anxiety or negative feelings towards the task in hand. Whether you are working in an online learning environment or a classroom, this student-centered learning approach enables students to take more ownership and control of their learning .

Learning goals don't need to be seen as these distant destinations that only the chosen few arrive at. Break the journey down so all the students can come with you. Effectively, a learning task can be broken down into a series of mini - lessons.

Another example of using scaffolding to improve learning outcomes is our concept of mental modelling . Using writers block, educators around the globe have been breaking learning tasks into bite-size chunks that are easy to manage and engaging to participate in. The brightly coloured blocks can be used to scaffold learning in a variety of different environments.

At its essence, the strategy enables children to process abstract ideas. Whether you are working with whole class of 30 or a small group of four, organising your ideas and making connections using the blocks puts children on a pathway to success and independence. Having a community of learners who are working together to complete a learning task brings with it opportunities for purposeful discussion and high-level reasoning. The online learner would typically not encounter the sorts of collaboration opportunities that we see in the classroom.

Writers block helps develop independent learners who can make decisions about the knowledge that they are building. In time, the learner builds confidence and independence. When students are given space to construct knowledge together you are creating a climate of interdependent learners. That is, they are learning from one another collaborating and constructing as they move forward. Neil Mercer calls this concept 'Interthinking'. The social interaction acts as a catalyst for reasoning about the curriculum content . This type of interaction causes children to talk through their understanding and in doing so challenge misconceptions they may hold.

The ultimate purpose of scaffolding is to move a child from the current level of understanding . The level of guidance used to help a student develop their academic level will differ from student to student. Remember, scaffolding is a temporary structure designed to be removed. Too much scaffolding will deplete learner independence. The type of scaffolding you use will depend upon the developmental level of the child and the level of knowledge they currently have.

History of Scaffolding in Education

The word “ scaffolding ” was first used by the psychologist Jerome Bruner in the 1960s. According to Bruner's Scaffolding theory, when students are provided with the support while learning a new concept or skill, they are better able to use that knowledge independently. In fact, Jerome Bruner , David Wood, and Gail Ross first used the term 'scaffolding' while applying Vygotsky's concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to diverse educational contexts.

The term ' Scaffolding ' originated from construction and used for the temporary structure that is built for the builders to stand on while putting up new walls and grounds. Scaffolding in education, is a teachers' strategy for providing assistance while students master new skills and concepts .

One type of scaffolding commonly used in education is procedural scaffolding. This involves breaking down complex tasks into smaller, more manageable steps, and maybe providing additional guidance such as vocabulary lists along the way. For example, a teacher may use procedural scaffolding when teaching students how to write an essay, by providing a step-by-step process for brainstorming, outlining, and drafting . This approach helps students build their skills and confidence, and gradually become more independent learners .

Jerome Bruner was a psychologist who played a pivotal role in the development of scaffolding in education. Bruner believed that learning should be an active process, where students take an active role in their own learning. Bruner also emphasized the importance of scaffolding in helping students learn effectively. His work paved the way for the development of other types of scaffolding, such as reciprocal scaffolding and strategic scaffolding, which are now widely used in education.

Scaffolding Strategies in Education

There is a variety of scaffolding strategies that can be used in education. Some of these scaffolding strategies are especially engaging and fun-filled for the students.

• Tap Into Prior Knowledge

Students come to school with the experience and knowledge of many different topics. By connecting prior life experiences with new knowledge, teachers can help students understand new details more quickly. Students grasp and retain new knowledge more easily when they can relate it to something they already know. Following are some of the ways to use prior knowledge as a scaffolding strategy:

• Teachers can ask students to share past experiences, ideas , and feelings about the concept or content taught in the class and connect and relate it to their life.
• A teacher can also offer suggestions and hints , leading students to the connections. After some time students will start to understand the concept as their own.
• Entry/exit tickets can be used as a method of classroom instruction. The instructor will distribute an index card with a discussion question or prompt on it for the learners to reflect upon or answer within a specific time frame.

Teachers must build on the students' understanding of a topic , rather than jumping straight into complex problem-solving right away. This helps them create a strong foundation for the rest of the topic!

• Give Time to Talk

Everyone needs time to show understanding. It can be helpful to give students time to understand what they have been asked before actually using their knowledge for independent working. Following are some of the ways to apply wait time as a scaffolding strategy:

• Teachers can put students in small groups or pairs to talk with one another.
• Teachers can pause and wait after asking a question, so that students can think and then give any answer . This silence can make students anxious at first, but students will gradually start to participate.

Wait time offers a great opportunity for learners' brains to organize their complex thinking and reflect on after a question has been asked. In fact, increasing wait time will offer an opportunity for the students to understand a question and compose an answer—allowing time for brain processing.

Guiding students how to perform a task by first performing it by the teachers themselves can be a useful teaching strategy . Teachers can teach students while walking or while talking to them about the task. Teachers can also utilize a small group of students model for other students. Following are some of the ways to use modelling as a scaffolding strategy in education .

• A fishbowl activity can be used, by selecting a small group of students to stand in the middle and the rest of the class surrounds it. The fishbowl, or students in the middle, performs a task, model how the task is done for the bigger group.
• Teachers can show the final product or outcome of a task, before asking students to perform the task. For example: teachers can show a model essay and a criteria chart or rubric before giving the task of writing a persuasive essay. Teachers can teach students through every step of this process using the model of the final product in hand.
• Teachers can use think alouds , to model their thought process as they design a project, solve a problem or read text. Since children’s cognitive skills are still in development phase, so it is essential for them to see developed, critical thinking .

Modelling can be a useful scaffolding strategy , which teachers can easily use to teach any topic in the classroom.

• Pre-Teach Vocabulary

Scaffolding is important across each educational subject area. An area where students may require additional scaffolding is vocabulary building . Hence, prior to performing a complex task teachers can share particular vocabulary elements that may offer challenge . Vocabulary building can be performed in various ways prior to performing a task, including:

• Introducing the words to children through pictures or any other thing they know and are interested in.
• Using metaphors and analogies , and inviting students to draw a picture or create a symbol for a specific word.
• After performing any of the above, students can use dictionaries to compare with those explanations they have already discovered by themselves.

Pre-teach vocabulary scaffolding strategy can be used for words that are difficult for the students to comprehend from the context. If students are not provided with the sufficient support to understand difficult vocabulary items, there is a possibility that they may lose interest in the class.

• Visual Aids

Visual scaffolding is performed through words and images that can be viewed as well as heard. This provides an excellent way to give comprehensible information to the students. Following are some of the ways to use visual aids as the scaffolding strategy.

• Graphic organizers , charts and pictures , can all be used as scaffolding tools. Graphic organizers help children visually organize information, illustrate ideas, and understand concepts such as cause and effect and sequencing.
• Showing students a video , or providing with a concrete object to begin a new lesson. For example, while teaching about rocks and stones, it is useful to place different types of stones on tables for the learners to see and touch.

The above discussion provides some of the most effective ways to use scaffolding strategies in education . Teachers must provide a lot of support at the start of the scaffolding process. Then, they remove their support in stages. This sequential decrease in the degree of support makes up the scaffolding process. At each step, this process gives confidence and ability to learn a new concept or skill. Each classroom has a different type of Scaffolding , depending upon the task, students’ prior knowledge and the resources available for learning. 

Key takeaways about Scaffolding in Education

The use of scaffolding strategies in education has been shown to have many positive learning outcomes . Students who receive proper scaffolding support are more likely to develop a deep understanding of the material being taught. They also tend to have higher levels of motivation and engagement with the learning process.

Additionally, scaffolding can help students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills, as they are encouraged to take an active role in their own learning . By providing the right amount of support at each stage of the scaffolding process, teachers can ensure that their students are able to achieve their full potential and succeed in their academic pursuits.

1. The purpose of using scaffolds is to make sure that every student learns something.

2. There should always be a balance between giving too much support and removing it gradually.

3. It is very important to keep track of what you do during your lessons. You will need to record how many times you gave feedback, when you did it, etc.

4. Use multiple methods of scaffolding.

5. Try out different things like drawing, writing, singing, dancing, playing games, role plays, etc.

6. Make sure that you teach everything thoroughly before moving onto another topic.

7. Always try to find time to review what was taught earlier.

Key Papers on Scaffolding

Here are five key studies on the efficacy of scaffolding and its implications for learning outcomes. These studies collectively emphasize the significance of scaffolding as an instructional strategy to support learning, particularly in the context of collaborative learning, STEM education, and for students with diverse learning needs. They illustrate the variety of scaffolding strategies and their impact on enhancing learning outcomes and cognitive development .

• Effective Teaching and Learning: Scaffolding Revisited by J. Bliss, Mike Askew, and S. Macrae (1996): This paper revisits the concept of scaffolding in schooling contexts, exploring its psycho-social model of teaching and learning. The study examines scaffolding strategies in primary schooling contexts such as design and technology, mathematics, and science, and discusses the challenges of scaffolding specialist knowledge .
• The effectiveness of using procedural scaffoldings in a paper-plus-smartphone collaborative learning context by Hui-Wen Huang, Chih-Wei Wu, and N. Chen (2012): This study evaluates the effectiveness of procedural scaffoldings in enhancing group discourse levels and learning outcomes in a paper-plus-smartphone collaborative learning context. It found that procedural scaffoldings significantly improved learning outcomes in terms of group discourse levels, group learning, and individual learning.
• Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education by B. Belland, A. Walker, N. Kim, and Mason R. Lefler (2016): This comprehensive meta-analysis synthesizes the results of 144 experimental studies on the effects of computer-based scaffolding in STEM education. The analysis indicates that computer-based scaffolding has a consistently positive effect on cognitive outcomes across various contexts of use, scaffolding characteristics, and levels of assessment.
• Scaffolding in Teacher–Student Interaction: A Decade of Research by J. Pol, M. Volman, and J. Beishuizen (2010): This review scrutinizes the conceptualizations, appearances, and effectiveness of scaffolding in the last decade's literature. It highlights contingency, fading, and transfer of responsibility as key characteristics of scaffolding and discusses the small number of effectiveness studies available, suggesting that scaffolding is effective.
• The Consequences of Negative Scaffolding for Students Who Learn Slowly—A Commentary on C. Addison Stone's "The Metaphor of Scaffolding" by A. Biemiller and D. Meichenbaum (1998): This commentary discusses the outcomes of effective scaffolding and considers its implications for children with learning disabilities or below-average academic progress. It highlights the importance of scaffolding in supporting learner independence and cognitive development.

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Classroom Practice

Instructional Scaffolding in Education (Examples & Techniques)

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Scaffolding is an instructional approach that involves providing support to students until they reach competence with a task.

The scaffolding approach is based on Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) concept, but the term itself was coined by Jerome Bruner.

The idea is that you should always create lessons that are challenging but achievable for students. The role for teachers is to provide that support (or ‘scaffolding’) until the student can complete the task without help.

While professors like myself teach the theory of scaffolding a lesson in universities, we don’t provide enough examples of how the theory might be used in practice (e.g. scaffolding strategies).

So below are some scaffolding techniques and tools that you can use in your classroom today.

Instructional Scaffolding Techniques and Strategies

1. Visual Aids

Visual aids can be any object around the classroom that helps students to think more deeply about an issue and keep them on track.

Visual aids in the classroom can include:

• Flash cards a student can have on their desk,
• Posters on the walls,
• Graphic organizers and charts.
• Checklists to ensure tasks are completed.

The visual aids should not tell the student answers, but it should help the student to think through the task themselves.

For example, if a student is completing a math task, they might benefit from using a table to input their information so they can see it on paper, not just in their heads.

Another example is to provide a checklist for students. They can return to their checklist to see if they followed all the steps and completed all the tasks in a lesson to ensure they’re staying within the guidelines.

2. Breaking up the Learning into Chunks

If a task seems intimidating to a student, sometimes it’s possible to give them the task in small steps (or ‘chunks’).

Examples include:

• A roadmap outlining a step-by-step path to completion.
• Covering up the parts of the task that don’t need to be focused on yet.
• Learning stations where students do one small part of the bigger task at each learning station.
• Checkpoints where the teacher asks students to check-in after each ‘chunk’ of learning is completed.

This is perhaps best achieved in phonics instruction, where teachers place their finger over the second half of a word. This means the student has only half of the word to sound out at a time.

Similarly, creating a list of ‘steps’ in a task can help a learner to think through the process required to get from point A to point B. The task then becomes less intimidating and the student knows the next thing they need to do in order to get closer to their goal.

3. Modeling

Modeling allows the teacher to demonstrate how to complete a task while students observe.

The main critique of modeling is that it creates passive learners. To offset this, encourage students to ask questions and ask the students questions yourself while you model the task.

• Fishbowl activities . A fishbowl activity is a task where a whole group of students stand or sit in a circle and watch a small group in the middle of the circle complete the task. It’s an activity that promotes active listening and close observation of a task.
• Filming. The teacher films themselves completing the task, allowing the students to re-watch how the task was done as they attempt to copy it themselves.

4. Thinking Aloud

Thinking aloud helps students to process their thoughts. It involves having students verbally brainstorm half-formed ideas.

Vygotsky highlighted the importance of speech when thinking through tasks. You can leverage this in the classroom by asking them to talk to you about what they’re doing during each step of their learning.

• Students recording themselves talking about their thoughts on a topic.
• Teacher encouraging speaking during an activity.
• Questioning students of what they’re doing at each step (see: guiding questions ).
• Encouraging students to ask their own questions to deepen their knowledge.

A good start is to have your students explain to you what they’re doing. Sit with the student and tell them what they’re thinking. Ask questions like: “What are you doing at this step?”, “Why did you just make that decision?”, or “How did what you just did help you to complete the task?”

Encourage full sentence responses and comments when using this strategy.

When students develop greater competence and do not need to consciously walk through each step, they can start using inner speech rather than talk aloud to complete the task.

5. Using Prior Knowledge

When scaffolding a lesson, the teacher can help students by asking them to reflect on past knowledge and use it to solve a current problem.

Embracing prior knowledge may include:

• Using a strategy the student knows and applying it to this new task.
• Using analogy to make the new knowledge relevant (and make sense) to the student’s life.
• Relate the idea to the student’s interests in sports, gaming or literature.

These strategies can help students have ‘lightbulb moments’ where they move through the difficulties and come to understand difficult ideas in new light.

6. Gradual Release of Responsibility

The gradual release of responsibility model starts with modeled instruction and ends with students’ independent practice of a task .

This is one of the most practical scaffolding techniques a teacher has in their pedagogical toolkit.

The four steps in the gradual release of responsibility model are:

• Modeling – The teacher demonstrates how to do the task in front of the students.
• Co-Construction – The students instruct the teacher on how to do the task.
• Facilitation – The teacher supports the student as they complete the task.
• Independent Practice – The students complete the task with out teacher guidance.

At each stage in this model, the teacher needs to assess student knowledge to determine whether to move on to the next step, re-do the current step, or regress to the previous step.

We also call this the ‘I do, we do, you do’ method:

7. Open-Ended Questioning

Questioning is one of the most important scaffolding tools we have.

However, a teacher needs to learn how to ask the right types of questions at the right point in time.

Primarily, a teacher needs to make sure a student answers any question with a detailed explanation. To do this ensure:

• Questions are open-ended meaning they cannot be answered with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
• Questions encourage reflection so students can think deeper about why they did what they did (and if they could do differently to achieve a better outcome next time).
• Questions direct students  toward the important and pivotal aspects of the task, and away from trivial or distracting elements.

Don’t forget that children need to be explicitly taught how to ask meaningful questions as well. Jeanine from Think Grow Giggle has this great tip :

Before expecting students to question on their own, practice together using a class size t-chart to model questioning.

Often, I have new teachers forget that students need to learn how to learn . We need to give our students plenty of examples of good questions so they can have a model to start with and build upon.

There is also the need to balance the over- and under- use of questioning. Sometimes students need silence to think through things in peace.

8. Pre-Teaching Vocabulary

Pre-teaching vocabulary involves learning the new words and phrases before moving on to engaging with texts that have that vocabulary in it.

A task that has a lot of new vocabulary is made difficult because the student has to wade through the vocabulary and the concepts. We have this problem a lot at universities when we ask students to read difficult journal articles , only for them to lose interest because of the verbose language.

For example, a teacher could set for homework a vocabulary list that students need to learn the week before using those term in texts for a future unit of work.

9. Formative and Summative Assessment

Teachers need to conduct ongoing assessments of students’ knowledge so they know how much scaffolding to apply and when to withdraw it.

Assessment is baked into scaffolding theory: without it, we do not know when to or how to apply appropriate support for students.

Don’t get me wrong – scaffolding and assessment are different things. But assessment is a scaffolding tool required to help teachers to teach appropriately.

Conduct formative assessment (which is ongoing assessment while students are learning) to identify how well students can complete tasks alone. For students who are struggling, you can implement differentiated instruction , in which you provide different supports for different students.

Scaffolding requires teachers to create lessons that are at the perfect difficulty level. Too hard, and the students won’t be able to achieve anything. Too easy, and the students won’t learn at all!

We call this the Goldilocks principle.

Using the above scaffolding strategies, teachers can help students to learn more effectively. These strategies can be:

• Weaved into lesson plans to show your head teacher what exactly you plan to do to help scaffold learning
• Used to differentiate instruction where you can implement different scaffolds for students of varying learning abilities.

Overall, when implementing social constructivist and scaffolding theory, you need to use specific scaffolding techniques like the ones outlined above so you don’t just show knowledge of the theory, but also knowledge of how to apply the theory to your pedagogical practice.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 20 Montessori Toddler Bedrooms (Design Inspiration)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 21 Montessori Homeschool Setups
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 101 Hidden Talents Examples

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Scaffolding

In education, scaffolding refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process. The term itself offers the relevant descriptive metaphor: teachers provide successive levels of temporary support that help students reach higher levels of comprehension and skill acquisition that they would not be able to achieve without assistance. Like physical scaffolding, the supportive strategies are incrementally removed when they are no longer needed, and the teacher gradually shifts more responsibility over the learning process to the student.

Scaffolding is widely considered to be an essential element of effective teaching, and all teachers—to a greater or lesser extent—almost certainly use various forms of instructional scaffolding in their teaching. In addition, scaffolding is often used to bridge learning gaps —i.e., the difference between what students have learned and what they are expected to know and be able to do at a certain point in their education. For example, if students are not at the reading level required to understand a text being taught in a course, the teacher might use instructional scaffolding to incrementally improve their reading ability until they can read the required text independently and without assistance. One of the main goals of scaffolding is to reduce the negative emotions and self-perceptions that students may experience when they get frustrated, intimidated, or discouraged when attempting a difficult task without the assistance, direction, or understanding they need to complete it.

Scaffolding vs. Differentiation As a general instructional strategy, scaffolding shares many similarities with  differentiation , which refers to a wide variety of teaching techniques and lesson adaptations that educators use to instruct a diverse group of students, with diverse learning needs, in the same course, classroom, or  learning environment . Because scaffolding and differentiation techniques are used to achieve similar instructional goals—i.e., moving student learning and understanding from where it is to where it needs to be—the two approaches may be blended together in some classrooms to the point of being indistinguishable. That said, the two approaches are distinct in several ways. When teachers scaffold instruction, they typically break up a learning experience, concept, or skill into discrete parts, and then give students the assistance they need to learn each part. For example, teachers may give students an excerpt of a longer text to read, engage them in a discussion of the excerpt to improve their understanding of its purpose, and teach them the vocabulary they need to comprehend the text before assigning them the full reading. Alternatively, when teachers differentiate instruction, they might give some students an entirely different reading (to better match their reading level and ability), give the entire class the option to choose from among several texts (so each student can pick the one that interests them most), or give the class several options for completing a related assignment (for example, the students might be allowed to write a traditional essay, draw an illustrated essay in comic-style form, create a slideshow “essay” with text and images, or deliver an oral presentation).

The following examples will serve to illustrate a few common scaffolding strategies:

• The teacher gives students a simplified version of a lesson, assignment, or reading, and then gradually increases the complexity, difficulty, or sophistication over time. To achieve the goals of a particular lesson, the teacher may break up the lesson into a series of mini-lessons that progressively move students toward stronger understanding. For example, a challenging algebra problem may be broken up into several parts that are taught successively. Between each mini-lesson, the teacher checks to see if students have understood the concept, gives them time to practice the equations, and explains how the math skills they are learning will help them solve the more challenging problem (questioning students to check for understanding and giving them time to practice are two common scaffolding strategies). In some cases, the term guided practice may be used to describe this general technique.
• The teacher describes or illustrates a concept, problem, or process in multiple ways to ensure understanding. A teacher may orally describe a concept to students, use a slideshow with visual aids such as images and graphics to further explain the idea, ask several students to illustrate the concept on the blackboard, and then provide the students with a reading and writing task that asks them articulate the concept in their own words. This strategy addresses the multiple ways in which students learn—e.g., visually, orally, kinesthetically, etc.—and increases the likelihood that students will understand the concept being taught.
• Students are given an exemplar or model of an assignment they will be asked to complete.  The teacher describes the exemplar assignment’s features and why the specific elements represent high-quality work. The model provides students with a concrete example of the learning goals they are expected to achieve or the product they are expected to produce. Similarly, a teacher may also model a process—for example, a multistep science experiment—so that students can see how it is done before they are asked to do it themselves (teachers may also ask a student to model a process for her classmates).
• Students are given a vocabulary lesson before they read a difficult text.  The teacher reviews the words most likely to give students trouble, using metaphors, analogies, word-image associations, and other strategies to help students understand the meaning of the most difficult words they will encounter in the text. When the students then read the assignment, they will have greater confidence in their reading ability, be more interested in the content, and be more likely to comprehend and remember what they have read.
• The teacher clearly describes the purpose of a learning activity, the directions students need to follow, and the learning goals they are expected to achieve. The teacher may give students a handout with step-by-step instructions they should follow, or provide the scoring guide or rubric that will be used to evaluate and grade their work. When students know the reason why they are being asked to complete an assignment, and what they will specifically be graded on, they are more likely to understand its importance and be motivated to achieve the learning goals of the assignment. Similarly, if students clearly understand the process they need to follow, they are less likely to experience frustration or give up because they haven’t fully understood what they are expected to do.
• The teacher explicitly describes how the new lesson builds on the knowledge and skills students were taught in a previous lesson. By connecting a new lesson to a lesson the students previously completed, the teacher shows students how the concepts and skills they already learned will help them with the new assignment or project (teachers may describe this general strategy as “building on prior knowledge” or “connecting to prior knowledge”). Similarly, the teacher may also make explicit connections between the lesson and the personal interests and experiences of the students as a way to increase understanding or engagement in the learning process. For example, a history teacher may reference a field trip to a museum during which students learned about a particular artifact related to the lesson at hand. For a more detailed discussion, see relevance .

Alphabetical Search

Initial Thoughts

Perspectives & resources, if you were ms. price, what could you do to help your students when they struggle with a task, page 1: what is instructional scaffolding.

• Page 2: How Do I Scaffold Instruction?

How might Ms. Price provide help to meet the individual needs of all her students, including those with disabilities?

• Page 3: Content Scaffolding
• Page 4: Task Scaffolding
• Page 5: Material Scaffolding
• Page 6: Scaffolding Tips
• Page 7: References & Additional Resources
• Page 8: Credits

Providing support, or scaffolding, is a critical component in teaching new tasks with multiple steps. Likewise, scaffolding is a critical element in the teaching of instructional strategies (see the IRIS Module SRSD: Using Learning Strategies to Enhance Student Learning ). Many teachers do this naturally when teaching a new task or strategy, whereas others need to purposefully incorporate scaffolding into their teaching styles. It is important to remember, however, that even when students have learned the purpose of a strategy and have memorized its steps, they may still not be ready to use the strategy independently.

Students with learning disabilities are often not actively engaged in the learning process when being taught a new skill. Instead, they are only going through the motions of the task. This is so because students with learning disabilities often don’t understand the underlying concepts to which they should be attending during each step. For this reason, teachers should observe their students closely to ensure that they understand the information being demonstrated. Having students demonstrate the task independently will help teachers to determine whether the students are learning.

Keep in Mind

Teachers should remember several important facts about instructional scaffolding:

• Scaffolding is most useful for teaching new tasks or strategies with multiple steps.
• Any student at any grade level, including high school, can benefit from instructional scaffolding.
• Scaffolding can be applied to any academic task.

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Scaffolding Content

Guiding students through the learning process toward greater understanding.        

On this page:

Scaffolding through design.

Scaffolding is an instructional practice where a teacher gradually removes guidance and support as students learn and become more competent. Support can be for content, processes, and learning strategies. This requires careful planning, initial assessment of students’ prior knowledge and monitoring of growth to determine which supports are needed and which can be removed. As a student grows, they begin more difficult challenges that require new supports that will eventually fade.

The goals of scaffolding are to increase student proficiency and develop their skills as self-regulated learners. This is achieved by providing an appropriate amount of instructional support based on student needs and context complexity. As students grow as learners, scaffolding can be changed, reduced or removed over time.

For example, one learning outcome of a biology class may be to label and describe the functions of a cell. To scaffold this information, the instructor first assesses students’ prior knowledge and chunks lessons into digestible bites. During class, students are provided with diagrams and guided notes. Students also have access to interactive 3D software that allows them to analyze cell components and their interactions. In the early stages of learning, students can use their notes and textbooks during formative assessments and assignments. They also receive both automated and instructor feedback on their submissions. Over time these scaffolds fade (for example: less instructor support, no use of notes on formative assessments) and students continue more independently.

Zone of Proximal Development

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the difference between what students can do independently and with support. It is the additional space in which students can learn, practice and achieve what they would not be able to without additional support and guidance.

Teaching below the Zone of Proximal Development (see diagram) results in students reviewing mainly what they already know and practicing what they are good at, causing minimal learning. On the other hand, teaching only concepts students know nothing about leads to frustration and failure, limiting learning as well. Although the learning process is often accompanied by some level of confusion and initial failure, scaffolding is used to minimize unnecessary struggles to support student success. Teaching within the ZPD allows students to use their prior knowledge in meaningful ways while receiving guidance and practice opportunities to eventually reach the course’s learning outcomes  i ndependently.

Scaffolding Your Course

Scaffolding can be implemented into your course using a variety of methods:

Scaffolding Over Time

Scaffolding is a process that should be strategically embedded into both the design and instruction of your course. In many cases, it follows a similar progression as shown in the diagram below.

Scaffolding Strategies

A variety of scaffolding strategies can be embedded into the overall course design or individual lesson plans. Others may occur during synchronous teaching and learning as opportunities arise. Although these strategies are categorized, they can be helpful in multiple areas.

Explicit Instruction

Explicit instruction is a way to scaffold instruction by increasing student work through the following three stages:

Scaffolding model

• Modeling and thinking aloud is done by the instructor.

• Students work together.
• Students and instructor work together.

• Students work on their own.

Scaffolding Model in a Flipped Classroom

The scaffolding model can also be accomplished in a flipped classroom setting using the following stages:

• Students read a chapter, watch a lecture or video, or listen to audio content.

• Students complete an assignment or comprehension check prior to class.

• Students participate in guided practice and active learning with their instructor and peers.
• Instructor adjusts instruction as needed based on formative assessment results.
• Instructor provides feedback to students.

Scaffolding Examples

There are many ways to scaffold student learning throughout your course.

Large Assignments

If students have culminating assignments, it is important to scaffold the steps that comprise the assignment. For example, if a research paper is due at the end of the semester, assign milestones such as “select a topic,” “conduct research,” “write a first draft,” etc. Then have students submit these components for feedback along the way. To help students complete each component, provide resources, examples or direct instruction. Other scaffolds for a large assignment might include peer feedback, checklists, or prompting questions.

Gives an overview and examples of how to scaffold large assignments.

Before an upcoming exam, review practice questions and provide suggestions about how, when, and what to study. Other scaffolds for exams include group study sessions, review sessions, sample questions, practice tests, and formative assessments leading up to the exam.

Provides scaffolding strategies to help prepare students for final exams.

Challenging Concepts

When introducing a complex topic, identify students’ prior knowledge. This pre-assessment should be ungraded and can be done easily using a classroom response system or even a piece of paper. From there, build on student’s prior knowledge related to the new concept, teaching it in chunks or “digestible bites.” Other scaffolds for challenging concepts include multi-media or visual support, vocabulary or cue cards, worksheets or graphic organizers, real world examples and group work.

Offers effective scaffolding strategies that help students learn complex concepts.

Module that provides a detailed overview and examples of effective scaffolding strategies. (IRC Center at Vanderbilt University)

Use this worksheet to develop a scaffolding plan:

• Step 1: Choose an area of your course that would benefit from scaffolding strategies: project, culminating assignment, exam, challenging concept, etc. 
• Step 2: Determine the steps, stages, or parts students need to learn or practice to develop proficiency.
• Step 3: Reflect on previous semesters, if applicable . Are there aspects that students struggled with in the past?
• Step 4: Align these concepts and knowledge to various units or modules of your course. How will these concepts and skills be scaffolded throughout?

Once you have completed this process for one component of your course, determine if there are other areas that might need a scaffolding plan.

When you have finished scaffolding content, the next step is to build in active learning.

Additional Resources

More examples for scaffolding

Instructional Practice

Practical Application of Abstract Concepts

• Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M.W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C., & Norman, M.K. (2010). How learning works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
• Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006). Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 99–107.
• Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86.
• Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? American Psychologist, 59(1), 14–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.14

Scaffolding in Education

A key concept in education for the last decade has been the idea of scaffolding. Scaffolding refers to breaking up new concepts so that they can be learned more easily. It’s a process that many teachers have used for decades but that has recently received much more attention as an instructional approach.

By implementing scaffolding, teachers can improve the likeliness that students will grasp new materials and retain what they’ve learned.

Scaffolding vs Differentiation

Occasionally, teachers confuse scaffolding and differentiation. However, the two are distinct. In a report issued by the Tennessee Department of Education , differentiation was defined as a framework in which different students received different methods of learning. Scaffolding, on the other hand, was defined as breaking up learning into chunks so that students tackled increasingly more complex material.

In practice, differentiated instruction is characterized by attempts to change the activities that students use to learn about a topic. This might mean providing different materials to students with different learning styles. For some students, highly visual materials may be appropriate, while other students might be more highly tactile learners.

Scaffolding, on the other hand, breaks up even differentiated lessons so that they are delivered in increasingly complex chunks. It breaks up learning new topics into stages in which old ideas are connected to new ones and students are led from guided to independent instruction. There are several ways that this can be done.

Scaffolding Techniques

There are many different scaffolding interventions that can support learning. Some of these interventions include hands-on activities while others rely on the teacher to explain related concepts. The task that teachers use should be appropriate to what is being learned and appeal to the strengths of the students working through the materials.

Throughout the scaffolding process, a heavy emphasis should be placed on connecting old concepts to new ones to set a foundation for learning. Here are just a few of the ways that teachers can set the stage for teaching difficult new concepts.

Advance Organizers

Advance organizers deliver a preview of more complicated materials yet to come. The organizer serves as an introduction and provides basic principles about how students should think about the material. The advance organizer also takes what students have already learned and connects it to the material yet to come. This helps provide a strong foundation for learning new materials.

What are some specific examples of organizers? Graphic organizers provide visuals that students can engage with. During the introductory lesson, students can fill in missing pictures of the visual. This extra level of engagement helps students to better understand the basic principles that will underlie more complex tasks.

Expository organizers are among the most common types of organizers because they are straightforward in their nature. This organizer only requires that teachers tell students what the goal of the lesson is. Teachers verbalize and connect previous lessons to the current lesson and how that sets the basis for future lessons.

A creative form of organizing includes storytelling. This takes the verbalized expository organizer and puts a creative spin on it. With this organizer, teachers take previous concepts and lessons and frame them in a story. The story also includes concepts that will be learned in upcoming lessons. By framing past and current principles in a narrative frame, the teacher creates a more engaging framework in which students learn their lessons.

Concept and Mind Maps

Concept and mind maps are simply visual graphics that show relationships between learning concepts. These maps show previous concepts students have learned related to new concepts that will be encountered. These kinds of maps are especially appealing to visual learners, making them valuable when differentiating and scaffolding learning for highly visual learners.

A mind map is drawn so that related topics are connected by branches, with one central concept uniting them all. For instance, take the concept of mind mapping to make it the central category. Now, think up three major ‘branches’ related to mind maps. One branch could be creativity, another could be planning, and a third one could be beneficial.

The creativity branch could be made of smaller branches such as ideas and innovation. The planning branch could be made of smaller branches that include strategies and goals. Finally, the benefits branch could include fun and simple. Now, you have a mind map as the central concept made of three branches, each with their own smaller branches. You can also find connections from different branches.

When applied to education, teachers can use this to connect almost any type of concept. For instance, you may be teaching a science class about cellular structure. As the central concept, you might have human cells. Then, the branches could be composed of stem cells, bone cells, blood cells, and so forth. Each cell could then possess its own set of smaller branches describing features unique to that cell. This approach helps students see the features of each type of human cell but also similar features between cells.

Instruction

Sometimes, the best scaffolding technique is the one that teachers are most familiar with. There’s always a place for simply teaching students, and sometimes teachers can be most effective by giving a straightforward lesson that prepares students for more complex work to come. A prime example of this is language.

When dealing with language, students are given vocabulary lessons prior to reading something difficult. This helps them because students tend to become disengaged whenever they are reading and struggle to understand the words in their assignment. Reviewing particularly difficult vocabulary words before the reading helps students understand how to pronounce these words and what they mean.

Teachers can review the reading assignment and identify words that the students might find some particular difficulties with and provide handouts for the students for use during the vocabulary review.

Teachers can also add an engaging element to this process prior to reviewing the words with students. Before reviewing the word list, students can bring the students together in groups and ask them to brainstorm what the words might mean. The teacher can then review the class’ ideas to see what similar words they came up with. Finally, the teacher can explain what the word means and the class can identify which brain stormed words were accurate.

The Benefits of Scaffolding

There are a number of benefits to scaffolding instructional approaches in the classroom. Some of these benefits are related to the fact that they have a personal, emotional impact on students. Other benefits to scaffolding include the positive outcomes in grades. Here are just some of the ways that scaffolding can benefit students.

Scaffolding Improves Comprehension

Each student is different and learns at a different pace. Because of this, some students often fall behind. They simply don’t comprehend the material and find themselves being outpaced by their peers. Scaffolding can address this issue.

Scaffolding is particularly effective when teaching about a new topic, which is when many students struggle. New materials provide unique challenges since students are asked to learn about entirely new topics with which they have little experience. Scaffolding is an approach proven to increase learning outcomes.

Scaffolding Enhances Problem Solving

Scaffolding helps teachers to connect already learned concepts with material that is part of a new lesson. This previously learned material helps set a foundation for new materials to be learned. Students also start thinking about new materials using some of the same approaches they used to tackle their previously learned materials.

Connected old concepts to new ones guides students in understanding how to deal with new materials. This may involve seeing connections when discussing a new type of cell in a science class or could involve remembering how they dealt with math problems in previous lessons and using similar approaches to dealing with more complex math challenges.

Scaffolding Creates Higher Engagement

An important way that scaffolding works is by improving student engagement. There are a variety of activities that teachers can use that get students more directly involved with their class work. Plus, the close support teachers can provide during scaffolded instruction can keep students from becoming discouraged.

By building on knowledge a student already knows, it keeps the student from getting lost when learning new content and keeps them involved in their lessons. Scaffolding reduces student frustration and keeps them interested in what they’re learning.

Scaffolding Creates a More Positive Classroom

Scaffolding is an approach that can help reduce frustration and anxiety in the classroom. These two factors can have a number of negative outcomes and push students away from learning. Scaffolding takes these negative factors out of the class by removing typical points at which students struggle. Traditionally, teachers teach a lesson and then students independently practice.

Scaffolding creates a supportive environment with higher levels of engagement between students, teachers, and their peers. Using scaffolding brings together a number of positive practices associated with improved academic outcomes, including peer learning and increased teacher support.

These classrooms integrate lower stakes activities in which students are free to fail without having to worry that they will have their grades suffer. They can feel free to experiment with a teacher providing support or can enjoy the support of their peers as they work through complex materials.

Scaffolding creates a more easygoing classroom with a much more supportive structure in which students don’t have to stress themselves out about how well they do. This approach makes it easier to encourage student innovation and participation and lessons the anxieties students feel about coming to class.

Every student has one particular subject that they don’t feel confident about, and scaffolding can remove the negative perceptions they might have of those classes.

Challenges of Implementing Scaffolding

There are challenges that every teacher has to face when it comes to implementing scaffolding. For instance, scaffolding can take a good bit of time to set up originally. Teachers have to review existing lessons, identify points in their lessons where scaffolding is needed, and come up with scaffolding activities that can enhance learning. This can be time consuming when teachers first attempt to implement scaffolding. However, as with many other shifts in teaching style, the bulk of the work needs to be done when a teacher is first changing their style. Activities can be reused later on and speed up the planning process.

It’s choosing the activities themselves that can pose a problem for teachers. As previously pointed out, scaffolding is different from differentiated teaching. Scaffolding activities have to be able to meet the strengths of students with very different learning styles.

Teachers have to take the time to understand the strengths of their class and come up with activities that will be broadly appealing to students of many learning styles. Alternatively, they may have to identify different scaffolding activities individual students can complete that appeal to their strengths. It’s this process of identifying strengths and weaknesses that can be time consuming.

Appropriately scaffolding instruction can be particularly difficult for novice teachers. More experienced teachers often have an easier time identifying different learning styles of students in their classes. These teachers often have an easier time adapting their lessons to meeting these different learning styles. For new teachers, it can be harder to identify what works within their classes and how to differentiate their scaffolding activities in such a way that no student is left behind.

However, one of the most difficult aspects of scaffolding can be knowing when to let go and stop scaffolding for students. After a period of introducing students to new materials, teachers have to be able to let their students work independently on their materials.

It can sometimes be difficult to understand just when to let go. It’s also human nature to want to retain control. However, it’s important for teachers to understand when to stop holding their students’ hands and let them progress forward independently instead of providing scaffolding for the students to use. However, if teachers adhere to a four-stage format, they are more likely to implement successful scaffolding in the classroom.

The Four Stages of Scaffolding

North Illinois University recommends a four-stage method of scaffolding that progresses from teacher led activity to independent learning. In the first stage, an instructor introduces the subject and performs a task related to that subject. During this period, they connect previously learned material to material that is about to be introduced and show how a newly learned task can be completed. This is a period that allows students to observe and later model the teacher’s behavior.

Afterward, the teacher can ask for the class as a whole to participate in completing a similar activity. During this time, the teacher takes feedback from the class about what to do next when completing the task. Some activities may lend themselves to the teacher writing a list of these recommendations and trying out each of them.

Regardless of whether a list can be created, the third step of the lesson involves bringing groups together to complete a similar activity. In groups, students can work together and use peer instruction to help guide each other through the activity.

The last stage of the lesson involves teachers allowing students to complete a similar task on their own. At this stage, the teacher removes the scaffolding entirely and allows the students to work independently.

Building on the knowledge they’ve gained over the three previous stages, they can more effectively tackle a similar problem independently. Of course, even with a four-stage process, some students may not have fully grasped the lesson. This fourth stage is an important point in which teachers can assess student progress but also determine how effective their scaffolding process was.

It should be noted that while the four-stage process provides a framework for teachers to follow, they should only use it as a loose framework and not a rigid structure. For instance, the model provided by North Illinois University assumes that the teacher acts primarily as a lecturer during the first stage and doesn’t include some of the introductory activities we’ve previously discussed, like the creation of mind maps.

However, the first stage of a teacher’s instruction can be brief and be merged into the second stage, with students filling out activities as the teacher introduces the concepts and completes related tasks. Then the class can break out into groups and finish tasks before moving to independent work. The four-stage model provides an outline that teachers can learn from, but they should feel free to compress it when necessary or make some stages longer if the topic is particularly complex.

Scaffolding can be a little time intensive when first attempting to implement in the classroom and can be particularly difficult for new teachers to grasp. However, it’s a powerful means of helping students learn new concepts and helps them retain new information more easily.

By connection old ideas to new ones, teachers set a foundation for learning those new concepts. Then, by gradually working toward independent practice, teachers can progressively challenge students to successfully deal with these new concepts on their own.

Read Also: – Teaching Methods and Strategies: The Complete Guide – Blended Learning Guide – Collaborative Learning Guide – Flipped Classroom Guide – Game Based Learning Guide – Gamification in Education Guide – Holistic Education Guide – Maker Education Guide – Personalized Learning Guide – Place-Based Education Guide – Project-Based Learning Guide – Social-Emotional Learning Guide

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18 Smart Instructional Scaffolding Examples for Every Classroom

Tips and ideas for teachers and school leaders.

Providing students with better instructional scaffolding is often a school-wide objective, but how can teachers put this big idea into practice? Here are some teacher-tested tips and scaffolding examples to try in your own classroom.

What is scaffolding in education?

Explicit instruction in instructional scaffolding, instructional scaffolding examples and strategies.

Imagine you’ve been tasked with building a skyscraper from the ground up. If you’re not an architect, engineer, or construction expert, chances are you’d have no idea where to start. Even if you did have some expertise, you’d still need to tackle such an enormous project in stages.

Each part of the project requires its own specialized tools and materials, and the entire project builds on itself as it progresses. You can’t build the penthouse before digging the foundation! Along the way, workers build many temporary structures to support the ongoing construction, removing them as each new stage is complete.

Teachers can approach big concepts or complex skills just like building a skyscraper, using a technique known as instructional scaffolding. This involves breaking learning into manageable chunks and supporting students as they progress toward stronger understanding and ultimately greater independence. Over time, they no longer need as much support and eventually are able to handle the skill or concept all on their own.

One classic scaffolding example is the way we teach children to read. We don’t thrust books into their hands and immediately expect them to read the words on the page. Instead, we build a variety of skills over time, like knowing the alphabet, letter-sound correspondence, phonics concepts, sight words, and more.

We assist kids along the learning journey, developing and assembling their reading skills over several years. Eventually, we can remove the instructional scaffolding supports and watch kids read independently and confidently!

Learn much more about instructional scaffolding here.

One key to educational scaffolding is systematic explicit instruction. In this type of learning, the teacher presents important information up front, then models the skill or concept for students. Students are given a chance to practice themselves, first guided by the teacher and then independently. This modeling and guidance is the “scaffolding” that supports them as they learn.

Throughout explicit instruction, teachers must provide immediate corrective feedback. Catching students’ errors while they’re still practicing will prevent them from learning the skill incorrectly and then continuing to practice it incorrectly during homework and other assignments.

Explicit instruction contrasts with methods like project-based learning , play-based learning , or inquiry-based learning . Instead of allowing students to discover information on their own, explicit instruction presents the information up front, with the teacher demonstrating and modeling the desired skill or behavior. Below, you’ll find reliable scaffolding examples to try with your students. ADVERTISEMENT

1. Mini-Lessons

Mini-lessons, lasting only 10-15 minutes each, concentrate on one specific skill or concept at a time. It ensures every student has a chance to digest and master that skill or concept before they move on. Teaching a series of mini-lessons provides students with a safety net that moves them progressively toward deeper understanding.

Create a mini-lesson in much the same way you’d create a standard lesson, but keep the learning goal focused on one specific skill or concept. Introduce the topic and explain the key information. Give students a chance to apply the information in guided practice, then a chance to practice on their own. This builds confidence and establishes a foundation for what comes next.

Try it: Ways To Do Writing Mini-Lessons Using Your Interactive Projector

2. Read-Alouds

Learning to read is about more than sounding out words. To be a truly fluent reader, a student must be able to read out loud smoothly and at a conversational pace, using expression that suits the text. When we read aloud to kids, we’re modeling that fluent behavior for them to practice, making story time an excellent scaffolding example.

Try it: Reading Fluency Is About Accuracy, Expression, and Phrasing—Not Just Speed

3. Think-Alouds

You can demonstrate skills, of course, but how do you model thinking for kids? By doing it aloud! This gives your students a model for their own inner dialogue as they learn.

Teachers already do this frequently as they demonstrate the way to solve a math equation or complete a science experiment. But you can use it with every subject and topic. For instance, as you read a book out loud to your students, stop along the way and share what you’re thinking about the characters and events. Ask them to contribute their own thoughts too. This models reading comprehension and analysis for your students, and it gives them a chance to practice too.

Try it: Improve Reading Comprehension With Think-Alouds

4. Checklists and Rubrics

Some students struggle to remember all the steps they have to follow for a big project or assignment. Scaffold learning by breaking down directions into chunks that students can complete one step at a time, and give them a checklist that they can follow. By breaking it down, you’re providing scaffolds that many students need. Eventually, they can use this strategy on their own to plan and manage their own projects.

Scoring rubrics are another scaffolding example: They guide students through the requirements to achieve their desired outcome or grade on a project. By providing clear and specific examples, you help kids know what they need to do to succeed.

Try it: Helpful Scoring Rubric Examples for All Grades

5. Time To Process Information

Here’s some great advice from elementary teacher Tammy DeShaw: “We move so fast as teachers because we fear that we won’t get through it all,” she says. “But when we slow down and give students more time to process, we are really helping students.”

She continues, “It’s an effective scaffolding strategy when we pause at various points of instruction and break it up. Think about it. If something is above your head, it’s immediately overwhelming. But if you break it into manageable chunks and take your time through it, you’re able to process it much better!”

6. Anchor Charts

These are a common classroom tool, and they’re terrific for scaffolding learning. As you teach, you build the anchor chart together with students. Then, you keep it posted where they can refer to it during their hands-on practice time. It serves as a support until they’ve internalized the information and feel confident completing a task with that particular support tool.

Try it: Anchor Charts 101: Why and How To Use Them

7. Graphic Organizers

A graphic organizer is a powerful visual learning tool that teachers can use to help students organize their thinking before, during, or after a lesson. They provide scaffolded support as students work on the skills or knowledge independently, just like an anchor chart.

Try it: Graphic Organizers 101

8. Pre-Teaching

Build necessary background knowledge by pre-teaching important information before you tackle a bigger concept. For instance, teach important vocabulary words about living cells before you explore the details of how cells work. Before you start a lesson on the American Revolution, ensure students have background knowledge on the figures and political issues involved. Ready to begin a new novel in literature class? Spend some time learning about the time and place the novel is set in first.

9. Prior Knowledge Activation

Pre-teaching isn’t always necessary—sometimes students already have the knowledge they need. However, that doesn’t mean they can immediately bring it to mind. So before you begin a new concept, identify important background knowledge students already have, and take some time to review it together.

Try it: What Is Background Knowledge? (Plus 21 Ways To Build It)

10. I Do, We Do, You Do

The goal of scaffolding instruction is to build confidence so students can learn to do a task or recall knowledge on their own. Try this method:

I Do: The teacher demonstrates or models the skill or concept for students.

• Example: “For many nouns, we can make them plural by just adding an s . For example, ‘pig’ becomes ‘pigs’ and ‘book’ becomes ‘books.’” [Teacher writes words on the board as they talk.]

We Do: The teacher works together with students to practice the skill or concept.

• Example: “Let’s try one together. How do you spell the word ‘cup’?” [Class responds C-U-P and teacher writes letters on the board.] “How do we make this word plural?” [Class says “add s to the end. Teacher writes the s at the end of the word.”

You Do: Students practice the skill or concept independently.

• Example: “Here’s a list of 10 singular nouns. Write each one on your own piece of paper, making them plural.” [Students work on their own or in groups; teacher circulates and offers corrections as needed.]

11. Sentence Stems

Give students a head start during the guided practice portion of your scaffolded instruction with sentence stems. Provide students with the first part of a statement and ask them to fill in the blanks. Sentence starters can be an especially great support for English-language learners.

Try it: Sentence Stems: How To Use Them Plus Examples for Every Subject

12. Writing Templates

If you’re teaching students creative writing or how to write essays, use templates as part of scaffolded instruction. These will guide your students through the process of writing a specific type of poem, crafting an essay outline, or laying out a narrative arc for a story. Eventually, they’ll be able to write on their own, without needing a template as a guide.

Try it: Free Printable Haiku Starter Worksheets

13. Scaffolded Questions

Both lower-order thinking (remember, understand, and apply) and higher-order thinking (analyze, evaluate, and create) are important parts of learning. Generally, we start out by asking students lower-order thinking questions like “Who is the protagonist?” or “When did this battle happen?” Then, we progress to higher-order options like “Did this character make the right decision?” or “What would have happened if the other side won the battle?” This guides students to a deeper understanding of a topic.

Try it: 70 Lower- and Higher-Order Thinking Questions and Sentence Stems

14. Guided Note-Taking

Learning to take good notes is a valuable skill, but it doesn’t come naturally to many students. Teachers can help them learn the process as well as ensuring they learn what they need to know on a given topic with guided note-taking. Some ideas:

• Provide a basic outline students can fill in as you go along, and help them complete it correctly.
• Teach a more complex system like the Cornell Method by having students copy pre-written notes directly into their own notebooks.
• Create a mind map together as a class, then share it with students in Google Classroom so they can save it to their own notes.
• Ask each student to create their own sketch notes, then make copies and share them with other students so they’ll get inspiration as well as study aids.

Try it: 11 Helpful Note-Taking Strategies Your Students Should Know

15. Story Maps

This specific type of graphic organizer helps students understand novels more fully and deeply. It provides places to make notes on:

• Setting and background info
• Character traits and development
• Narrative plot arc events
• Problems/conflicts and solutions
• Main ideas/themes

They can use these notes to prepare for tests or write a report or essay. They’re also very helpful during classroom discussions and debates.

16. Think-Pair-Share

Participating in classroom discussions is difficult for many students. They often benefit from a chance to think their answers through, then discuss them in a pair or small group before presenting their ideas to the class in general. Think-pair-share is one of those smart scaffolding examples that helps build confidence in students and makes them more willing to join in the conversation as time goes by.

Try it: Think-Pair-Share and 10 Fun Variations

17. Check for Understanding

Since you’re purposely building skills or concepts a bit at a time, it’s important to have a good idea along the way of whether your students are catching on and getting it right. That means keeping a close eye on them while they learn and practice, and correcting errors right away when you see them.

Try it: 20 Creative Ways To Check for Understanding

18. Exit Tickets

One of our favorite scaffolding examples is exit tickets, a popular formative assessment used to check for understanding. At the end of a lesson or class period, students complete these tickets and hand them in on their way out the door. On the ticket, they respond to a question or prompt, solve a math or science equation, share what’s still confusing them, or any other quick assessment strategy. After class, the teacher reviews the answers to see if everyone has mastered the task or they need a little more guidance.

Try it: 26 Exit Ticket Examples and Ideas

What are your favorite instructional scaffolding examples? Come exchange ideas in the We Are Teachers Helpline group on Facebook .

Plus, check out these creative ways to check for understanding..

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What Is Scaffolding in Education? A Guide for Teachers

Let's break this concept down to make it easier to understand. Continue Reading

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Scaffolding in Education

What is Scaffolding?

Scaffolding in instruction is when a teacher supports students throughout the learning process. The instructor gradually introduces new ideas, building on each prior step and knowledge. As students learn new skills, they are able to master the task by tackling each section at a time. This allows them to acquire new skills using only temporary supports.

Scaffolding is based on Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development , which first debuted in 1978. His concept centered around three ideas:

• What students are unable to do
• What students are able to do independently
• What students are able to do with assistance

A simple example of scaffolding would be a child learning to walk. A new parent does not simply place a toddler on their feet and expect him to start walking right away. First, the parents would hold their child upright, allowing him to put barely any weight on his own legs. Then, he may begin to put more weight on his legs, until he gets the movement correct of one foot in front of the other. The child may then be able to take small steps and bear his own weight while holding onto a coffee table for stability. In time, he may take some unsteady steps with his parents close by, watching like a hawk, and finally, he will be able to walk on their own. Just as parents scaffold learning for their own children, teachers scaffold learning to ensure that their students are successful. After navigating through small, calculated steps, the student is ready to tackle a problem independently.

See also: Cognitive Apprenticeship

Scaffolding is beneficial because it promotes a positive learning environment. Students feel supported; they are able to ask questions, encourage their classmates, and offer their opinion on the activity. The instructor adopts more of a facilitator role – they guide the students through their learning journey. This encourages students to become more responsible for their own learning, and, in turn, they create their own goals and monitor their own levels of engagement.

Any task or activity with multiple steps could greatly benefit from scaffolding put in place. Learning strategies are highly dependent on the calculated support implemented by the instructor. Some teachers find that they naturally incorporate supports into their lessons, while others need to make a more conscious decision to do so. However, even with scaffolding in place, some students may never be able to achieve a specific task on their own.

This brings us to the topic of scaffolding and learning disabilities. Some students may engage in the task, and with supports, are able to complete the activity. Just because they are able to do the motions of the task does not mean that they are making the connection to the underlying idea. It is important that instructors closely monitor their students to ensure that they understand the reasoning behind each section. Teachers could have the students attempt to perform the activity on their own to see if learning has taken place.

See also: Situated Learning Theory

How do I scaffold instruction?

There are many ways to scaffold learning. Teachers may utilize different techniques based on the needs of their students or the type of task at hand. One way is not better than another, and each instructor will need to assess each situation as it comes. They will also need to reflect on their prior experiences and the support required for each student before committing to one strategy.

However, each scaffolding strategy does consist of two important elements:

• Modeling : Teachers demonstrate the task by modeling each step required. Students may need many opportunities in order to understand how each step is done. Repetition is critical to learning, which is why it is important that the students can witness the teacher modeling many times. Understanding the importance of each step is also critical to student success in the task.
• Practice : The teacher allows the students to work with him or herself in order to practice the task. Working with the teacher or in collaboration with others allows them the opportunity to be successful in their learning.

The following table outlines an example of teaching both with and without scaffolding in place. While we generally discuss the idea of scaffolding in the traditional classroom, scaffolding is also implemented in everyday life. The example below demonstrates the scaffolding put in place by the parent, not the educator. You can see that both practice and modeling were key components in the example that used scaffolding.

See also: Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

It is possible to implement elements of scaffolding throughout the entire learning journey. The following ideas are ways that educators can incorporate scaffolding in the classroom itself.

• Offer a welcoming environment . Students who feel safe and supported in class are more likely to take risks in their learning. Mistakes should be viewed as opportunities to learn and to try again without fear of shame by others.
• Reflect on the entry-level of knowledge of students – if the content is too challenging, the students may lose interest . If the content is not challenging enough, they will be easily bored.
• Co-create learning goals with the students . If the students feel like they have a say in their learning, they will be much more motivated to follow through.
• Develop activities that directly correlate with the instructional goals . This will help students see the relevance and the importance of the task.
• Create a positive rapport with students . Encourage them and make positive comments about their work.
• Ask them questions . Help them focus by offering redirection or subtle suggestions to achieve their goals.
• Use various strategies to assist students throughout a learning activity, for example, diagrams, graphics, sentence prompts, questioning, relevant stories, or other forms of visual models.
• Offer feedback . Have students summarize their own understanding and compare it to their own learning goals . What do they still have to work on? See also: Formative and Summative Assessment
• Build independence by encouraging students to apply their knowledge to new contexts. Application builds understanding, which will help ease students from the supports.

See also: Theory of Multiple Intelligences – Gardner

Scaffolding strategies to use with your students

There are also many ways to incorporate scaffolding directly into everyday teaching:

• Show and Tell – the instructor models a problem while sharing the solutions. Alternatively, some students could demonstrate an example of a task and show the other students how to do it. Talking through an activity like this is called the “show and tell” method.
• Leverage Prior Knowledge – tasks should relate to everyday experiences. Students who are able to make connections between the information and their own lives can brainstorm possible problem-solving skills that may assist them with the activity.
• Talk Time – explaining concepts to another solidifies understanding. Having the students discuss new ideas out loud not only helps identify possible misconceptions but also promotes better recollection. Students can chat in small groups or with the instructor.
• Pre-Teach Vocabulary – review complex words before covering a difficult text. If students are able to visualize challenging words, there is a much higher likelihood that they will understand the topic. They can make connections to the words in other settings and can therefore focus on learning the concept itself.
• Use Visuals – use graphic organizers to help your students visualize how information is connected. Venn diagrams and tables that offer comparison are both good examples of strategies to utilize in class.
• Practice Pausing – reflect often on the information taught. Some courses cover a lot of concepts in a short period of time, so it is critical to review and summarize important information with the students. Observe the class; do they understand what you are talking about? One technique to implement is to “pause, ask questions, pause, and review.” Plan possible questions to ask the students ahead of the lesson, and give them time to reflect on their answers.
• Describe Concepts – utilize oral skills. Graphic organizers help not only the instructor better describe the concept but also assist the students in communicating their own understanding. Everyone can verbally share their knowledge by referencing a visual aid.
• Promote Success – outline goals ahead of time. If both the students and the instructor have an idea of where they are going in the learning journey, they will have a greater chance at maintaining focus. New tasks should also build on prior knowledge in order to motivate students.

See also: How Can We Align Learning Objectives, Instructional Strategies, and Assessments?

I am a professor of Educational Technology. I have worked at several elite universities. I hold a PhD degree from the University of Illinois and a master's degree from Purdue University.

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Vygotsky Scaffolding: What It Is and How to Use It

General Education

If you're an educator or have a student in school, you may have heard of the concept Vygotsky scaffolding. It may sound like a construction term, but Vygotsky scaffolding and the related concept of the zone of proximal development are teaching methods that can help students learn much more information much more quickly than they would with traditional instruction.

However, Vygotsky scaffolding is only effective if you know how to properly implement it; otherwise it can actually hinder a student's learning. Read this guide to learn what scaffolding and the zone of proximal development are, what the scaffolding psychology is, if studies have found these teaching methods to be effective, and how you can use these methods in the classroom to promote learning.

What Is Instructional Scaffolding?

Instructional scaffolding, also known as "Vygotsky scaffolding" or just "scaffolding," is a teaching method that helps students learn more by working with a teacher or a more advanced student to achieve their learning goals.

The theory behind instructional scaffolding is that, compared to learning independently, students learn more when collaborating with others who have a wider range of skills and knowledge than the student currently does. These instructors or peers are the "scaffolding" who help the student expand her learning boundaries and learn more than she would be able to on her own.

Vygotsky scaffolding is part of the education concept "zone of proximal development" or ZPD. The ZPD is the set of skills or knowledge a student can't do on her own but can do with the help or guidance of someone else. It's the skill level just above where the student currently is.

ZPD is often depicted as a series of concentric circles. The smallest circle is the set of skills a student can learn on her own, without any help. Next is the ZPD, or skills a student wouldn't be able to do on her own, but can do with a teacher or peer helping her. Beyond that are skills the student can't do yet, even with help.

For example, say there is a kindergartner who is learning how to read and write. He knows all the letters of the alphabet, but he can't yet read or write words. No matter how much guidance he was given, he could never read a novel on his own at this point, but with a teacher's help, he can learn how to read and write short words like "at," "boy" and "dog" because this skill is within is ZPD. It would have taken him much longer to learn this skill on his own, but it's still simple enough that he can understand it if he has someone to explain it to him. The student's ZPD is reading and writing short words, and the teacher who helps him learn them is the scaffolding.

Proponents of ZPD and instructional scaffolding believe they are highly effective ways to maximize a student's learning. Scaffolding can be used to help a person of any age learn something new, but in the classroom it is most often used with younger students (preschool and elementary school) since they are learning new skills and concepts they haven't been exposed to before most frequently.

What's the History Behind Vygotsky Scaffolding?

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Soviet psychologist who coined the term "zone of proximal development" and conducted many studies that led to instructional scaffolding. This is why the concept is often referred to as "Vygotsky scaffolding."

Vygotsky focused his work on developmental psychology, and it was in the 1920s and early 1930s, towards the end of his career, that he developed the concept of ZPD. Vygotsky believed that educators should help students learn within their ZPD so that they can increase their skills and knowledge without becoming frustrated by things that are currently too difficult for them to accomplish.

Vygotsky came up with the idea of ZPD after extensive studying of how young children learn and the effectiveness of different teaching methods. He found that individual knowledge-based tests are often an inaccurate way to measure a young student's intelligence since children need to interact with others who are more intelligent than they currently are in order to learn. He cited many examples of cultures where young children are taught new skills and knowledge passed down by older generations.

For example, when infants are learning how to walk, they often start by holding onto the clothes or hands of an adult or older child, who guides them. The infant will continue to do this until they have enough skills and strength to walk on their own. This way they're able to learn to walk much faster than if they were expected to learn without being able to hold onto anything.

Vygotsky instead believed that the proper way to test young students was to test their ability to solve problems both independently and with the help of an adult. Dr. Maria Montessori, who established the Montessori education philosophy, also published similar research several decades before Vygotsky. Vygotsky died in 1934, less than a decade after he introduced the idea of ZPD, and after his death research on his ideas greatly decreased.

In the 1960s, Vygotsky's work was revived by a new group of psychologists studying developmental psychology. Dr. Jerome Bruner coined the term "scaffolding" and connected it to Vygotsky's work. Dr. Bruner and other psychologists began studying the use of ZPD in different educational contexts, and they found that encouraging students to tackle the most difficult tasks within their ZPD leads to the most learning.

Today scaffolding continues to be studied and used in schools, and much recent research has focused on how to use scaffolding to make classes (including online classes) more effective.

Does Vygotsky Scaffolding Work?

Over the past several decades, numerous studies have been conducted to study the effectiveness of using ZPD and scaffolding as teaching methods. Overall, research has shown that these methods can often help students learn more than they would compared to traditional teaching methods, but they require the instructor to have a good grasp of the student's ZPD so they can adapt the teaching method to them.

An early study from 1975 found that four-year-olds whose mother's interacted with them and gave them advice were able to build significantly more complicated block towers than those who worked alone. The children who were most successful were those whose mothers adapted their strategy based on how well their child was completing the task. They made different comments based on whether the child was doing well or was struggling. A 1990 study found similar results when children were asked to put dollhouse furniture into the correct room. Children whose mothers gave them guidance were significantly more successful than those who completed the task on their own.

A study published in 2000 that focused on a teacher using ZPD and scaffolding to teach a Farsi speaker English found that these methods can be an effective way to teach someone a new language. As the student improved his English skills, his teacher went from teaching individual words and phrases, to asking yes/no questions, to asking questions that required more in-depth responses. This gradual increase in difficulty helped the student improve his English skills while reducing feelings of frustration from attempting language skills beyond his current level.

A similar scaffolding psychology study published in 2014 found that, in a group of 30 Australian language students, those who had tutors that used scaffolding techniques made significantly more progress in their writing quality and strategy application.

Two studies, one from 2003 and one from 2010 , found that ZPD and scaffolding can be effective, but if the instructor doesn't know how to implement them correctly, she is at risk of helping students too much which turns them into passive learners and hinders their growth.

Tips for Using Vygotsky Scaffolding in the Classroom

From the studies discussed above, we know that instructional scaffolding can be an effective teaching tool, but only if the instructor understands how to use it. Below are four tips for using scaffolding in the classroom.

Know Each Student's ZPD

In order to use ZPD and scaffolding techniques successfully, it's critical to know your students' current level of knowledge. Without this information, you won't be able to teach them in their ZPD or provide effective scaffolding support.

Before you begin a lesson with ZPD or Vygotsky scaffolding, find their baseline knowledge by giving a short quiz or having an introductory discussion on the topic where you ask students questions to figure out what they already know.

Also remember that each student will have a different ZPD for each topic you teach. If a class has widely varying ZPDs for a specific topic, it can be more effective to have them work in groups or individually while you walk around the classroom and provide guidance so that you can tailor your techniques to each student's ZPD.

Encourage Group Work

Group work can be a very effective way of using scaffolding principles in the classroom because students can learn from each other while working together on a project. More advanced students can help others learn while improving their own skills by explaining their thought process. Try to create groups that contain students with different skill sets and learning levels to maximize the amount students learn from each other.

Make sure each student in the group is actively participating. If you see one student doing most of the work, have her ask the other students for their opinions, and emphasize the importance of everyone contributing.

Don't Offer Too Much Help

A potential drawback of Vygotsky scaffolding is the possibility of providing too much help. This causes the student to be a passive, instead of active, learner and actually reduces the amount the student learns.

If you're using scaffolding techniques, don't jump in right away and start offering advice. Let each student work on their own first. When they begin to struggle, first start by asking them questions about what they've done and what they think they should do next. As much as possible, ask open-ended questions that encourage them to find a solution on their own, as opposed to just telling them the next step.

For example, if a student is trying to build a block tower, it's much more helpful to say things like "How do you think you can make this tower stronger?" or "Why do you think the tower fell down?" than "You need to make the base bigger."

If after you've had the student think through the problem, then you can begin offering concrete advice for what to do next, but be sure to continue to ask questions to help increase the student's understanding. For example, after giving advice on how to improve the block tower, you can ask "Why do you think making the base bigger helps the tower stay up?"

Have Students Think Aloud

Having students discuss their thought process is one of the best ways to figure out where their current skills are (and thus determine their ZPD) and make sure they're actively learning. As a student is working on a project, have her talk about why she's making certain decisions, what she thinks she should do next, and what she's unsure about. When you give advice, make sure you also explain your own thought process so students can understand why you're making the decisions you did.

Summary: Vygotsky Scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky scaffolding is a teaching method that uses instructors and more advanced peers to help students learn. The Vygotsky theory of cognitive development states that students will learn more when they receive guidance from someone with more skills in the subject they're learning than they would if they were tackling the subject on their own.

Vygotsky scaffolding is part of the education theory the zone of proximal development. The zone of proximal development states that each student, for each subject, has three levels of learning: things the student can accomplish on her own, things she can accomplish with help from someone else (the zone of proximal development) and things she can't accomplish no matter how much help she has. The ZPD and Vygotsky scaffolding theory is that students learn the most when they're in their ZPD.

Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky developed the ZPD and the Vygotsky theory of cognitive development, while Jerome Bruner developed scaffolding psychology several decades later. Studies have shown that scaffolding can be a very effective teaching method, as long as the teacher understands the concepts behind it and doesn't provide too much guidance.

If using scaffolding and the zone of proximal development in the classroom, remember to know each student's ZPD, encourage group work, don't offer too much help, and have students explain their thought process out loud.

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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6 Foundational Ways to Scaffold Student Learning

A collection of evidence-backed tips to help students cross the bridge from confusion to clarity.

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Good differentiation is one of the hardest bars to meet as a classroom teacher. Students have a wide range of skills and abilities, and they also come preloaded with different experiences, dispositions, and prior knowledge, making a one-size-fits-all pedagogical approach a pipe dream.

That’s why anytime you’re teaching a lesson, you should consider deploying scaffolds—“support that is tailored to students’ needs,” as defined by a 2015 study —to ensure that every student can keep pace. The benefits are hard to ignore: Advanced learners, who may easily grasp the material, will have more durable memories, while struggling students will receive the support they need to make learning more achievable.

Here are six essential scaffolding activities, all drawn from research, that can be used alongside your lessons to help all students succeed.

1. First, Clarity

Before jumping into a lesson, review your materials for brevity and clarity. All too often, students are stuck, not because the lesson is too difficult but because the instructions aren’t clear or handouts are haphazardly designed.

Audit your instructional materials year to year, with the aim of gradually simplifying and improving them. Another effective way to provide greater clarity is to use headings and annotations to direct student attention to key ideas. For example, the thoughtful use of underlining, highlighting, and arrows to call attention to crucial ideas can boost student retention by 36 percent, a 2020 study suggests. Don’t overdo it, though. Consider what is absolutely necessary and useful, and avoid extraneous details and eye-catching adornments, which can occupy valuable attentional resources and reduce comprehension.

Pro tip: After a lesson, check in with students to see how well they understood the directions and objectives. You may think that your lessons are the perfect balance of being brilliant and easy to grasp, but not every student will see things clearly. Highly effective teachers often check in with their students, asking questions such as “Are my lessons and assignments clear?” to unearth pain points, bottlenecks, and other obstacles, a 2019 study found.

2. Build Background Knowledge

Tackling a new topic without sufficient background knowledge is like exploring a cave without a flashlight: Without a foundation of familiar terms lighting up the path ahead, students will struggle to grasp the lesson. That’s because the brain always seeks connections to previously stored material, which ties ideas together and reinforces the conceptual scaffolding.

How important is background knowledge? According to a 2019 study of over 3,500 high school students learning about ecology, being unfamiliar with roughly 59 percent of terms in the topic resulted in “compromised” comprehension. If students didn’t know key terms like habitat or biodiversity , they had a harder time following a lesson, falling behind their peers who were also new to the lesson but had a stronger vocabulary to draw from.

Before exploring a new topic—or after having students read an introductory text—have students identify words that confuse them, or draw up your own list of academic terms that all students should know beforehand, which you can share on a word wall or play vocabulary games with. During a lesson, pause for a moment and explore those terms, so that all students can keep pace and not be tripped up by gaps in background knowledge. To get students to begin connecting new material to already-learned material, you can read an introductory text and have them engage in small group K-W-L activities , or you can sequence lessons so that overarching connections are made explicit, helping to reactivate prior knowledge on a regular basis.

3. Be MultiModal

Provide multiple ways for students to learn the material by pairing a written or verbal lesson with pictures, diagrams, or video, or by asking them to physically act out concepts, write songs, or reenact historical events. Relying on multiple sensory pathways encodes learning material more effectively—leading to more durable memories.

The research is clear, and the effect sizes are considerable. In a 2015 study , for example, researchers discovered that handing illustrated diagrams to students who listened to a physics lecture boosted performance on a follow-up test by 70 percent, compared with their peers who listened to the lecture with no visual aids. And a 2020 study found that 8-year-old students learning a new language were 73 percent more likely to remember vocabulary words if they acted them out—spreading their arms and pretending to fly when learning how to say “airplane” in German, for example.

4. Use Graphic Organizers and Anchor Charts

Visual scaffolds can serve as a road map for students, helping them navigate unfamiliar conceptual terrain by providing a bird’s-eye view of the lesson. Distilling a complex topic into a handful of key ideas not only promotes comprehension but also can greatly enhance long-term recall of the material.

When middle school students used graphic organizers while learning about the seasons, factual recall increased by 45 percent and comprehension by 64 percent, compared with their peers who weren’t given the scaffolding aids, a 2021 study found. Novice learners are often overwhelmed by the sheer amount of information presented in a lesson, the researchers observed, and have difficulty telling the difference between key ideas and supporting details. Graphic organizers and anchor charts, however, can guide “students’ selective attention” to what’s important, giving them a leg up compared with their peers.

In the early stages of learning—as students are grappling with unfamiliar information—it’s helpful to supply prompts, hints, or even partially completed anchor charts and graphic organizers to make learning more effective. Asking students to start from scratch can overload their working memory, but pre-filling core concepts in a graphic organizer can “scaffold and guide the learner’s cognitive processing,” resulting in a 155 percent boost to comprehension, according to the 2021 study referenced above.

5. Use Pre-lesson Activities

In a 2021 study , researchers concluded that giving students ungraded pre-lesson practice quizzes boosted follow-up tests of retention and transfer by 49 percent, compared with simply jumping into a lesson without any warm-up activities. Surprisingly, the researchers found that pre-testing also outperformed post-lesson practice quizzes as well, improving scores by 27 percent over the tried-and-true strategy.

While embedding practice tests during—and after—a lesson is an effective way to strengthen student memory for the material, pre-lesson quizzes provide a different benefit: They scaffold the to-be-learned material, helping students to organize their thoughts, sparking curiosity as they venture guesses, and encouraging them to “search for the correct answers” during the actual lesson, the researchers point out.

Periodically, you might start a new lesson by asking students to solve challenging questions—ones that are just beyond their ability to solve. Used strategically, in small doses and for high-value concepts, the approach helps students learn how to deal with frustration in a supportive, productive environment. While many will struggle, that’s the point, says learning scientist Manu Kapur. “These problems should be just beyond students’ reach—they’re designed in ways that will activate prior knowledge and motivate students, clarifying what they know and what they don’t know,” Kapur told Edutopia in 2022. “If the challenge hits that sweet spot, that’s where deep learning happens.” Let students explore different avenues, and then step in, building off their ideas and solutions as you elucidate and clarify, he suggests.

6. Ask Metacognitive Questions

When students encounter new material, it can feel like a flood, overloading their ability to process the information. While external scaffolds—outlines and anchor charts, for example—provide valuable support, it’s also beneficial to encourage students to develop their own portable strategies for managing novel information.

Metacognitive questions provide students with a template for interrogating new material, putting them on the path to becoming independent learners. Students can ask questions like these:

• What stands out to me about this new material? What makes me wonder?
• Which parts or terms are unfamiliar to me, and which parts do I recognize?
• How does this connect with what I already know?
• What follow-up questions do I have?
• Why is this idea important?

You can pair these metacognitive questions with new assignments, suggests Kimberly Tanner, a professor of biology at San Francisco State University, in a 2017 study . “The instructor’s decision to make these kinds of questions part of an assignment—and part of the grading scheme for the assignment—can prompt students to bring a more metacognitive stance to their everyday coursework,” she writes.

• Higher Education

Scaffolding in Education: A Comprehensive Guide for Teachers

Scaffolding emerges as a luminary pedagogical concept, commanding attention and reverence. As custodians of the learning odyssey, educators delve into the intricate art of creating fertile educational landscapes, where scaffolding stands as a beacon of guidance. This comprehensive compendium embarks on a profound exploration of scaffolding in education, unraveling its essence, principles, strategies, and the indelible mark it leaves on the tapestry of student development.

Meaning of Scaffolding in Education:

Scaffolding in education, is a choreography of support, a delicate dance between mentor and mentee. The pages of this guide unfurl a narrative that encapsulates the very soul of scaffolding—a concept transient yet transformative. Defined by the enchanting interplay within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) , scaffolding is unveiled as a nuanced tapestry of pedagogical finesse. The gradual release of responsibility, a symphony of modeling, questioning, and collaborative crescendos, shapes the strategies that scaffold the academic voyage.

As we traverse these educational realms, we encounter the profound impact of scaffolding—an alchemy that kindles confidence amplifies learning outcomes, and cultivates the self-regulation of budding minds. The journey within these pages is an ode to the educators who, with scaffolding as their artisanal tool, craft intellectual landscapes where each student constructs their knowledge edifice, brick by insightful brick. Welcome to the realm where education transcends, and scaffolding reigns as the virtuoso orchestrator of scholastic growth.

Definition of Scaffolding in Education:

At its core, scaffolding in education refers to a systematic instructional technique wherein teachers provide temporary support to students. This support acts as a crucial framework, facilitating the acquisition of new skills or comprehension of complex concepts. What distinguishes scaffolding is its temporary nature, gradually withdrawing support as learners develop autonomy and competence in the targeted area.

Principles of Scaffolding in Education:

1. zone of proximal development (zpd).

A cornerstone of scaffolding, the Zone of Proximal Development, as conceptualized by Lev Vygotsky, delineates the range of tasks a learner cannot perform independently but can achieve with the support of a more knowledgeable person, such as a teacher or peer.

2. Gradual Release of Responsibility

Scaffolding in education adheres to the principle of a gradual release of responsibility. This involves a phased approach where educators progressively transfer responsibility to students. This measured transition enables learners to internalize knowledge and skills, fostering independent problem-solving and critical thinking.

3. Flexibility and Adaptability

Effective scaffolding recognizes and accommodates the diverse needs of learners. Educators must display flexibility, adapting their strategies based on individual student abilities, prior knowledge, and learning styles.

Also Read: Methods for Teaching: A Comprehensive Guide for Educators

Strategies for Implementing Scaffolding:

1. modeling.

Modeling is a foundational scaffolding strategy wherein teachers demonstrate the desired skills or concepts, providing a clear example for students to observe and emulate. This step-by-step demonstration sets the stage for effective learning.

2. Questioning

Thoughtful questioning is a powerful scaffolding strategy that guides students through problem-solving processes. It encourages them to think critically and apply their knowledge, promoting a deeper understanding of the subject matter.

3. Prompts and Cues

Strategic prompts and cues serve as cognitive tools, helping students recall information or steps in a process. These subtle nudges ensure that learners stay on track and gradually become adept at navigating tasks independently.

4. Feedback

Constructive feedback is integral to scaffolding, offering insights into students’ progress, and highlighting areas for improvement. Timely and specific feedback guides learners, ensuring they stay aligned with learning objectives.

5. Collaborative Learning

Scaffolding in education extends beyond teacher-student interactions to include peer collaboration. Collaborative activities promote discussion, shared problem-solving, and a sense of collective responsibility, enriching the learning experience.

Impact on Student Development:

1. increased confidence.

Scaffolding plays a pivotal role in boosting students’ confidence. By navigating challenging tasks with guidance, learners gradually gain the assurance to tackle similar challenges independently. This incremental approach to autonomy fosters a sense of accomplishment and self-efficacy.

2. Enhanced Learning Outcomes

The targeted support provided through scaffolding contributes to improved learning outcomes. Students acquire a deeper understanding of subjects, demonstrating a mastery of skills and knowledge that extends beyond mere rote memorization.

3. Development of Self-Regulation

As students engage with scaffolding, they concurrently develop self-regulation skills. This entails the ability to monitor and manage one’s learning, fostering a sense of responsibility and accountability in the educational journey.

Challenges and Considerations

While scaffolding emerges as a powerful teaching strategy, it is not immune to challenges. Teachers must navigate potential pitfalls, including over-reliance on support, neglect of individual differences, or premature withdrawal of assistance. Scaffolding’s effectiveness hinges on teacher expertise, adaptability, and a nuanced understanding of each student’s unique needs.

Scaffolding in education stands as a transformative force, shaping the learning experiences of students and empowering them to navigate the complexities of the modern world. This symbiotic relationship between teacher guidance and student autonomy exemplifies the profound impact of scaffolding in education. As teachers harness the principles and strategies of scaffolding, they become architects of intellectual growth, ensuring that each learner constructs their knowledge scaffold by scaffold, reaching new heights in their academic pursuits. The journey of scaffolding transcends traditional pedagogy, embodying a dynamic and responsive approach to education that paves the way for a future generation of independent, confident, and resourceful individuals.

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10 Best Tips to Implement Scaffold Learning in the Classroom

As a teacher, you know that different students learn in different ways. Some students need more help than others to understand new material. That’s where scaffolding strategies come in. Scaffold learning is a teaching technique that supports students as they learn new material. This guide will teach you everything you need to know about scaffold learning, from what it is to how you can use it in your classroom.

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What are Scaffolding Strategies in Learning?

Scaffold learning is a term that refers to the process of providing students with temporary or partial support to help them complete a task or reach a goal. The support can come in the form of physical scaffolding, like a ladder or platform that allows someone to climb to a higher level, or it can be more abstract, like providing hints or clues to help solve a problem.

The term “scaffold learning” is often used in educational contexts, referring to the support teachers provide to students as they learn new material. When scaffolding learning in the classroom, teachers break down tasks into smaller parts and assist in the way. This step-by-step approach helps students understand new concepts and build on their prior knowledge.

Strategies for Implementing Scaffold Learning

There are many ways to implement scaffold learning in your classroom . Here are some scaffolding strategies that you can use with your students:

1. Pre-teach Vocabulary

One of the best ways to scaffold learning is to pre-teach vocabulary. When students are familiar with the words they will be using, they can focus on understanding the meaning of the words instead of trying to figure out what they mean. Pre-teaching also helps build vocabulary skills, which will come in handy throughout the student’s academic career.

2. Modeling

Modeling is another scaffolding strategy that teachers can use to introduce new material. When you model a task, you show students how to do it through demonstrations, verbal explanations, or written instructions. After you have modeled the task, give students a chance to practice it. It will help them understand and apply the material in their own lives.

3. Think-Alouds

Think-Alouds are a type of modeling that involves thinking aloud as you solve a problem. This strategy is beneficial because it allows students to see how they think about the situation. It also allows you to model different problem-solving methods. As you think aloud, explain your thought process and why you are making the decisions you are.

4. Use Visual Aids

Visual aids are a great way to scaffold learning. Teachers can use them to introduce new material, reinforce concepts, and provide support for struggling learners. Visual aids can take many forms, such as charts, diagrams, pictures, and videos. When using visual aids, explain what they are and how Teachers can use them to support learning .

5. Provide Practice Opportunities

Practice is an essential part of scaffold learning. It allows students to apply what they have learned in a safe and supportive environment. When providing practice opportunities, give students clear instructions and ample time to complete the task. You may also want to give students a chance to share their work with the class.

6. Give Feedback

Nothing is more important than feedback when using scaffold learning in your classroom . Feedback helps students understand what they are doing well and what they need to work on. It also shows them that you are paying attention to their progress. When giving feedback, make it specific, positive, and helpful.

7. Encourage Questions

Questions are a part of scaffold learning. They allow students to check their understanding, clarify concepts, and get more information. When encouraging questions, create a safe and supportive environment where all questions are welcome.

8. Gradual Release of Responsibility

The gradual release of responsibility is a scaffolding strategy that gradually gives students more control over their learning. You can do this by providing scaffolded instruction and releasing responsibility to the students. As students show they are ready, you can give them more opportunities to lead their learning.

9. Connections to Prior Knowledge

Educators can help scaffold new material by incorporating it with information that students have already learned. Teachers can make scaffolding more effective and improve learning outcomes by connecting the new material to what students know.

10. Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction is another scaffolding strategy to be used in the classroom. This scaffolding strategy involves providing different levels of support to students based on their individual needs. By differentiating instruction, teachers can ensure that all students have the opportunity to learn and succeed.

Why Use Scaffold Learning in Your Classroom?

There are many reasons to use scaffold learning in your classroom. Here are just a few:

1. Helps Students of All Levels

Scaffold learning is beneficial for students of all levels, from those who are struggling to those who are gifted. For struggling students, scaffolding provides the support they need to engage with new material. Scaffolding can challenge talented students to think critically and apply their knowledge in new ways. By providing enrichment opportunities, scaffolding can help talented students reach their full potential.

2. Builds Confidence

With scaffold learning, students build confidence as they master new concepts. They feel a sense of accomplishment when they can complete tasks that were once difficult. This confidence carries over into other areas of their lives, inside and outside the classroom.

3. Fosters Independence

Independence is another important outcome of scaffold learning. As students gain confidence and mastery, they become more independent learners. They can take what they have learned and apply it to new situations. This independence leads to a lifetime of successful learning.

Let’s Scaffold Some Learning!

Scaffolding requires planning and effort, but it is worth it when you see the difference it makes in your students’ learning. Use these scaffolding strategies in your classroom to support your students as they learn new material. And, don’t forget to scaffold your learning by connecting further information to what you already know!

Frequently Asked Questions

How can scaffolding be used in the classroom.

Scaffolding is used in the classroom by incorporating scaffolded instruction into your lesson plans. This is done using scaffolding strategies such as modeling, providing practice opportunities, and giving feedback. Scaffolding is beneficial because it allows students to learn new information more effectively.

What is the difference between scaffolding and visual learning?

Visual learning is a scaffolding strategy that can support students as they learn new material. Visual aids, such as charts, diagrams, pictures, and videos, can be used for scaffold learning . However, scaffolding is not limited to visual aids. It also includes strategies such as modeling and providing practice opportunities.

What makes scaffolding effective?

Scaffolding is effective because it makes learning more accessible to students. Teachers can help students understand new concepts and retain information more effectively by providing scaffolded instruction. Additionally, scaffolding allows students to have greater control over their learning.

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What Are You Thinking? Scaffolding Thinking to Promote Learning

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Lisi, a teacher of 4-year-olds at Learning Steps Learning Center in Miami, Florida, puts a manual orange squeezer in a box. Carefully, she cuts a hole in the box’s side so her children can reach in and touch the juicer without seeing it. “We are going to follow three simple steps,” she says as she introduces the activity. “First, you are going to put your hand through this hole and feel what’s inside. Second, once you touch what’s in here, your mind is going to  think  and  make connections . Then, you’re going to go to the table and draw what you think you felt. Together, we’ll share our  hypotheses .”

The children eagerly take turns inserting their hands into the box and touching the object. Lisi gives them time to make their predictions, then asks them to sit down and draw their hypotheses. Once they finish their drawings, they share and listen to each other’s ideas.

“My hypothesis is that I think it is a bus,” says Lily, holding up her drawing.

“Can you describe with details why you have that hypothesis?” Lisi asks. “What did you  connect  to when you touched the object inside the box?”

“When I was little, my dad had a workshop for buses,” Lily says. “So when I touched it, the bus was clean, and wheels were yellow. So I touched the wheels and they moved.”

Clara is next. She shows her drawing and says, “My hypothesis is a rainbow.”

“What makes you think it’s a rainbow?” Lisi asks.

“Because I touched it.”

“But how did you connect a rainbow to what you touched in that box?”

“I was thinking,” Clara says.

“Have you ever touched a rainbow before?” Lisi asks. “How does a rainbow feel?”

Clara thinks for a moment. “Like a slide.”

What inspires children’s curiosity? What drives active and engaged thinking in children, as illustrated in the opening vignette? Philosophers, researchers, and educators have long grappled with these questions. Historically, early childhood classrooms were built around the idea that children needed teacher-directed instructions and guidance to reach predetermined outcomes. But more recent research shows the importance of supporting children’s innate intellectual dispositions and capacities as active learners (Katz 2015). When teachers value the thinking of early learners, they intentionally design scenarios in which children are cognitively engaged. This makes the act of thinking visible to children and invites them to reflect on it.

Teachers can create and carry out a classroom culture that either fosters or discourages engaged and active thinkers. Classrooms that rely heavily on teacher-directed experiences tend to provide a set of instructions to generate predetermined answers or actions, which can hinder children’s thinking. Classrooms that incorporate child-directed experiences offer many opportunities for children to uncover their ideas, to generate questions, and to construct their own knowledge (NAEYC 2020). In our work with teachers, we implement the Visible Thinking approach to help early childhood educators intentionally plan and implement a culture of active thinking. Developed by Harvard University’s Project Zero, Visible Thinking gives teachers the tools to cognitively engage children. This article is a testimony to those teachers’ experiences and the shifts in their approaches as they focus on children’s ideas and imaginations.

Making Thinking Visible

Young children are ready for and deserve rich and cognitively engaging early learning experiences (Salmon 2010, 2016). Yet, as Ritchhart and Perkins (2008) say, one problem with thinking is that it’s invisible. Effective thinkers externalize their thoughts through speaking, writing, and drawing. The Visible Thinking approach invites teachers to establish a classroom culture where children’s thinking is valued, promoted, and made visible with the use of documentation. Ron Ritchhart, a researcher at Project Zero, posits that a culture of thinking takes place when both collective and individual thinking are treated in this way and actively promoted as part of the regular daily classroom experience (2015). Through intentionally planning and teaching this kind of culture, we can engage children cognitively and involve them as co-constructors of knowledge.

In his research, Ritchhart identifies eight forces that shape a culture of thinking and that teachers can use to spark curiosity in their youngest learners. We will use Lisi’s story to illustrate these forces:

• Expectations.  It is important to set high expectations for thinking and learning. Teachers’ expectations are crucial when providing opportunities for students to think and express their thoughts. In Lisi’s class, she exposes children to higher-order thinking processes such as imagining, connecting, hypothesizing, and building explanations.
• Opportunities.  With high expectations, teachers create opportunities for thinking and learning. Lisi designs a learning experience using an artifact (the box and hidden object) to spark children’s curiosity and engage them in deep thinking.
• Routines. These are goal-centered strategies designed to promote, scaffold, and provide patterns of thinking. Lisi creates a routine (touch-think and connect-hypothesize) to regularly engage her students in the process of thinking. Through the routine, Lisi’s children use their senses to explore, imagine, make connections, hypothesize, and share ideas.
• Language.  By using a language of thinking, teachers offer students a vocabulary to describe and reflect on thinking. Lisi introduces a new language of thinking with words and phrases such as  hypothesizing  and  making connections .
• Time.  Allowing time for thinking and reflecting is essential. Lisi gives children time to process their ideas, express them, and share them with their peers.
• Modeling.  Teachers must model thinking and learning. Modeling who we are as thinkers and learners encourages us to discuss, share, and make the process of our thinking visible. Lisi introduces her classroom activity by modeling the process and type of thinking her students will use.
• Interactions.  Teachers promote and encourage others to respect children’s contributions. Showing respect for and valuing each other’s contributions of ideas in a spirit of ongoing, collaborative inquiry are important. In Lisi’s class, children listen to each other, ask questions, and learn to value the different ideas that emerge from the activity.
• Environment.  Arranging the classroom space to facilitate thoughtful interactions ensures that the learning environment displays representations of children’s thinking. Lisi exhibits her children’s hypotheses drawings on her classroom walls. She uses this documentation to build on the next activity.

Transforming Expectations and Questions to Attain a Culture of Thinking

To promote a deep-thinking classroom culture, teachers must learn how to ask strategic questions. Questions set the stage for and guide thinking. They deepen learning, build a growth mindset, and help students become more aware of their own thinking processes (Costa & Kallick 2015). However, they need to be the right kinds of questions.

Most classroom questions fall into one of five typologies (Ritchhart 2015):

• Review.  Recalling and reviewing knowledge and information
• Procedural.  Directing the work of the class, going over directions and assignments
• Generative.  Exploring the topic, asking authentic questions
• Constructive.  Building new understanding, extending and interpreting, connecting and linking, focusing on big ideas, and evaluating
• Facilitative.  Promoting learners’ own thinking and understanding, elaborating, reasoning, and justifying

When teachers center their questions on review and procedural, children can quickly lose interest. Teachers who ask children simply to review what they know or to parrot back directions miss out on rich opportunities to cognitively engage and challenge their students to think beyond the obvious. Neither the teacher nor the children build upon each other’s contributions. To transform these types of questions into a more productive dialogue, teachers should think about the effect their questions will have on children’s responses: how can they formulate questions that will make children’s thinking visible? Good questions emerge from listening carefully to children, building from their ideas and interests, and moving forward. (See “Questions to Foster a Thinking Culture," below.) As Duckworth says, having wonderful ideas “implies generating or owning ideas, and ownership stands in contrast to being told what you ought to understand” (Meek 1991, 30).

Renata teaches 3-year-olds at a South Florida preschool. She has grappled with ways to engage her children and promote their curiosity and ideas. A recent discussion about a field trip devolved into fidgeting, boredom, and disengagement. Upon reflection, she realizes her expectations were too low. She was asking children to recall and recite basic facts of the field trip rather than challenging them to build new understandings, elaborate on their thoughts, and make connections with their own and each other’s ideas.

After careful reflection, Renata gathers her 3-year-olds and begins discussing the field trip again. Only this time, she focuses on asking authentic questions designed to engage the children in her class. “Karla,” she says, “on our trip, you saw a dark cloud that made you think it was going to rain. What else did you see?”

“I saw a plant,” Karla says, recalling the field trip.

“What makes you say that it was a plant?” Renata asks, jotting down the child’s comments.

Olivia pipes up. “Because you can’t take them off when you pull their hair.”

“The plant’s hair?” Renata asks, picking up a plant to show the children. “What is the part of the plant that is the hair? If I show you this plant, what is its hair?”

This conversation illustrates how Renata is building on Karla’s ideas and theories. Her questions are more generative and constructive. She values her students’ contributions and ideas, and she shows respect for Karla’s description of the plant. When Renata reflected on this interaction, she said: “I learned that as children share their ideas and exchange viewpoints, they develop different modes of thinking. By empowering children, the interactions change, the conversation evolves from children’s ideas, and the teacher’s expectations change when children make visible what they know and think about the world.”

Offering Opportunities to Think

Too often, activities in early childhood settings are characterized by a teacher-centered approach: teachers design step-by-step activities and expect similar outcomes from all children. By contrast, developmentally appropriate practice encourages teachers to build on each child’s multiple assets and to create opportunities for each child to exercise choice and agency within the context of a planned environment (NAEYC 2020). In such a setting, educators recognize that children are active constructors of their own understanding of the world around them. They understand that children benefit from initiating and regulating their own learning activities. An appropriate curriculum for young children is one that includes a focus on supporting children’s inherent intellectual dispositions (Katz 2015). Teachers who see the potential of cognitively engaging children empower them to become more creative, autonomous, and intentional.

Lisi, the teacher from the opening vignette, has witnessed this progression in her own teaching. When she began at Learning Steps, she focused her efforts on introducing numbers and letters and using the calendar as a recall activity. When challenged to incorporate activities that would nurture and advance children’s thinking, she initially viewed them as a time constraint and “just another activity.” However, once she began giving her students the chance and encouragement to think and verbalize their thoughts, she witnessed how readily they engaged in higher-order thinking skills: They made connections and formed hypotheses; they connected their imaginations to experiences; they used physical objects to represent imagery. When challenged with probing, supportive, meaningful questions, their thinking went beyond the parameters that adults often set for young children. As Duckworth says, “To teach is understanding someone else’s understanding” (Meek 1991, 32).

Taking Time to Observe and Reflect

To have a meaningful conversation with a child, adults need to know what the child thinks. Forman and Hall (2005) stress the importance of observing and documenting children with written notes and recordings or observing and analyzing children’s own work. This helps teachers learn about each child’s interests, skills, and thinking. Children are competent learners, the researchers write, but teachers must slow down, carefully observe, and study their documented observations. (For more about documenting observation, see “Learning Stories: Observation, Reflection, and Narrative in Early Childhood Education,” by Isauro M. Escamilla.) By revisiting an experience with a child and putting that experience into words, adults begin to understand the theories that influence a child’s actions or interests. Lisi, for example, designed an activity to introduce two thinking concepts: connections and hypotheses. The children’s drawings uncovered their hypotheses, and when they shared the thoughts behind their drawings, Lisi learned about the connections her children made to their personal experiences. Similarly, Renata’s documentation helped her understand her children’s theories about plants. Both observations were valuable for the teachers to scaffold their children’s understanding.

When teachers have high expectations of their students as thinkers, children receive the message that their thinking is valued. Moreover, teachers gain ownership and power to make intentional decisions to nurture children’s thinking dispositions. To ensure that this happens, reflection is necessary. Ritchhart’s (2015) typology of classroom questions is a great resource for teachers to use to analyze their interactions with children. Additionally, they can ask themselves the following questions:

• What type of thinking is my question generating?
• How can I formulate questions that cognitively engage children?
• How can I listen to children and understand their thinking?
• How does documentation inform me about children’s thinking?
• How can I dig into children’s minds to discover their prior knowledge, interests, and theories?

Teachers’ interactions with children are deeply connected to their goals for teaching. They also are tied to their own expectations about children as thinkers and learners. When teachers understand children’s thinking, they can spur them to think in new and innovative ways.

Photographs: © Getty Images Copyright © 2021 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at  NAEYC.org/resources/permissions .

Costa, A., & B. Kallick. 2015. “Five Strategies for Questioning with Intention.” Educational Leadership 73 (1): 66–69.

Forman, G., & E. Hall. 2005. “Wondering with Children: The Importance of Observation in Early Education.” Early Childhood Research and Practice 7 (2).

Katz, L. 2015. “Lively Minds: Distinction Between Academic Goals Versus Intellectual Goals for Children.” Defending the Early Years . deyproject.files.wordpress.com/2015/04/dey-lively-minds-4-8-15.pdf

Meek, A. 1991. “On Thinking About Teaching: A Conversation with Eleanor Duckworth.” Educational Leadership 48 (6): 30–34.

NAEYC (National Association for the Education of Young Children). 2020. “Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP).” Position statement. Washington, DC: NAEYC. https://www.naeyc.org/resources/position-statements/dap/contents

Ritchhart, R., & D. Perkins. 2008. “Making Thinking Visible.” Educational Leadership 65 (5): 57–61.

Ritchhart, R. 2015. Creating Cultures of Thinking: The 8 Forces We Must Master to Truly Transform our Schools . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Ritchhart, R., & M. Church. 2020. The Power of Making Thinking Visible . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Salmon, A. 2010. “Tools to Enhance the Young Child’s Thinking.” Young Children 65 (5): 26–31.

Salmon, A. 2016. “Learning by Thinking During Play: The Power of Reflection to Aid Performance.”  Early Child Development and Care  186 (3): 480–96.

Angela K. Salmon , PhD, is associate professor of early childhood education at Florida International University in Miami, Florida. She is the founding leader of the Visible Thinking South Florida Initiative. Her research draws from her experience coaching teachers in the implementation of cutting-edge, research-based ideas that promote thinking through meaningful experiences centered in play, children’s rights, and global competencies.  [email protected]

María Ximena Barrera , MEd, is an adjunct professor at Florida International University in Miami, Florida. She is an online co-instructor at Project Zero at Harvard Graduate School of Education in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She is the director of program development of FUNDACIES, a professional development organization for educators.  [email protected]

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Applied computing

Computers in other domains

Personal computers and PC applications

Computer games

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Human-centered computing

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Information systems

Information systems applications

Multimedia information systems

Massively multiplayer online games

Software and its engineering

Software organization and properties

Contextual software domains

Virtual worlds software

Interactive games

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