research topics related to community problems

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40 Social Issues Research Paper Topics

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List of 40 Social Issues Topics for College Students

• Religious gatherings and rituals
• Country-wide strikes and protest
• LGBTQ+ prides
• Worldwide flashmobs
• Social stratification
• Gender discrimination and anti-harassment movements
• The issues of orphanage kids
• Pornography and AI sex dolls
• Sex work or paid rape?
• Virtual reality
• Information overload: the society is overstressed with the amount of data
• Demographic crisis
• Beauty standards
• Social isolation of people with HIV/AIDS
• The fight against animal testing
• Internet safety
• Humanitarian missions
• Fighting racism
• The rights of ethnic minorities and native people
• Internet safety and cybercrimes
• The necessity of the death penalty
• Fighting poverty in the world
• Access to the drinking water in third world countries
• Free education for everyone: shall it be implemented?
• National identity versus globalization
• Women rights and trans people rights
• Obesity as an obstacle in social life. Fatshaming
• Civil rights: shall they be expanded?
• Abuse and neglect in asylums, orphanages, and care homes
• Church and state: shall they remain separate?
• The problem of bigotry in modern society
• Immigration and resocialization of the immigrants
• Sustainable consumption on a worldwide scale
• School violence
• Legalizing drugs: basic rights to choose or a danger to society?
• Social isolation. The hikikomori phenomenon
• Bullying at schools and colleges
• Kids transitioning: shall it be allowed?
• Advertisements: are they becoming too powerful?
• The global impact of the third world countries

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100+ Social Issues Research Paper Topics

There are many issues in society to write about, making social issue essay topics some of the most fun. However, choosing a social topic for an essay isn’t as easy as it sounds, especially when there are several social essay topics. The secret to choosing the best among the many social topics is knowing what makes the best social topics for an essay, the best.

This article will give you workable tips for choosing a great topic on specific social issues, argumentative essay topics , and social topics. We will also throw in 100 topics on social issues; they can serve as your social topic or inspiration for choosing.

What Are Top Tips for Choosing Social Topics to Write About?

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When it comes to social problems essay topics, the list is endless; there are so many social issues to talk about. However, not all social problem topics will make a great paper, and the wrong social issue topic can reduce your grade. Below are the top practical tips for choosing social issues topics for presentation.

• Choose easy social issues to write about – avoid trying to impress your professor by choosing complex social problems topics you can’t do justice to.
• Choose social problem topics or social media research topics that your audience can relate to and find interesting.
• When choosing from the myriads of social problems to write about, choose those with sufficient information. Also, you don’t want social problem essay topics you’ll have to walk miles to gather information on.
• Pick as many good social issues to write about as possible; chances are you will change issues essay topics midway. You don’t have to return to searching for current issues to write about.
• Source for articles that address problems in society to write about for an idea on how to write yours.

The “best” social topics, like social commentary essay topics, are those you’re passionate about. It would help if you cared about the social issue ideas you’ve decided to write on to do real justice to the paper. Writing an essay on them will be torture if you don’t care or know anything about social commentary ideas. Also, if your audience is clueless about a particular topic, consider omitting technical and social significance topics.

Interesting social topics are not hard to find if you know where to look. We will give you a social issues topics list here, but you can still find social issues ideas all over the internet. Find our social topics list below containing interesting and uncommon social issues for a distinction-worthy paper.

• Political polarization
• Racism in modern society’s healthcare
• Ageism: the new racism?
• The fairness of labor laws
• Fat-shaming in the corporate world
• Recovering addicts and social injustice
• Child pornography
• Prisoner rights violations: the types
• Making vaccinations mandatory
• Online education impact on obesity
• Increasing employment: the solution to poverty?
• Accessibility of healthcare in mobile clinics
• Women empowerment
• Social development in developing countries
• Overpopulation: a threat?
• How social networks impact friendship
• Age restriction on Instagram
• Social media effect on dependency
• Business Facebook accounts and digital ethics
• Cancel culture and mental health
• Restricting children from social media
• How to stay safe on the internet
• Freedom of speech on Twitter
• High cost of medical procedures
• Obesity in developed countries
• Abortion: legal or illegal?
• Drug addiction
• Hospices: should they be free?
• Why HIV in seniors remains unrecognized
• Dying with dignity
• Pro-life movement origins
• The social acceptance of autism
• Effect of malnourishment on children’s psyche
• Impact of fad diets
• Discrimination against older adults
• Acceptability of homeopathic treatment for children
• The scarcity of and state of available healthcare facilities in rural areas
• Poverty and health problems
• Ensuring global access to drinking water
• Implementing sustainable technology in agriculture
• Benefits of studying the environment
• Urban gardening and food security
• Deteriorating environment effect on labor conditions
• Religion and nature
• Global warming impact on South America
• Effect of racial profiling
• Prevalence of hate speech
• Discrimination against the LGBT community
• Modern feminism: the negative impact on society
• Pregnancy termination: morality vs. legality
• Food culture
• Emotional intelligence: impact on family life
• Harmful effects of financial illiteracy
• The perception of “Defund the police.”
• Evidence of structural racism
• The internet’s influence on human trafficking
• Legalizing prostitution
• Civil disobedience goals
• The consequences of restoring prisoners to society
• Influence of prejudices on criminal justice mechanics
• Prominent civil rights violations in developing countries
• Gender blindness
• Gender dysphoria
• The Khmer Rouge
• Social media and racist bias
• Justification of human rights limitations during a crisis
• How governments can secure freedom of speech
• Can satire be harmful?
• Protection of stateless persons
• Can illegal immigrants be pardoned?
• War on drugs: the negative side effects
• The importance of bipartisan cooperation
• College loans: are they worth it?
• Fake news: a severe problem?
• Charter schools vs. public schools
• The Great New Deal: pros and cons
• Gentrification in America
• Ableism effects in the US
• Death penalty: a just punishment?
• Healthcare: a fundamental human right?
• The right to own a gun
• Does history repeat itself?
• Commercials in kids’ programs
• Fiction vs. nonfiction: which is the better read?
• Video games should be a sport
• Hot dogs: have they caused more harm than good?
• Eating dessert before dinner
• Homework: is it too much?
• Should gym classes be required?
• The essentiality of feminism
• Free healthcare for everyone
• Exploring space: is it worth it?
• Parents’ role in childhood obesity
• Woman vs. man: who is more emotional?
• The effects of campaign finance reform
• Should illegal immigrants be granted residency?

With this list of social topics and others you’ll find on the internet, you can’t be short of social issues to talk about. Choosing the best social issues topics is essential for writing a great research paper,or write dissertation for me ranging from social change topics to social awareness topics. Considering the vast amount of community issues to write about, our tips on choosing from the best social relevance topics will come in handy. If you need professional writing services, you can contact our experts.

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• Section 5. Addressing Social Determinants of Health and Development

Chapter 17 Sections

• Section 1. An Introduction to the Problem-Solving Process
• Section 2. Thinking Critically
• Section 3. Defining and Analyzing the Problem
• Section 4. Analyzing Root Causes of Problems: The "But Why?" Technique
• Section 6. Generating and Choosing Solutions
• Section 7. Putting Your Solution into Practice
• Main Section

"Our children have dramatically different life chances depending on where they were born. In Japan or Sweden they can expect to live more than 80 years; in Brazil, 72 years; India, 63 years; and in one of several African countries, fewer than 50 years. And within countries, the differences in life chances are dramatic and are seen worldwide. The poorest of the poor have high levels of illness and premature mortality. But poor health is not confined to those worst off. In countries at all levels of income, health and illness follow a social gradient: the lower the socioeconomic position, the worse the health.

It does not have to be this way and it is not right that it should be like this. Where systematic differences in health are judged to be avoidable by reasonable action they are, quite simply, unfair. It is this that we label health inequity. Putting right these inequities – the huge and remediable differences in health between and within countries – is a matter of social justice. Reducing health inequities is...an ethical imperative. Social injustice is killing people on a grand scale." - excerpt from the 2008 World Health Organization Commission on Social Determinants of Health Final Report Executive Summary

What are social determinants of health and development?

“Social determinants” refer to broader social factors, such as income inequality or social exclusion, that lead to or influence health and development outcomes. In Section 4 of this chapter, for instance, a development worker in Mexico tells of realizing that one of the major causes of malnutrition in the area where he was working was not that there simply wasn’t enough food. Sharecropping farmers were able to grow enough to feed their families, but had to borrow seed from the landowner to plant their crops. The terms of the loan were that, for every liter of maize borrowed at planting time, three liters had to be repaid from the harvest. With this high interest rate, peasants went deeper and deeper into debt, and had to use more of their crop each year to pay the landowner. Without power, group solidarity, and influence, the farmers were unable to create conditions that assured the health and well-being of their families.

There is a great deal of research on the social determinants of health. Most of it points to three overarching factors:

• Income inequality . Once a country has reached the point of development where most deaths come not from infectious diseases (tuberculosis, dysentery, cholera, malaria, flu, pneumonia, etc.), but from chronic diseases (heart disease, diabetes, cancer), the economic and social equality within the society is a greater determinant of death rates and average lifespan than the country’s position with regard to others. The United States, for instance, lags behind Japan, Sweden, Canada, and many other less affluent countries in the life expectancy of its citizens. The difference seems to be the size of the gap between the most and least affluent segments of the society.
• Social connectedness . Many studies indicate that “belonging” – whether to a large extended family, a network of friends, a social or volunteer organization, or a faith community – is related to longer life and better health, as well as to community participation.
• Sense of personal or collective efficacy . This refers to people’s sense of control over their lives. People with a higher sense or stronger history of efficacy tend to live longer, maintain better health, and participate more vigorously in civic life.

Many of the social determinants listed below are specific forms of or contributors to these three categories. At a community level, it may be difficult to influence income inequality directly, but a non-governmental or community-based organization may be able to approach it through addressing a particular issue. A small organization may be able to have more effect on social connectedness and the sense of efficacy, since collective action can influence both social ties and the experience of changing communities and systems.

The World Health Organization, in its publication The Solid Facts, recognizes the need to break these factors down into more manageable pieces. It lists ten factors that affect health and life expectancy, and advocates addressing each within a comprehensive program of social protection that addresses all of them within a society. These ten factors are:

• The social gradient (extent of equity or the difference in wealth and opportunity between those with the most and those with the least)
• Early life experience
• Social exclusion (the opposite of social connectedness)
• Unemployment
• Social support

The factors listed below are, in most cases, more specific than the three broader determinants discussed above. In addressing social determinants, however, keep in mind these broader factors, and gear programs and policies toward influencing them at whatever level you can, given the resources and scope of your organization.

The social determinants of a particular community health or development issue may be unique to a particular community or group, or may be part of the larger society. People from different immigrant cultures, different social classes, or with different levels of education might experience the same issue very differently because of different social factors.

There are three major ways in which social determinants may affect specific populations. These can also be viewed as levers – points of intervention – that can be used to address those social determinants and lessen their effects.

1.  Differences in exposure. Certain population groups, because of economics, geography, or other factors, may be more likely than others to encounter particular health risks. People in poverty, for example, are likely to be exposed to higher levels of stress, economic uncertainty, and unhealthy conditions than their wealthier countrymen.

A specific example : in developing, or even middle-income, countries, poor rural villages may get all their water – for drinking, washing, waste disposal, and other uses – from a single, above-ground source, such as a lake or stream. In that case, the villagers are far more apt to be exposed to water-borne diseases and pollutants than wealthier neighbors who can afford to buy bottled water or drill a well.

2.  Differences in vulnerability. Because of their poverty, their exposure to stress and uncertainty, or other factors, those same population groups might find themselves more vulnerable than others to health problems. The inability to pay for regular health care or medical treatment increases the possibility of chronic illness. In the example of the village above, poor nutrition, as a result of poverty, could increase villagers’ vulnerability to water-borne disease, as would the inability to organize to finance a village well.

3.  Differences in consequences. Differences in wealth, social standing, connectedness, and other factors can lead to very different outcomes where health issues are concerned. For a middle- or upper-class family in many countries, a minor health problem – missing a few days of work, paying a modest sum for treatment – might be just an annoyance. For a poor family, it might be the difference between a roof over their heads and homelessness, or between children attending school and dropping out to go to work. Discrimination, high stress levels, employment conditions, and other factors can result in disparities in health and health care among different groups.

There are a number of social factors to address to improve conditions for health and development. Some of the more common factors to be addressed are:

Economic factors.

The unemployment rate, for example, has a great influence on such issues as domestic violence, substance use, depression, or physical illness. Economic inequality affects people’s stress levels, exposure to violence and toxins, educational prospects, access to services, high-risk behavior, and mortality rates.

Social inclusion.

Social connectedness and the cohesion of the community have been shown to have a direct relationship to good health and lower mortality rates. These factors can also encourage civic participation in changing conditions that affect group goals.

More education means not only better jobs and more affluence, but also a greater sense of control over one’s life. People with more education have more choices in health, housing, careers, and other areas that affect the quality of their lives.

Racial or ethnic bias.

Social exclusion can be the result of prejudice, which results in different access to health care, education, or other services.

Social norms of acceptance of particular behaviors or practices.

Smoking, or even alcohol abuse, may be an accepted part of the culture of a community. In that case, many more people will adopt it than in a community where it is frowned upon.

Cultural factors.

There are many elements of culture that might have a bearing on social inclusion, efficacy, and income inequality.

• Gender roles in different cultures may lead to differences in opportunities for men and women, and to disparities in nutrition, health, education, and life opportunities for their children as well.
• Food preferences in different cultures may have profound health effects. For centuries, for instance, the Japanese ate a diet consisting largely of rice, vegetables, and fish, and, at least partly as a result, experienced fewer heart health problems than the meat-and-potato eaters in the United States.

In many cases, people only one generation removed from rural poverty – as typified by many Eastern European immigrants to the U.S. in the early 20th century – may eat more fat because being able to eat fatty foods, such as meat, symbolizes wealth in peasant cultures. Many turn-of-the-20th-century immigrants to the U. S. – the grandparents of contemporary Americans – thought fat children were healthy children, because fat children clearly get enough to eat, as opposed to going hungry. Starvation was a real danger in the time and place of their childhoods.

• Religion can have profound effects on both health and development issues.
• Attitudes toward mainstream culture can influence everything from medical care to whether or not high school students can attend dances. This, in turn, affects the type and amount of health care received, the sense of connectedness within a community, and many other factors.
• Language barriers can cut people off from health care and other services, make it difficult for them to find and keep decent jobs, and affect their children’s education.

The influence of mass media.

The media, particularly television, can send powerful messages about community health and development. In the 1950s in the U.S., smoking was portrayed in movies, magazines, and TV as glamorous and sophisticated. Now, there are no TV ads for cigarettes, virtually no one in the movies smokes, and anti-smoking messages are everywhere. These conditions both reflect and are partially responsible for the fact that fewer than 25% of adults in the U.S. now smoke.

The media can help or hinder other efforts to improve health (through programming that shows people exercising as a matter of course, for instance, or that shows the same people eating fatty fast food or drinking too much). They can also, similarly, encourage or discourage tolerance for others, push a political agenda, or condone or condemn such behavior as solving disputes with violence and engaging in unsafe sex.

It is probably fair to say that all community issues are political to some degree. If a factory is poisoning town wells with its effluent, for example, local officials are faced with the choice of not dealing with the actual cause of the problem (the dumping of waste) and endangering citizens’ health, or addressing the dumping and endangering citizens’ jobs. Politicians with larger constituencies, using poll data, may pander to what they perceive as people’s selfishness and prejudice, passing legislation or instituting policies that discriminate against one group or another, or fly in the face of the public interest. Even honest differences of political opinion – over whether the government should be responsible for providing social services or not, for instance – can have enormous consequences in the community.

Living conditions.

Run-down or inadequate housing, dangerous streets, noise, and blighted neighborhoods all have their effects on those who experience them every day, as do manicured landscapes and calm environments. The stress of living in a difficult situation carries over into many other areas of life.

Location may have a great deal to do with whether people receive services or not. In developing countries, children from isolated villages in the mountains or on the seacoast may have no opportunity for school or medical care, for instance. In the U.S., as mentioned earlier, access to medical care and other services may depend on the availability of transportation. In urban areas, that access may have a lot to do with the neighborhood in which the services are located: another gang’s turf or a neighborhood perceived as hostile may be as effective in denying services as if they didn’t exist at all.

Why address social determinants of health and development?

Reasons for addressing the social determinants of an issue include:

If you want to solve or prevent a problem for the long term, you have to deal with its root causes .

If you address the root causes, you’re more likely to successfully address the issue for the short term as well . To cure a disease, you have to treat more than the symptoms – but you usually have to treat the symptoms, too. Dealing with social determinants will not only resolve the issue over the long term, but will make alleviating the current effects of the issue possible also.

To eliminate cholera, one of the most important steps is to provide people with clean drinking water. During the London cholera epidemic of 1854, John Snow, a physician, mapped the houses where the disease struck. He learned that many of the stricken were drawing water from a pump that tapped a filthy part of the Thames River, because conventional wisdom said it was better than the piped water also available to them – which actually came from a cleaner area. He was able to close the pump and substitute piped for pumped water, almost immediately ending the outbreak. Snow’s insights about the social determinants of cholera, along with the later work of others, eventually helped to eliminate the disease as a threat in most of the developed world. But they also served to stop the 1854 epidemic.

Who should address social determinants of community health and development?

The Community Tool Box advocates for participatory approaches to planning and, in this case, for a participatory approach to analysis and intervention as well. The presence of members of the groups affected by the issue will ensure that everyone knows its full context and history, as well as what various segments of the community might be willing and unwilling to do about it. Those who should be involved include:

• Those directly affected by, or at risk for, a particular health condition or community development issue.
• Policy makers, legislators, officials, or others who can affect the issue .
• Human services staff, administrators, and others (such as police officers, teachers, and coalition members) who are responsible for dealing with the issue at hand.
• Respected local figures, including advocates, clergy, and others in the community to whom people turn for support.
• Members of groups that may be asked to change or sacrifice or take action in order to address the issue. Employers, landlords and other property owners, health and human service workers, police, and teachers all might fall into this category.

When should you address social determinants of community health and development?

You should always look at the social factors that play a role in community issues, but there are some times when analysis of those factors is particularly important.

• When it’s clear that simply focusing on the issue isn’t enough . As cities have found again and again, all the enforcement in the world won’t really stop youth violence. There has to be a change in the culture that creates that violence.

In the late 1960s, Philadelphia was a city of gangs. One night in 1969 in North Philadelphia, there were five shootings in a one-square-block area. The neighborhood was crawling with police who were apparently powerless to stop the string of attempted revenge killings (“attempted” only because only three of the shootings were fatal). What eventually succeeded, a couple of years later, was a peacemaking effort that involved the gang leaders and that addressed the social issues that lay behind the existence of gangs and violence in the neighborhood: the isolation and alienation of black youth from the society at large, the lack of jobs, and the irrelevance of school to kids whose main concern was getting home alive. Gang members formed entrepreneurial businesses – making films, developing clothing lines – and school became relevant because education was necessary to run a business successfully. Community violence lessened as truces were signed and hope for a reasonable life grew.

• When you’re advocating for legislation, policy change, or funding to address a community issue . The legislation, policy, or funding – and therefore your advocacy – should address the underlying causes of the problem you’re trying to solve, as well as its symptoms. Otherwise, you’ll be dealing with the symptoms forever.
• When you’re trying to demonstrate that fundamental change is needed . Change is difficult for everyone. Trying to get a whole community to change its attitudes and/or behavior is even more difficult. Being able to explain clearly how the changes are related to positive results can make things easier.
• When you’re looking for long-term solutions to long-term problems . Long-term solutions are impossible without taking into account the root causes of the problems you want to solve. Analyzing the social determinants of those problems makes it possible to address them, and come to real, permanent solutions.
• When your focus is on community wellness and prevention . Whether you’re trying to guard against a disease or debilitating condition, or trying to create a healthy community, you have to look at the issue as a whole in order to be successful. You can’t lower your blood pressure, for instance, without adjusting your diet, exercise, stress levels, and daily activities, all of which may be governed, to some extent, by social as well as personal factors. By the same token, you can’t alter racial tensions in a community without somehow addressing all the history that led to those tensions, the preconceptions and misconceptions on both sides, personal experiences, the attitudes of community officials and police, the racial prejudice endemic in the society, etc.

How do you address social determinants of community health and development?

Now that you’re convinced that addressing the social factors that cause or influence community health and development issues is important, how do you go about doing so? There are really two parts to addressing social determinants. The first is identifying how various social factors affect the issue you’re concerned with, and the second is developing and implementing an action plan based on an understanding of how, and from what angle, to approach them successfully in order to change the way the issue plays out in the community and, ultimately, resolve the problem.

Identifying social determinants

The issue you’re dealing with may be obvious, but it’s likely that all of its social determinants are not. There may be local customs that seem so obvious to the folks you’re working with that they don’t consider them worth mentioning, even though they may control a great deal of the community’s functioning. If they’re unique to that community or region, and you’re not a native, you’ll have to learn about them if you have any hope of changing conditions. In other cases, social factors may have to be traced through several layers of the society before you reach the point where they originate and can be influenced. The way to find out about these and other social determinants is to do a community assessment.

Assess the community to find the social determinants of your issue . The purpose of community assessment is largely to assess the community for needs and assets, but the strategies it proposes are equally useful in searching for social determinants of health and development.

• Start by talking to people:
• Community leaders
• Members of the group most affected by the issue
• Government officials
• Staff and volunteers of non-governmental health and community development organizations (NGO’s)
• Community activists and organizers
• Anyone who has a stake in the issue you are trying to address

If there are conflicting factions or “sides” involved in the issue, it’s important to hear from all of them. Even if you’re clear about who’s in the right, or about what needs to happen in order for the issue to be resolved, understanding all points of view can tell you a great deal about the social factors that underlie the situation in the community.

You can hear what people have to say in various ways:

• Individual interviews
• Group interviews
• Focus groups
• Community meetings
• Informal conversations
• Listening and observation at gatherings held for other purposes
• Learning as much as you can about community history. Social determinants of health and development often run deep and go back generations.

The Battle of Montaperti was fought between the Italian cities of Florence and Siena, then independent republics, in 1260. In the 21st century, a sports contest between the two, whether on the high school or professional level, often spurs a cry of “Remember Montaperti” by the Sienese – the victors 750 years ago.

Apply critical thinking principles to analyze the results of the assessment. Very briefly, these include:

• Make sure your information is accurate.
• Consider the reliability of your sources.
• Examine and challenge your own and others’ assumptions and biases.
• Identify the interests being served or ignored.
• Ask the right questions. This could also be considered a principle of critical thinking, and dovetails with the “But why?” technique. Some of the questions you might want to ask are:
• Whom does the issue affect?
• What do those affected have in common? Class? Race or ethnicity? Gender? Physical characteristics? Geographical origin or location? Behavior or personal practices? Lifestyle? Education? Employment? Personal history? Culture? Interests? Other characteristics?
• What is the history of the issue in the community? When did it become an issue? What else was happening at the time, both in the community and in the society at large?
• Who stands to gain, and who stands to lose – socially, economically, or politically – if nothing changes?
• Who stands to gain, and who stands to lose if changes are made? Is there a win-win option, where everyone benefits?
• Who has the power to create change in this situation? What are reasons they may or may not do so?
• Where is the issue centered, geographically and socially?
• Are there economic aspects to the issue? What would it cost to change the situation or to leave it as it is, and who would bear the cost in either case?

The “But why?” technique  is actually quite simple. Once you have the answer to an initial question, you follow up the answer with “But why?” The answer to that question gets another “But why?” until you get as far as you can go. At that point, you have an answer that identifies the root of the problem, and therefore implies a solution.

Addressing social determinants

As we’ve discussed, most social determinants come down to:

• Economic inequality
• Social connectedness
• A sense of efficacy

The lower people’s economic levels, the less connected they are to others – through family, social groups and organizations, faith communities, etc.; the less convinced they are of their ability to control their situations and their lives, the greater the likelihood that they’ll experience more health problems than those in the society who fare better in those categories.

And as we’ve also discussed, particular individuals or populations are most likely to be disadvantaged by health problems because of:

• Differences between them and others in the society in the level of their exposure to those problems.
• Differences in their vulnerability to those problems.
• Differences in the consequences to them of those problems.

These characteristics feed each other in a cycle of poverty and powerlessness. An effective intervention has to break that cycle by understanding the social determinants behind it and changing them and the conditions that they cause in a truly profound way.

You can develop interventions that can reduce people’s exposure to, their vulnerability to, and their consequences from health problems, and that can also encourage gains in economic equality, social connectedness, and efficacy. By doing so, you can help people not only improve their health and that of their children, but move up the ladder of economic and social status, thus cementing their gains, and securing them for the next generation.

This may seem like an impossible task. How can you change a society? It’s hard for governments and even harder for most NGOs and community-based organizations, given the limits on their resources. Major social change often takes not a single type of intervention, but an all-out assault on a number of social factors over a long period of time. Unless you’re a high government official, or have access to unlimited funds, you’re probably not planning anything that broad . . . and you don’t have to.

Rather than trying to concentrate on the huge issues, you can intervene in the environmental and policy conditions that reflect social determinants and that can more easily affect differences in exposure, vulnerability, and consequences. In the process of addressing these types of issues, the folks you’re concerned with can learn much of what they need to change their position in society.

Environmental here refers not just to the natural environment, but to the total environment of the people in question. That includes the built environment – buildings, roads, power sources, farms, etc. – as well as the social environment – culture, social rules and norms, government, business, education, economics, etc.. The term “environment” here encompasses all the natural and human physical, social, economic, and political structures that surround people’s lives.

Environmental and policy conditions include:

• Knowledge and skills . Individual and group knowledge and experience affect the availability of resources for supporting health and well-being. A villager who understands how to advocate with the government for clean drinking water, for instance, can greatly enhance the health prospects of his community.

Helping people gain knowledge and skills can be an intervention in itself, or be part of a broader intervention that nonetheless provides participants with tools to safeguard or improve their health and their lives. Some community development programs, for example, include literacy classes as part of the support they provide. With literacy, participants gain skills that allow them to continue and expand the community development activities they’ve begun, or to get jobs that will better serve them and their families. Literacy also gives people who’ve typically been powerless a means to power over their lives by helping them understand the forces working on them (not to mention the terms of contracts and other papers to which they’re asked to agree), and take action on their own behalf. Providing knowledge of specific health issues and practices can have a dramatic effect on the health of a community. Safe sex practices, for instance, can cut down on the incidence of HIV infection, and information about the treatment of infant diarrhea can drastically reduce infant mortality. In both these examples, addressing a specific issue serves to address efficacy, and, in the case of literacy training, economic inequality as well. Depending on how programs are structured, most can also address social connectedness, either by bringing a community or population group together to work on an issue, or by creating a community among those involved (in literacy classes, for example.)

• Support within and between groups . Emotional support from family and friends, such as for the stress of difficult work or family situations, helps us cope with situations that cannot be easily changed. Links with other groups, such as faith communities or non-governmental organizations (NGOs), can provide access to goods and services. Just as important, joining with other groups to work for increased resources and better health conditions can permanently improve the quality of community life.

Again, an intervention to connect people or groups with others may stand alone, or may be integrated into a larger concept. A government agency might encourage groups to combine across ethnic or geographic lines in order to receive funding or training for health and community development projects. In a situation where the government is perceived as withholding support, a group of villages without access to health care, for instance, might come together to petition the government for a centrally located health clinic that would be easily reachable for all of them. Groups like this represent the most fundamental kind of community organizing , which brings groups and communities together to advocate for their interests and to take control of what happens to them.

• Barriers to, access to, and opportunities for resources and services . Some social groups, such as women or ethnic minorities, face discrimination and other barriers in gaining access to education, jobs, and basic services. The quality and availability of even basic education and health services are unfairly distributed among social groups.

In cases where education, jobs, services, and other necessities are unequally distributed, the appropriate action may be to organize the community, as above, to demand equal treatment; to use the court system to try to gain access and opportunity; or to attempt to address the issue locally, using available community assets and the initiative of local people. If the initiative comes from the government, it might create programs that remove or address barriers to opportunities and services, such as discrimination, unaffordable expense, geographic isolation, lack of transportation, illiteracy, and lack of job skills.

• Consequences of Actions . Research has long shown that people are more apt to take or continue action if it rewards them with goods, peer approval, pleasure, status, satisfaction, or the desired results than if it punishes them with high costs, disapproval, misery, loss of status, dissatisfaction, or frustration. If gaining access to health care or to healthy goods or practices is difficult, slow, and tedious, and often ends in failure, it won’t be long before people stop trying.

A possible remedy here is, as above, to improve access and break down barriers to access to goods and services, thus making the attempt to obtain them less frustrating and more likely to be repeated. Strategies might include providing transportation to and from existing services or distribution points, locating new services closer to where they’re needed, or lessening bureaucratic requirements. If the intervention involves action by participants, actions should be planned in small steps, so that people can easily experience success, at least at the beginning. A series of small successes is more likely to develop a sense of efficacy and keep people moving ahead than a grand failure.

• Exposure to or protection from hazards . Contact with environmental hazards – polluted water, toxic substances or dangerous practices in the workplace, endemic diseases such as malaria, widespread violence – increase risk for disease or injury. By the same token, actions taken to reduce or eliminate those hazards – drilling a new well, instituting protective workplace safety procedures, disease eradication campaigns, negotiating a peace treaty – work to make disease or injury less probable.

An intervention to decrease or prevent exposure to hazards can take any one of several forms. A self-help program to dig a well or use filters to obtain clean water, channel sewage, grow food without pesticides or chemical fertilizers, eliminate VOCs (volatile organic compounds, often-toxic chemicals – used in glues, dyes, paint, and solvents – that vaporize at room temperature and can affect the health of many people) in a building, or clean up a neighborhood can not only improve health conditions, but increase participants’ sense of efficacy as well. A different approach might involve advocacy for government assistance or services – drilling a well, installing a sewer system, establishing a health clinic, instituting public transportation, etc. – or to pass or prevent laws that affect exposure to health risks. These actions would speak to both social connectedness (community organizing brings communities or groups together to apply pressure and advocate effectively) and participants’ sense of efficacy. A third possibility that also addresses both social connectedness and efficacy might involve an initiative to change the behavior of – or prosecute – a corporation or other party responsible for pollution, unsafe workplace practices, illegal dumping, shoddy and dangerous construction, selling harmful products, or other potential hazards.

• Policies . Policies that affect community health and development may be formal or informal, and may be those of governmental or non-governmental bodies (e.g., corporations, institutions, foundations, professional associations). They may relate to the provision of goods and services (e.g., clean water, adequate food, health care, education, housing) or to regulations and their enforcement (e.g., environmental and drug laws, welfare rules, trade regulations, non-discrimination laws in employment and education.) Public policies often mirror a community’s or society’s norms (the unspoken rules of “how things should be”), and, as a result, are often a direct reflection of social determinants.

Changing or instituting policy is generally a matter of advocacy. It’s important because policies can, and do, affect all three of the differences – in exposure, vulnerability, and consequences – that create less healthy conditions for populations at risk. An initiative aimed at policy change can start at any level. It may begin with government, with the realization by legislators, other elected or appointed officials, or an agency that some sizeable group of citizens is in danger of, or already suffering from, disparities in health. It may begin with an NGO or grassroots organization that works with (or is composed of) that group. Or it may begin with the people themselves, who have simply come to the end of their patience with their situation. Policy change is often difficult, but, in the long run, it can be the most effective means of improving health and development outcomes, because it can lead to real social change. The ideal intervention would be one that either originates with, or involves those who will benefit from the change in question, since that gives them control over what happens to them.

Several principles, assumptions, and values help guide collaborative action to create conditions that promote health and development. These include:

• Priority issues and strategies for collaborative action are best determined by people most affected by the concern. This can enhance community efficacy and empowerment, and is also most likely to address the issues most important to those involved.
• Since health and development outcomes are caused by multiple and interrelated factors at multiple levels, single interventions are likely to be insufficient. This suggests the importance of comprehensive interventions that address environmental and policy conditions at all levels.

Multi-pronged, multi-faceted interventions are the ideal, and are, in general, necessary to create real and permanent social change. The reality for small organizations, however, is that such interventions may not be possible, because of limited resources and geographic and/or political isolation. There are at least two ways to deal with this reality: One is to form a coalition, pulling in other organizations – including national and international NGOs and even the government where possible – to mount a collaborative effort on many fronts. The second is to develop a long-range strategic plan that takes as its base the saying of the Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu, “The longest journey begins with a single step.” That involves starting with a single issue in order to tackle something manageable and achieve a success that will energize and empower those affected. Then you can go on to the next issue and the next, always maintaining and consolidating gains as you go. In this way, you can end up with an effort that addresses the full range of social determinants, without exceeding your capacity at the beginning. It may take a while, but your chances of creating real change are better if you take it step by step, as long as you don’t lose sight of the goal.

• Collaborative efforts must bring about change in multiple sectors and systems. (This requires leadership to engage groups with different interests, such as those in business or education, to share resources and responsibilities in common purpose.

Again, depending on your resources, even a coalition or other collaborative body might have to take this one step at a time.

• The aim of support organizations is to build capacity so that local people can take action over time and across issues.

Capacity-building involves helping local people gain the skills and knowledge – and establish or strengthen the community organizations and institutions – necessary to allow them to take action and control their own fate. That may entail direct training, using resources like the Community Tool Box, and a certain amount of “on-the-job training”. There’s no substitute for experience in health and community development, although having some background before you’re thrown into it is certainly helpful.

At some point – earlier is usually better than later, and from the beginning is often best – local people have to be directly involved in planning and carrying out strategies for improving their situation. Taking on responsibility and leadership positions builds both a sense of efficacy and connectedness in the local population, and also puts their future where it belongs – in their own hands.

• Health and development efforts should involve collaborative partners as catalysts for change. (Partners must convene conversations that lead to addressing the issue, broker relationships, and develop resources for those doing the work of changing communities and systems.)

Partners can be NGOs or community health or development organizations, government agencies, corporations, academic institutions, faith communities – any party that is generally respected, has some clout, and can function as an honest broker.

As is perhaps obvious from the discussion directly above, an important goal of addressing social determinants is strengthening the ability of the community to sustain the changes that an intervention brings about. If a population is malnourished, giving them food is only a temporary solution: helping them to develop self-sufficient and sustainable farming practices, or training them for necessary and available work, on the other hand, can be permanent ones.

Another important goal is to take on tasks that can actually be accomplished. A local entrepreneur, owner of a large and flourishing tire business, a real estate development firm, and several other successful ventures, was asked how he got to the position he was in. His answer was simple: “Crawl, walk, run.” He started small, with something he knew he could handle. When he succeeded at that, he used it as a base to take on something a bit more challenging, consolidated his gains again when he succeeded at that, and just kept going.

Social change often works the same way. Success breeds success, and you’re far more likely to be successful if you attempt something that’s challenging but doable. Once you accomplish it, you have a foundation from which to address the next issue, or the next level of issues. Communities never lack the most important resource – people, and their intelligence and determination – but they may lack the material resources that allow them to attempt overall social change – change that entails addressing several social factors and levels of power – all at once. They can do it, however, if they take it one step at a time.

The last bit of how-to in this section will be familiar to regular Tool Box users. You have to keep taking that one step at a time again and again and again for as far into the future as you want your community to exist. Addressing social determinants of health and development isn’t a one-time thing. People have to maintain their gains and their healthy practices, and teach the next generation what they’ve learned about creating a healthy community, so that it will continue to be one.

“Social determinants” of health and development issues are the social factors that determine or influence the issues. Most fall into the three categories of economic inequality, social connectedness, and sense of efficacy. By understanding and addressing these social factors, you can increase your chances of resolving issues over the long term by getting at their root causes.

It makes sense to use a participatory approach to analyze and address social determinants of health and development issues. By including those who know the history and context of the issue, and by subjecting it to analysis from many minds and perspectives, you’re more likely to arrive at a thorough understanding of it. This kind of analysis is especially effective when it’s clear that simply putting a Band-Aid on the symptoms of the issue isn’t enough, and that you have to employ a long-term strategy in order to address it effectively. Such a strategy may incorporate advocacy for a change in law or policy and leadership training, as well as community-based actions.

A community assessment will help you understand what the social determinants are in a particular case. By asking the right questions to determine community reality – Who is affected and how? What are the patterns in who is affected, who is opposed to action, what are the interests at stake? What are the costs of action and inaction, and who will pay them? – and talking to those affected and others who may already know what the social determinants are in the situation, you can create a complete picture of the issue.

Using that picture, you can address the social factors in order to reduce the population’s exposure to, vulnerability to, and consequences from the issue at hand. The best approach is usually through environmental and policy conditions, rather than through attempting to change social factors – which can be far-reaching and ingrained in the culture of the society – all at once. Work toward incremental, sustainable change, help local people learn the skills to take over and continue the effort themselves, and make sure the effort continues indefinitely, and you’ll ultimately be successful in developing a healthy community.

Online Resources

ACTION: SDH The aim of this tool from the World Health Organization is to provide public health, and other practitioners on the social determinants of health, with a one-stop portal. ACTION:SDH houses knowledge on the social determinants according to the five social determinants of health action areas identified in the 2011 World Conference on Social Determinants of Health. It also provides a platform for discussion of action on the social determinants of health. There are currently three main features to the tool:

• embedded web-pages pages on SDH knowledge relevant to the five action areas for SDH that were identified in the Rio Declaration;
• discussion forums that can be used to share tacit knowledge from practice - either by invitation only, or open to all members;
• a document repository that initially is housing selected WHO materials on SDH - documents are classified as Examples (case studies), Tools & Resources, and E-library.

Actively Addressing Systemic Racism Using a Behavioral Community Approach  - a journal article from Behavior and Social Issues .

Can Hospitals Heal America's Communities?  from Democracy Collaborative illuminates the possibilities of hospitals and health systems healing America’s communities and explores how “all in for mission” is the emerging healthcare model.

CDC Health Disparities and Inequalities Report

Health disparities are differences in health outcomes between groups that reflect social inequalities. Despite progress over the past 20 years in reducing this problem, racial/ethnic, economic and other social disparities in health still exists and need to be addressed. This report is the first in a periodic series examining health disparities in the United States. The report can also be found as a  PDF .

Chapter 13: Stress and Coping in the "Introduction to Community Psychology" details stress, its different forms, coping, coping strategies and styles, and how individuals and communities become resilient.

Closing the Gap in a Generation 2008 World Health Organization Commission on Social Determinants of Health Final Report Executive Summary

Closing the Gap: Policy into Practice on Social Determinants of Health This discussion paper for the 2011 World Conference on Social Determinants of Health shares experiences on how to address the challenges posed by health inequities and to mobilize commitment to the urgent implementation of feasible actions on social determinants in all countries. The paper lays out the key components that all countries need to integrate in their own context in implementing a social determinants approach, and was used at the World Conference to consider these themes and show how, in all contexts, it is possible to put policy into practice on social determinants of health to improve health, reduce health inequities, and promote development.

BALLE's field guide,  The Future of Health is Local , gives health care providers actionable tools and examples on how to align the non-clinical assets of their organizations – such as procurement, employment, and investment – with local economic development strategies to improve human health and revitalize local communities.

Health and Well-Being for All Meeting-in-a-Box from the CDC Foundation is an innovative and compelling way to explore the potential root causes of illness—the social determinants of health—with health and health care professionals at all stages of professional development. It provides everything needed to explore the determinants underlying health problems faced by patients and communities. This hands-on tool simulates a 6-step process for leading change to improve the community’s health.

HealthEquityGuide.org   is a website with a set of strategic practices that health departments can apply to more meaningfully and comprehensively advance health equity.

Health Equity Animated: Equity vs. Equality  from the Center for Prevention in Minnesota explores the difference between the needs of various communities, and how addressing those specific needs requires specific solutions.

This ColorCode  “Housing Is Health Care” podcast  delves into how housing — and today’s housing crisis — intersects with health. It also explores how racial discrimination has played a part in causing this crisis, as well as present-day housing segregation on Long Island.

Michael Marmot and the Social Determinants of Health is a video from the American Public Health Association outlining key considerations in addressing the social determinants of health to ensure social justice.

No Justice, No Peace of Mind and Body: The Health Impacts of Housing Insecurity for Black Women from The Nonprofit Quarterly.

Pew Charitable Trusts provides an article regarding holistic approaches made by partnerships to promote healthy birth outcomes.

Social Determinants of Health in Rural Communities Toolkit by the Rural Health Information Hub organizes evidence-based models and resources to support the implementation of programs that address the social determinants of health (SDOH) in rural communities across the United States.

Social Determinants of Health (SDOH) Training Plan  from the TRAIN Learning Network provides over a dozen hours of training over the foundational concepts and their applications to various issues.

Tackling social determinants of health through community-based initiatives An article by M. Assai, S. Siddiqi, and S. Watts, provided by the British Medical Journal. Also available in  PDF  format. Also available in print in BMJ, vol. 333, 21 October, 2006.

7 Things Advocates Should Know When Communicating about Health Equity Berkeley Media Studies Group blog about using the media strategically to advance policies that improve health.

Seven Vital Conditions for Health and Well-Being  is a useful framework for conceptualizing holistic well-being and the conditions that give rise to it, as well as identifying levers for community change and improvement.

Social Determinants and HIV/AIDS  is a short discussion of the social determinants of health and their relationship to HIV treatment and prevention, from the British Columbia, Canada, Ministry of Health Services.

Social Determinants of Health and Older Adults  covers new resources made available by health.gov specifically focusing on the health of older adults.

The Solid Facts   is a booklet about the social determinants of health, edited by Richard Wilkinson and Michael Marmot, from the International Centre for Health and Society at the University College of London.

The Sustainable Development Goals Guide is a preliminary guide on how to "get started" with implementing the Sustainable Development Goals.

Transformational Community Engagement to Advance Health Equity is a report with case studies from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.

What is Healthy Equity?  This three-minute motion graphic video explains how social, economic, and environmental conditions can create health inequities and how these inequities can affect health disparities.

What is Privilege? A video from BFMP at Buzzfeed.

Print Resources

Bonnefoy, J.,Morgan, A., Kelly, M.,Butt, J., Bergman, V., With Tugwell, P., Robinson,V., Exworthy, M.,  Mackenbach, J.,  Popay, J., Pope, C., Narayan, T., Myer, L., Simpson, S., Houweling, T., &  Jadue, L,.  Constructing the evidence base on the social determinants of health: A guide .

Collie-Akers, V., Landry, S., Ehule, N.J.  et al.  Enhancing the Capacity of Local Health Departments to Address Birth Equity: The Institute for Equity in Birth Outcomes.  Matern Child Health J   25 , 1010–1018 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-021-03135-1

Health in an Unequal World. Harveian Lecture by Michael Marmet. The Lancet, vol. 368, Dec. 9, 2006.

Landry, S., Collie-Akers, V., Foster, K. et al. Assessing the Development of Collective Impact Initiatives Addressing Maternal and Child Health. Matern Child Health J 24, 405–411 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-020-02894-7

Undertaken as work for the Measurement and Evidence Knowledge Network  (MEKN) established as part of the WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health, and run by the Universidad de Desarollo, Chile. November, 2007.

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24 Community-Based Research: Understanding the Principles, Practices, Challenges, and Rationale

Margaret R. Boyd Bridgewater State University Bridgewater, MA, USA

• Published: 01 July 2014
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Community-based research challenges the traditional research paradigm by recognizing that complex social problems today must involve multiple stakeholders in the research process—not as subjects but as co-investigators and co-authors. It is an “orientation to inquiry” rather than a methodology and reflects a transdisciplinary paradigm by including academics from many different disciplines, community members, activists, and often students in all stages of the research process. Community-based research is relational research where all partners change and grow in a synergistic relationship as they work together and strategize to solve issues and problems that are defined by and meaningful to them. This chapter is an introduction to the historical roots and subdivisions within community-based research and discusses the core principles and skills useful when designing and working with community members in a collaborative, innovative, and transformative research partnership. The rationale for working within this research paradigm is discussed as well as the challenges researchers and practitioners face when conducting community-based research. As the scholarship and practice of this form of research has increased dramatically over the last twenty years, this chapter looks at both new and emerging issues as well as founding questions that continue to be debated in the contemporary discourse.

It is best to begin, I think, by reminding you, the beginning student, that the most admirable thinkers within the scholarly community you have chosen to join do not split their work from their lives. They seem to take both too seriously to allow such disassociation. — C.W. Mills, (1959 , 195)

Community-based research challenges the traditional research paradigm by recognizing that complex social problems today must involve multiple stakeholders in the research process—not as subjects but as co-investigators and co-authors. It has roots in critical pedagogy, as well as critical and feminist theory, and is research centered on social justice and community empowerment. Community-based research is not a methodology; it is an “orientation to inquiry” where researchers and community stakeholders collaborate to address community-identified problems and investigate meaningful and realistic solutions. Community-based research came out of a growing discontent among academics, researchers, and practitioners with the positivist research paradigm and instead argues that research must be “value based” not “value free.” It is relational research that fosters both individual and collective transformation. Community-based research also challenges disciplinary silos and instead fosters a transdisciplinary research paradigm.

There has been a growing interest and expectation within academia and community organizations that campus–community research partnerships provide benefits and challenges. We have seen a proliferation of research partnerships, courses, workshops and trainings on how to collaborate with community partners in community-driven research projects. There has also been a substantial increase in the literature (books and articles) describing best practices providing exemplars, and discussing methodologies. Israel, Eng, Schulz, and Parker (2005) argue that within the field of public health “researchers, practitioners, community members, and funders have increasingly recognized the importance of comprehensive and participatory approaches to research and intervention” (3).

This chapter begins with a discussion of the historical roots and theoretical background to this form of inquiry and a clarification of terminology. I include a discussion of the rationale and evaluation literature that offers convincing evidence for new and experienced researchers to consider this alternative research paradigm. Building on the work of others, I discuss seven core principles of community-based research and a list of skills often useful in the practice of engaged scholarship. This chapter argues that, as community-based research continues to grow, it is important that our scholarship includes exemplars, reflection, evaluation, and a critical discussion of best practices. This chapter hopes to contribute to this discourse.

I cannot think for others or without others, nor can others think for me. Even if the peoples thinking is superstitious or naïve, it is only as they rethink their assumptions in action that they can change. Producing and acting upon their own ideas—not consuming those of others. — Freire, 1970 , 108

The epistemology of community-based research can be traced back to many roots—Karl Marx, John Dewey, Paulo Freire, C.W. Mills, Thomas Kuhn, and Jane Addams to name but a few. Community-based research as it is practiced today has been enriched by the diversity of thoughts, methodologies, and practices that has been its foundation. The practice and scholarship of community-based research can found in many disciplines: sociology, psychology, economics, philosophy, education, public health, anthropology, urban planning and development, and social work. Different historical traditions and academic disciplines have led to contemporary differences in the form or focus of engaged scholarship, but what has united many practitioners and scholars is a social justice mission and the desire for personal and structural transformation. Lykes and Mallona (2008) argue:

Critical pedagogy (Freire) and liberation theologies (Berryman, Boff, Gutierrez, Ruether, Cone) and liberation psychologies (Martin-Baro, Watts, and Serrano-Garcia, Moane) emerged within relatively similar historical moments characterized by widespread social upheavals including armed struggle and broad- based non-violent social movements. A belief that the poor could be producers of knowledge and lead the transformation to a new social reality. [114]

Today you can find community-based research pedagogy, practices and scholarship across disciplines and collaboration between disciplines including new areas such as medicine, native or aboriginal research, conflict studies, history, and archeology. The expansion of community-engaged scholarship as epistemology reflects an important paradigm shift towards understanding multiple ways of knowing and experiential learning as critical to good research practices.

While it is not possible to include an extensive summary of the history and development of community-based research here, a brief review is necessary to provide the context and rationale for this major epistemological paradigm shift across multiple disciplines. Wicks, Reason, and Bradbury (2008) identify the influence of critical theory, civil rights, feminist movements, liberationists, and critical race theory—“critiques of domination and marginalization” and “critical examination of issues of power, identity and agency” (19). The historical roots and scholars who, I believe, have most influenced the development of community-based research are critical pedagogy (Paulo Freire and John Dewey), critical theory (Karl Marx and C.W. Mills), the epistemology of knowledge (Thomas Kuhn), and feminist theory (Jane Addams).

While Marx is noted for his writing about the conditions of the working class in Europe and his theories of alienation and oppression under capitalism, he was also an active participant in the French Revolution. According to Hall (cited in Ozerdem and Bowd, 2010 ) Marx was not only doing research and theorizing about the working classes but actively working with the workers to educate and raise consciousness. In addition to building theory, Marx and Engels sought to radically change and improve the political, economic, and social structure of society. The need to work with those most disadvantaged to challenge institutional inequality and power relationships is reflected in the principles of community-based research today. Many academics and scholars working from a critical theoretical perspective found a synergy with the principles and practices of community-based research.

Within education, John Dewey and Paulo Freire were reformers, activists, and key figures working to challenge traditional pedagogy and positivist research practices. Both were very influential in connecting research, theory, action, and refection to social reform. John Dewey (1859–1952) questioned the relevance of much of what was considered “education” by asking, “How many found what they did learn so foreign to the situations of life outside the school as to give them no power or control over the latter” (cited in Noll, 2010 , 8). Dewey saw educational institutions as agencies of social reform and social change through providing opportunities for learning and engagement with the world beyond the classroom. Summarizing Dewey, Peterson (2009) wrote:

Dewey believed that learning is a wholehearted affair; that is, you can’t sever knowing and doing, and with cycles of action and reflection, one’s greatest learning occurs. Dewey was interested in the learning that resulted from the mutual exchange between people and their environment. [542]

Dewey argued that learning—action and reflection—must take place in commune with one’s environment. Learning is co-created rather than unidirectional; a challenge to the traditional view of knowledge transfer from teacher to learner. Co-education and co-learning are key principles of community-based research.

Paulo Freire (1921–1997), the founder of critical pedagogy, also challenged conventional educational pedagogy and traditional research paradigms and saw education’s potential as liberation from oppression. His most famous and widely distributed book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970) , was a call to action for both teacher and student to work together for social change and social reform. Freire saw learning as a two-way process involving “conscientization”—critical analysis and reflection leading to action. It is only through theory and practice, action and reflection, that real social change is possible. He also saw that the poor and oppressed can and must be leaders of their own liberation. Freire’s work—in challenging pedagogy and demanding researchers and academics to work with and learn from those most oppressed—has greatly influenced the practice of community-based research today.

Sociologist C.W. Mills also influenced critical pedagogy and engaged scholarship. In his classic work The Sociological Imagination (1959) he wrote:

An educator must begin with what interests the individual most deeply, even if it seems altogether trivial and cheap. He must proceed in such a way and with such materials as to enable the student to gain increasingly rational insight into these concerns, and into others he will acquire in the process of his education.... [187], We are trying to make the society more democratic. [189]

Similar to Freire, Mills challenged the social sciences to educate and through experiential education to foster democratic citizenry. Mills saw the connection between personal troubles and public issues and the role of sociology in helping others see the larger structures in society and how they reinforced inequality.

Another scholar who had a major influence on the development of community-based research is Thomas Kuhn in his classic book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1996). Kuhn’s work regarding the theory of the subjective nature of knowledge raised epistemological questions of “how we know what we know” and “what it is that we value as knowledge” (Wicks, Reason, & Bradbury, 2008 ). This became critically important in the development of engaged scholarship as academics and researchers began to respect and validate local knowledge, expertise, and other ways of thinking as equal to the knowledge and skills they could offer. Kuhn’s work led to questions about the privileged position of the researcher and how this privilege has denied or denigrated the experiential knowledge and understandings of oppressed groups.

It is also important to note the influence of feminist theory, in particular Jane Addams, on the development of community-based research and scholarship. Addams (1860–1935), a social activist and sociologist, played a key role in the development of engaged scholarship and community research. Naples (1996) writes that feminists argued for “a methodology designed to break the false separation between the subject of the research and the researcher” (160). Addams employed hundreds of women to go into their communities to interview, observe, and understand the experiences of other immigrant women in Chicago early in the twentieth century.

Addams also saw the need to make research relevant to the communities in which it originated. Much of the data gathered in Chicago was published as Hull House Maps and Papers (1895) and was for the benefit of the community, not for an academic audience. Her focus was social justice and social change, not theoretical conceptualizations of urban poverty. In writing about Jane Addams and the Chicago School, Deegan (1990) stated that Addams wrote “all the book’s royalties would be waived as we have little thought about the financial gain” (57). Deegan goes on to argue that Addams’ interests were in “empowering the community, the laborer, the elderly and youth, women and immigrants” (255). Addams, similar to Dewey and later Freire, was also very critical of traditional education, which reproduced inequality. Deegan (1990) writes that Addams articulated a goal of “generating reflective adults” (283).

Definitions, Terminology, and Subdivisions

We have exemplars of the methods of participatory research and canons for their practice, even if we cannot as yet agree on a single name. — Couto (2003 , 69)

Clarification of terminology is necessary before beginning a discussion of the principles and skills of community-based research,. Broadly defined, campus–community research collaboration can be referred to as community-based research (CBR), community-based participatory research (CBPR), collaborative research, engaged scholarship, participatory research (PR), participatory action research (PAR), action research (AR), aboriginal community research, popular education, participatory rural appraisal, public scholarship, university–community research collaboration, co-inquiry, and synergistic research. New terms and subdivisions continue to emerge. Strand, Marullo, Cutforth, Stoecker, and Donohue (2003a) suggest that practitioners of CBR come “from within and outside academia and work in areas throughout the world—all of which makes any commonly-accepted definition problematic” (6).

It is not my intent here to minimize or ignore the different historical roots or traditions reflected in the above forms of campus-community research, but a discussion of the distinct nature of each is beyond the scope of this chapter. Acknowledging that there are differences, this chapter will focus on commonalities and core principles that can apply broadly to campus—community research partnerships. Generally, the term “community-based research,” or CBR, is used here, although I have tried to include the terms used by authors when describing their own research. Other scholars have also focused on similarities rather than differences. Atalay (2010) suggests that, “regardless of the terminology used, the central tents remain the same” (419). CBR aims to connect academic researchers with individuals, groups, and community organizations to collaborate on a research project to solve community-identified and community-defined problems. CBR is intended to educate, empower, and transform at the individual, community, and structural level to challenge inequality and oppression.

While using a broad brush to be inclusive of all campus–community research partnerships, it is important to address what I see as two important differences in the goals and outcomes within CBR. For many practitioners, the ideal is a long-term, collaborative, and egalitarian partnership that builds community, fosters transformation, and promotes social change. Academics conduct research with and for the community, and all participants teach and learn in a synergistic relationship. Clayton, Bringle, Senor, Huq, and Morrison (2010) argue that campus–community relationships can be short term (transactional) or, ideally, a partnership in which both parties grow and change because of a deeper and more sustained (transformative) relationship.

For others, (e.g., McNaughton & Rock, 2004 ; Nygreen, 2009 –2010) the relationship between academic researchers, the university, and the community is always contentious, and power is rarely equal. For this reason, some CBR practitioners advocate community members learn the skills and knowledge necessary to conduct their own research within their communities. Nyden, Figbert, Shibley, and Burrows (1997) write, “Participatory Action Research aims at empowering the community by giving it the tools to do its own research and not to be beholden to universities or university professors to complete the work” (17). Academic researchers within this tradition are looking to empower local communities to be researchers and authors of their own transformation. The goal is to foster self-determination and self-reliance of the disenfranchised and powerless so they can be self-sufficient ( Park, 1993 ).

From this perspective, a long-term or sustained partnership with academic researchers could be seen as exploitive and disempowering.

Another major difference is that. for many, the goal of CBR includes pedagogy ( Strand, 2000 ). CBR provides an opportunity to involve students in a research project with community partners, often as part of their curriculum requirement. Strand, Marullo, Cutforth, Stoecker, and Donohue (2003b , xxi) suggest CBR is a way to “unite the three traditional academic missions of teaching, research and service in innovative ways.” CBR as pedagogy can bring students together with faculty and community partners to address community problems, as well as learn valuable skills regarding democratic research processes, communication, and civic responsibility. Porpora (1999 , 121) considers CBR “the highest state of service learning” and important as a way to promote engaged citizenship among students. There is an extensive body of research discussing the benefits, challenges, and practice of CBR as pedagogy that has generally found substantial benefits to students.

What is meant by “community” within the term community-based research requires some clarification. Alinsky (1971 , 120) noted that “in a highly mobile, urbanized society the word ‘community’ means community of interest, not geographic location.” This suggests a collective identity with shared goals, issues, or problems, or a shared fate ( Israel, Eng, Schultz & Parker, 2005 ). This has been particularly evident in the growing number of international community–researcher collaborative partnerships. Pinto et al (2007) writes:

International researchers need to become members, even if from afar, of the communities that host their studies, so that they can be part of the interactions that affect social processes and people’s understanding of their behaviors and identities. These interactions may occur at physical, psycho-social and electronic levels, encompassing geographic and virtual spaces and behaviors, social and cultural trends, and psychological constructs and interpretations. [55]

Accepting that today individuals and groups can participate in numerous “communities of interest” at the local and global level, many exemplars of CBR are situated in geographically defined communities. The community, however, is rarely a unified or homogenous group. It often includes groups within groups, competing and contentious factions, and members with diverse perspectives, needs and expectations ( Atalay, 2010 ). The diversity of participants within CBR projects reflects both the strengths and the challenges of engaged scholarship and will be discussed later in this chapter.

A final clarification with regards to CBR is that it is not the same as community organizing or advocacy. CBR includes scientific investigation respecting research ethics, methodologies, and analysis. CBR practitioners and community partners are seeking knowledge and understanding through data collection and analysis. The findings will inform decisions as to community organizing, social action, or advocacy work. Fuentes (2009 –2010, 733) makes the distinction between “ community organizing ,” which usually focuses on the development and support of leaders and “ organizing community ,” which “centers on community building, collectivism, caring, mutual respect, and self-transformation.” CBR is about organizing community to create research partnerships to address inequalities. Another misconception is that CBR is a form of public service. Public service implies a one-way transfer of knowledge, expertise, and action from the campus to the community. CBR is a multi-directional process that results in shared and collaborative teaching, learning, action, reflection, and transformation.

We both know some things, neither of us knows everything. Working together, we will both know more, and we will both learn more about how to know. — Maguire (1987 37–38)

There is universal agreement that research is critical in terms of planning, implementing, and evaluating policies and programs. Nyden and Wiewel (1992 , 44) state, “research is a political resource that can be used as ammunition” to provide credible evidence regarding funding, programs, and or policy decisions. So why do CBR? For engaged scholars and activist working within a CBR paradigm, the reasons for doing so are numerous—personal and structural transformation, co-education, community empowerment, capacity building, and a belief in the need to democratize the research process. Even though engaged scholarship has not always been given the support and resources needed within academia, many argue that it is the only type of research that really makes a difference. Reason and Bradbury (2008) assert “indeed we might respond to the disdainful attitude of mainstream social scientists to our work that action research practices have changed the world in far more positive ways than conventional social science” (3). Rahman (2008) in summarizing the early work of Budd Hall in the 1970s states, “Participatory Action Research is a more scientific method of research because the full participation of the community in the research process facilitates a more accurate and authentic analysis of social reality” (51).

For many engaged scholars, ethical research requires working with and for individuals and groups, not doing research on or about subjects. Collaboration with multiple stakeholders allows for an opportunity to re-conceptualize problems and come up with innovative solutions. For many, this form of research is “more than creating knowledge; in the process it is educational, transformative and mobilization for action” ( Gaventa; 1993 ; xiv–xv). Community-based researchers acknowledge that this form of inquiry is not the only way, but often it is the best way to address the magnitude and complexity of contemporary social programs. It requires researchers across disciplines and from multiple perspectives, together with activists and community members, to join as equal partners and to think about and strategize solutions that are meaningful and beneficial to them. The benefits of combining scientific methods and lived experiences to re-conceptualize problems and find solutions are clear. Involving community stakeholders in all stages of the research process also increases the chances that solutions will be relevant and meaningful to community members. CBR is ideally situated to inform best practices as it is research generated from the ground up.

For more traditional social scientists, the reasons for considering CBR may reflect pressure from outside funders or community members. There has been a growing frustration with traditional research that the findings have not been applied or benefited the community or broader society. Nyden, Figert, Shibley, and Burrows (1997 , 3) state, “Traditional academic research has focused on furthering sociological theory and research” and not social action or social justice. Forty years ago, Fritz and Plog saw traditional research methods as no longer viable within archeology, stating:

We suspect that unless archaeologists find ways to make their research increasingly relevant to the modern world, the modern world will find itself increasingly capable of getting along without archaeologists. [ Cited in Atalay, 2010 , 419].

This concern has been raised within other disciplines and is reflected in the development of CBR and scholarship.

There are also very good reasons for institutions of higher education to align their mission to reflect a commitment to serve. Boyer (1994) suggests that the historical roots of higher education as a service to the community and a “public good” have diminished. He argues for the “New American College”—an institution that celebrates and fosters action, theory, practice, and reflection among faculty, students, and practitioners to solve the very real problems facing communities today. Colleges and universities must respond to and engage with communities to listen, learn, and work together on solutions. Netshandama (2010) describes how the University of Venda in South Africa changed over the course of four years to “align its vision and mission to the needs of the community at local, regional, national, continental and international levels” (72). Netshandama (2010) argues that the university did not just support faculty or add resources; their vision was to “integrate community engagement into the core business of the university” (72).

Methodology and a Transdisciplinary Paradigm

CBR is not a research methodology. Researchers and community members use a variety of methods to gather data about a community issue or problem and then seek solutions. It reflects a radical paradigm shift away from positivist methods of inquiry to what Leavy (2011) refers to as “a holistic, synergistic, and highly collaborative approach to research” (83). It can be best understood as a “ philosophy of inquiry ” ( Cockerill, Meyers, & Allman, 2000 ) or an “ orientation to inquiry ” ( Reason & Bradbury, 2008 ) that seeks to create participative communities of inquiry to collaborate to address community problems. Practitioners of CBR recognize and value multiple ways of knowing and do not privilege the knowledge or skills of the researcher over local experiences, skills, and methodologies. Torre and Fine (2011) suggest that PAR “represents a practice of research, a theory of method and an epistemology that values the intimate, painful and often shamed knowledge held by those who have most endured social injustice” (116). At its best, CBR reflects a democratization of the research process and a validation of multiple forms of knowledge, expertise, and methodologies. It is a shift away from research “subjects” to research collaborators and colleagues.

Although CBR is not a methodology, it does address the recent methodological questions concerning the role of “reflexivity” in research design and practice. Subramaniam (2009) states, “After adopting reflexivity as a valid research process, the researcher must make decisions about her status vis-à-vis those being researched and become conscious about their status in relation to her, the researcher” (203). This has led to further methodological questions concerning the validity of traditional binaries such as “researcher/researched,” “insider/outsider,” and “objective/subjective.” These statuses are addressed openly and critically in CBR projects. For example, critical psychologists often face an ethical dilemma when involved in CBR projects. Baumann, Rodriguez, and Parra-Cardona (2011 , 142) refer to this dilemma, citing the American Psychological Association (APA) Code of Ethics that states psychologists must refrain from “multiple and dual relationships with clients and community members.” For CBR practitioners, research is relational. Scientific “objectivity” is problematic and does not strengthen the validity of research outcomes.

CBR lends itself to mixed method design and often reflects a transdisciplinary research paradigm. According to Leavy (2011) , “Transdisciplanarity is a social justice oriented approach to research in which resources and expertise from multiple disciplines are integrated in order to holistically address a real-world issue or problem” (35). Leavy argues that “transdisciplanarity does not mean the abandonment of disciplines (34)” but rather knowledge gained through this form of inquiry transcends traditional disciplinary silos. I would agree that CBR reflects a “transdisciplanary research paradigm” and that this also includes community scholars outside academia.

Although data can result from many methods, there are core principles or tenets of CBR that are generally agreed upon by most practitioners. Scholars do disagree on the number of core principles. However, the unique nature of every CBR project allows for flexibility and differences. The principles represent guidelines or best practices, and are helpful for setting goals and for praxis,—continuous reflection, and action. They are also interconnected and interdependent. Each principle can be conceptualized along a continuum. For example, Schwartz (2010) suggests that PAR can include research that has minimal collaboration to projects that have full participation of all stakeholders in every stage of the research process with most projects falling somewhere in the middle.

Principles of Community-Based Research

Strand, Marullo, Cutforth, Stoecker, and Donohue (2003) suggested three core principles that define CBR: collaboration, democratization, and social action for social change and social justice. Atalay (2010) expands on these three and suggests five core principles of CBR: community driven, participatory, reciprocal, power sharing, and action oriented. As the number of community-based researchers, practitioners, projects, and disciplines involved has multiplied and the scholarship of CBR has increased, so have the number of core principles. Leavy (2011) suggests seven principles: collaboration; cultural sensitivity, social action and social justice; recruitment and retention; building trust and rapport; multiplicity and different knowledges, participation and empowerment; flexibility and innovation; and representation and dissemination. Still other practitioners have identified nine ( Puma, Bennett, Cutforth, & Tombari, 2009 ; Israel, Eng, Schultz, & Parker, 2005 ).

An understanding of the core principles that define CBR is important, but how each principle is negotiated and understood will reflect contextual, social, and historical differences within each project. Synthesizing and building on the work of others, I discuss seven principles of CBR that I believe represent best practices within this orientation to inquiry: collaboration, community driven, power sharing, a social action and social justice orientation, capacity building, transformative, and innovative. Summaries of CBR projects are also provided as brief case studies. They are intended to reflect the challenges and benefits of this work and how the principles of CBR are negotiated and reflected in unique ways.

Collaboration

Collaboration between the researcher and community is a fundamental principle of CBR. It is defined as working in partnership with all stakeholders to identify, understand, and solve real problems facing their community. Collaboration happens in all stages of the research process—including problem definition, methodological decisions, data collection and analysis, dissemination of the findings, and evaluation of the project. Collaboration between the researcher and the researched is a fundamental paradigm shift from the traditional scientific method. Within CBR, the distinction between the researcher and the researched is no longer valid or acceptable. This does not remove differences between stakeholders or between community members and researchers but rather recognizes and validates different ways of knowing, experiences, skills, and methods equally. Mandell (2010) states:

Ultimately, what the activist sociologist has to offer social change organizations is her or his detachment from the immersion in the work, grounding in social change theoretical perspectives and the power to ask questions and to make outside observations. The outsider perspective of an action researcher with the insider views of community partners makes for a powerful combination. [154]

To collaborate with community members it is critical that the project is transparent and inclusive of all stakeholders. It is a reflective process that continues throughout the project and is based on trust, respect, and equality between all participants. Mandell (2010) states that a “successful trust filled researcher-community partnership is built over time, through rigorous self-examination and regular communication” (154). Trust can often be fostered by researchers participating in additional community events and activities and by attending celebrations that are not directly related to the research project. Listening to and supporting participants ‘own professional and personal goals also fosters trust and builds collaboration ( Baumann, Rodriguez, & Parra-Cardona, 2011 ).

To foster collaboration, the researcher needs to understand some basic principles of group processes and group dynamics. CBR success depends on participatory democracy and open communication between members. This facilitates understanding and enables all members to share their strengths and skills, to set priorities, and to accomplish tasks. However, inclusivity and collaboration with multiple stakeholders can lead to questions about project size. Generally, large projects with multiple stakeholders can lead to hierarchies in decision making and discussion and may leave some voices silenced. Small projects with few members can lead to concerns about burnout and/or reinforcing power inequality within the community. There is no ideal size for maximum collaboration. Each project will need to negotiate and reflect upon collaboration and inclusivity in an ongoing dialogue or “multilogue” with the community. Sometimes community education about what CBR is may be necessary before collaboration is possible. This can add months or years to the expected timeline and may alter the original CBR project.

Case Study: A CBPR Project in Catalhoyuk, Turkey

Atalay (2010) was involved in an archeological excavation site in Catalhoyuk, Turkey, and wanted to include the community in a CBPR project. She stated that her first priority was to “[d]etermine if the community was interested in becoming a research partner, and what their level of commitment was. This required substantial up-front investment both to explain CBPR and to demonstrate how their role as collaborators would differ from their previous role as excavation labor or ethnographic informants” (422). In conducting interviews with local residents to invite collaboration, individuals felt they could not contribute to the research partnership until they received “archeology-based knowledge.” Atalay found that “contrary to what I had initially expected, the first several years of the project focused on community education rather than on developing and carrying out an archeology, heritage management or cultural tourism-related research design” (423).

The CBPR project started with archeology education that resulted in “an annual festival, archaeological lab-guide training for village children and young teen residents, a regular comic series (for children), and a newsletter (for adults)” (423). After some time, Atalay began moving the community towards a research partnership. The CBPR project initiated a local internship program and archeological theatre. Both were community-led and community-driven projects that fostered capacity-building and recognized the importance of local knowledge and experiences. Atalay acknowledged that the work was slow and did not take the direction she had initially intended. However, she argues that “collaborative research with communities in a participatory way offers a sustainable model, and one that enhances the way archeology will be practiced in the next century” (427).

This CBPR project illustrates that collaboration is only possible when partners are not only seen as equal by the researcher but when they experience it themselves. Freire (1970) reminds us we must always begin where the community is: “All work done for the masses must start from their needs and not from the desire of any individual, however well intentioned” (94). Atalay’s work also reflects the challenges and benefits of collaborative research partnerships. Problems and solutions are identified by the community and it is the community that is the primary beneficiary of the research project.

Community Driven

Classic social science research focused on social problems that the researcher and the academic community defined as important or worthy of study. Generally, a research project was initiated and controlled by the researcher. It was the researcher who benefited and subjects were often treated as objects. CBR was a response by engaged scholars and practitioners to end exploitive and oppressive research practices that left community problems intact, inequality unchallenged, and often community members feeling used. Ideally, community-based projects should be community driven from conception to dissemination of the findings and evaluation of the project. Comstock and Fox (1993) suggest that local communities and workplace groups should decide on the nature of the problem and participate in the investigation of local and extra-local forces sharing their lives. Collectively they may decide to take action based on the research findings.

However, Maguire (1987) suggest that “realistically, such projects are often initiated by outside researchers” (43). If many CBR projects do not originate within the community, how can practitioners and researchers foster community - driven projects? Whether the community is local or global, participants in CBR projects will often have conflicting interests, sentiments, expectations, and priorities. To be inclusive and have all stakeholders as participants in the research project means tension, conflict, and challenges are inevitable. Bowd, Ozerdem and Kassa (2010) remind us that:

Participation literature is also criticized for ‘essentializing’ the word community as a homogeneous entity where people have egalitarian interests to produce knowledge, work with partners and decide on matters of common good in undisputed manners. In reality however, communities are characterized by protracted ethnic, linguistic and professional cliques and interest groups. [6]

Engaged scholars and practitioners need practice, patience, skills, and knowledge to ensure all stakeholders are heard and encouraged to participate. Democratization of the research process requires participatory democracy within the community, and this cannot be expected or assumed.

It is also important to ask who speaks for the community. For example, community-based researchers and practitioners have been heavily criticized for not paying close attention to the exclusion of and silencing of women within many CBR projects—the continuing “androcentric paradigm” of social science research methods ( Maguire, 1987 ; Decker, 2010 ). Maguire (1987) writes, “Women are often invisible, submerged or hidden in case study reports or theoretical discussions. Gender is rendered indistinguishable by generic terms like ‘the oppressed,’ ‘the people,’ ‘the villagers,’ and ‘the community’” (48). The challenge of CBR is that often the most oppressed within the community lack any organizational structure or resources to participate in research projects. It is critical for engaged scholars and practitioners to be conscious of who is participating in, excluded from, or silenced in CBR projects and take responsibility for encouraging and supporting the most disenfranchised to participate equally. It is often the researcher or “outsider” who is best situated to see who is excluded and what must be done to rectify this.

Power Sharing

Knowledge, discussion, and reflection about power, power sharing, and power dynamics within the community are critical for successful partnerships. Engaged scholars and activists need to encourage, support, and foster a climate where all stakeholders and researchers share power. This can be difficult when researchers often have privileged statuses that can intimidate or silence community partners. For the researcher it is often difficult to cede power and control to community members who may have less formal education or training in research methods or less knowledge of the larger issue. However, Mdee (2010) address this problem in her PRA project in Tanzania and argues: “absolute equality in the process is an impossibility given imbalances in knowledge, power and resources, and it is not helpful to pretend otherwise” power sharing is necessary and fundamental to CBR partnerships. Shared decision making includes problem definition, methodological concerns, analysis and dissemination of the findings, funding and budgetary decisions, where and when to hold meetings, as well as ethical questions such as whether to pay participants. While community-based researchers and practitioners may believe in the principle of power sharing, they may be unaware of their privileged status that continues to influence and inhibit collaboration.

Case Study: Youth Empowerment at an Alternative High School

Nygreen (2009 –2010) discusses the challenges and dilemmas of a PAR project she undertook with recent graduates and current students in an alternative high school to “examine issues of social and educational inequality” (17). Nygreen found that, over the course of the two-year project, there was high turnover of student participation, several group conflicts, and although the youths said they learned a great deal, she saw little evidence of social change. Through reflection it became clearer that wanting and believing in equitable partnerships is not the same as achieving it. She found that, in working with youth on issues of social justice, understanding power dynamics was important. She said, “I insisted that we all had an equal voice in decision-making and we were all accountable to each other. In reality, though, my posture reflected a false egalitarianism that obscured and reinforced real power differences. Despite my promises that the youth could veto decisions they did not like, I was the only member of the group with absolute veto power.” (18)

Nygreen acknowledges that PAR in and of itself does not necessarily negate the problems related to power inequality. Although PAR seeks to equalize power between participants, “in practice PAR projects may quite easily reproduce and exacerbate power inequalities while obscuring these processes through a discourse of false egalitarianism (19).” She explains, “I conflated the political and ethical values of PAR with the practice and process of PAR. What I learned, instead, is that no series of methodological steps can protect a social scientist from the dilemmas of power, authorship, and scale” (28). She advocates a “de-coupling” of the method of PAR from the political and ethical values that inform it. This PAR project highlights the critical tensions she experienced between the values of PAR and the practice of PAR. Nygreen identified the dilemmas of power and privilege—including white privilege when university-based researchers work with historically oppressed communities—and reminds us that critical reflection through dialogue and the complexities of power relations must be understood.

Although much of the research concerning power within CBR projects has focused on the imbalance between the researcher and the community, we must understand the multifaceted and fluid nature of power as it is negotiated and experienced within communities. Bowd, Ozerdem, and Kassa (2010) suggest that “participation literature seems to be infested with binary models of power such as the urban elite and the rural poor, the uppers and lowers, the north and the south, academics and practitioners. Power relationships, however, are fluid and do not usually fall into such rigidly stated categories” (6). Participation within CBR projects can reflect local hierarchies, and therefore “empowering” the community may reinforce inequality. Bowd, Ozerdem, and Kassa (2010) state, “Whilst the theoretical basis for these approaches may be well intentioned, in practice participation is not an emancipatory exercise for many due to the fact power dynamics within societies and communities are not accurately and comprehensively understood by those who instigate the use of such approaches. Thus local knowledge is a construct of the powerful” (15). CBR practitioners and engaged scholars must better understand power and how it gets used and negotiated within the community and within the research partnership. This demands reflexivity, a willingness to cede power, and an ability to recognize and challenge powerful community individuals and groups. Capacity building is one way to begin to empower those most disadvantaged and silenced by building skills and knowledge at both the individual and community level.

Capacity Building

CBR practitioners seek to build capacity within the communities they work with. This means that the researcher and practitioner organize, facilitate, motivate, train, educate, and foster community members, groups, and organizations to become architects, leaders, and authors of their own histories. The principle of capacity building requires that researchers not only “do no harm” but that they also leave communities empowered and strengthened as a result of the research project. Participants co-learn research and advocacy skills, communication and group working skills, and about participatory democracy. The skills and knowledge learned can be transferred and applied to other projects or personal experiences. Capacity building extends the goals of CBR beyond the immediate project to the future. In doing this, community-based researchers recognize local knowledge, skills, expertise, and resources and help participants see these strengths within their community.

Social Change and Social Justice Orientation

The commitment to social change and social justice work within CBR projects is often multidimensional and multilayered; there is an expectation that participation in the project will lead to personal transformation, community empowerment, and macro-structural changes. Involving those most affected by issues and problems within their own communities in the research process is an act of social justice. Collaboration and power sharing within the research process is empowering. Fiorilla et al. (2009) summarize the experiences participants shared as a result of their involvement in a CBR project involving students and women who were experiencing homelessness.

The students report how growth and change in the relationship is accompanied by listening with warmth, and empathy, and genuineness. For Dawn and Laura, however, this is not enough. The research process for them must move beyond this to having their experiences and expertise acknowledged and applied to action, action aimed at developing solutions for the problems they see as meaningful in their lives and others within their community for whom they give voice. The student researchers also underlie the power of sharing stories as they begin to connect as co-researchers, co-creators and, as they articulate, most importantly, as women. [9]

It is important to acknowledge that CBR has primarily but not exclusively focused on empowering disenfranchised individuals and communities. Partners can cut across social categories—which can lead to both benefits and challenges for all participants. While CBR practitioners may see possibilities for change as a result of the research gathered, it is critical that the decision as to what will happen as a result of the findings rests with the community. Even if the decision is taken not to act, the expectation is that personal transformation and lasting benefits to the community are likely.

Transformative

Clayton, Bringle, Senor, Huq, and Morrison (2010) contend that “the terms ‘relationships’ and ‘partnerships’ are not interchangeable” (5). They argue that relationships are interactions between individuals and can be short in duration and transactional whereas partnerships are transformational and characterized by “relationships wherein both persons grow and change because of deeper and more sustainable commitments” (7).

Case Study: Exploring “Voice” and “Knowledge” With People Living in Poverty

Krumer-Nevo (2009) argues that, in the first decades of the state of Israel, poverty was denied as it did not resonate with the dominant Zionist social democratic ideology. Until the beginning of the twenty-first century, poverty was presented as “a temporary problem for new immigrants” (283). Krumer-Nevo writes that the “voices, the knowledge and the actual presence of people who live in poverty are absent from the public debate” (284). This PAR project was designed to give those living in poverty a “voice” equal to academics, policymakers, social practitioners, and social activists to change attitudes about the poor. Krumer-Nevo used her “privileged” status to raise the idea of creating a PAR partnership between four ethnic groups who had little contact or trust of the other.

What was particularly interesting is that Krumer-Nevo realized as the project continued that a lack of voice was not the problem. She explained, “Most of the participants were eager to take part in the initiative, wanting their voices and knowledge to be heard by powerful people” (287). They were willing to share their personal experiences and knowledge as well as articulate what needs to change. Krumer-Nevo states, “The lesson we learned was that the real challenge was not the ‘empowering’ of people in poverty, since they were eager to participate in the public debate, but the fashioning of the discourse to become not merely formally inclusive but truly and deeply so” (292).

Krumer-Nevo found that giving voice to those who live in poverty is not enough. What must also happen is transformation—a multidirectional exchange of ideas, experiences, knowledge, and understanding where all stakeholders grow and where change happens as a result of the partnership.

A final core principle of CBR is innovation: multidisciplinary groups including academics, practitioners, and community members are better able to think creatively and strategize how to research complex issues and problems. Morisky, Marlow, Tiglao, Lyu, Vissman, and Rhodes (2010) describe their use of “a CBPR framework in which the collective knowledge, perspectives, experiences, and resources of these diverse partners, representing a broad spectrum of community stakeholders, helped guide the development, implementation, and evaluation of the interventions designed to reduce HIV risk among female bar workers (FBWs)” (372). Previous intervention strategies had not been successful in reducing HIV risk within this population. Morisky, Marlow, Tigloa, Lyu, Vissman, and Rhodes (2010 , 381) argue that it was this innovative CBPR project that provided new ideas for intervention with this vulnerable group of women. They state:

We used a CBPR approach that included community members, organizational representatives, and academic researchers to design, implement, and evaluate the interventions. It seems clear that this type of partnership approach to research yielded interventions that were culturally congruent and highly acceptable to a broad spectrum of stakeholders, including: FBWs, establishment managers, floor supervisors, and customers. Coupled with their being informed by sound science and established health behavior theory, the developed interventions were as “informed” as possible. The approach also ensured that data collection methodologies were realistic to yield more valid and reliable data. [381]

Sessa and Ricci (2010) discussed their innovative PAR project involving scientists, citizens, and policymakers aimed at addressing what they see is a lack of “evidence-based policy-making and improve the science-policy interface” (50). Sessa and Ricci suggest that while the applied researcher acknowledges that the “legitimate” result of their research is to help policymakers make sound decisions that benefit individuals and communities, often there is a “lack of transfer” (5) of the research findings. They argue that the way to improve this transfer of research outcomes to policymakers is to involve a third party—citizens and stakeholders affected by the research. Research that involves all stakeholders is more likely to find solutions that are meaningful and applicable to the lives of those most affected by the data ( Goh et al. 2009 ).

Skills and Practice of CBR

To conduct CBR requires skills that are often not taught in traditional social science programs or research institutes. CBR requires a major paradigm shift in the way we think about research—what we research, why we do it, and when and how we do it. This paradigm shift requires community-based researchers to learn and practice new skills. Additional skills can include community organizing, group work skills, and relational skills. A preliminary list of skills useful for CBR is as follows:

Research skills —Knowledge of research methods, practices, and analysis are necessary for good CBR work. Methods can include quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods design. The research may involve random sampling, case studies, historical data, and art-based research. Decker, Hemmerling, & Lankoande (2010) reviewed twelve completed CBPR health intervention projects and found that studies with the strongest outcomes had higher-quality research designs.

Communication skills —In partnering with communities and fostering their participation, it is critical that the researcher is able to communicate with and listen to all stakeholders and be able to foster communication between and within the community. Communication skills include written, oral, observational, and listening skills.

Relational Skills —The community is often weary of outsiders and mistrust academic or external researchers coming in to their communities, so forming and building relationships can take time. CBR is relational research yet researchers often do not get training in “how” to build relationships with community members. Trust, respect, care, humility, deference, and honesty are all skills and behaviors that can foster partnership and collaboration.

Reflexivity —Reflexivity is the awareness of and an analysis of self. It is being aware of who we are and how our behaviors, attitudes, values, and experiences influence how we think and behave with others. Without reflection there can be no action that is meaningful. Naples (1996 , 169) states, “Who we are personally affects how we go about our work. Whether we want to own that or not, whether we are self-conscious about this fact or not our standpoint shapes the way we proceed to gather information and draw conclusions from that information.” We must practice self-reflection and self- awareness and model it in our work. Community-based researchers recognize “a self-reflective, engaged and self-critical role” ( Israel, Schulz, Parker, & Becker, 1998 ; 181) is necessary.

Facilitation skills — Begun, Berger, Otto-Salaj, and Rose(2010 ; 560) suggest that for successful partnership “there is a need for all partners to successfully integrate their different backgrounds, expertise, values, and priorities” (52). They acknowledge that, while CBR requires the full and active participation of the community, there are often barriers to participation. These can include time, financial restraints, language, culture, feelings of intimidation, and burnout. The CBR practitioners must minimize barriers and facilitate participatory democracy.

Organizational and group work skills —Knowledge and skills related to group work and group processes is helpful for anyone working with community groups and organizations. There is extensive literature discussing group work skills, practices, and community organizing strategies that is helpful to know and understand. (See for example Staples, 2004 ).

  Motivational skills —Motivating community participants to engage in CBR projects can be difficult. Community members are often overstretched in terms of work and family commitments and/or they can be frustrated from previous research in their communities that provided few if any benefits. Motivation may also wane if community members leave or reduce their involvement and commitment for any number of reasons. The pace of CBR work can also be slow, and this too may require effort to keep participants engaged and involved.

Cultural competency —Working in communities with diverse individuals and groups requires an awareness of and sensitivity to differences in language, ethnicity, race, social class, gender, sexual orientation, and other statuses. There is a large body of research that addresses cultural competency that cannot be addressed here but it is important to know, understand, and reflect on one’s own, often privileged statuses as well as the cultural similarities and differences within and between our partners. Cultural awareness and competency is critical if CBR is to be inclusive, collaborative, and transformative. When involved in an international collaborative research project that takes place in a foreign country, the researcher must do intensive preparation work. Pinto (2000) suggests the researcher “start by studying the language, history, geography, social structures and politics of that country and of the specific community he or she proposes to study” (55).

Capacity-building skills —Capacity building skills include educating, supporting, mentoring, and acknowledging the experiences and different ways of knowing of all stakeholders. Engaged scholars foster co-learning, understanding, and application of all the skills listed above so that community partners can use them in multiple ways in the future.

Entering the Field

Anyone new to a CBR paradigm begins by asking, “How do I start?” Recognizing that campus–community partnerships ideally should be initiated by community members, researchers often begin the process of establishing a collaborative research partnership. There are many ways that researchers can “enter the field.” Naples (1996) suggests:

Some activist researchers search for a community-based site through which they might assist in the political agendas defined by community members. A second avenue develops when a group, community, or organization seeks outside assistance to generate research for social change. Another avenue to activist researchers occurs when we enter “the field” as participants who are personally affected by the issues that is the focus of our work. Many of us who choose to use our personal and community-based struggles as sites for activist research did not begin the work with a research agenda in mind.” (96)

Wallerstein, Duran, Minkler, & Foley (2005) confirm that it is always easier to form a research partnership with a community in which you have previous positive connections. If a connection has not been made, it is difficult and time consuming to build trust and foster a participatory and collaborative research partnership.

Building Trust

Researchers must gain knowledge of the community: individuals, groups, organizations, services, and the issues and concerns of residents. This can be through key informants, reports, census data, flyers, organizations, service providers, and spending time in the community and with community members. If the partnership is initiated by the researcher, one of the first tasks is to consider who is affected by or concerned about this problem. Netshandama (2010) acknowledges that identifying community stakeholders is not an easy task and suggests that the safest way of identifying community stakeholders is to pinpoint the most obvious participants without ruling out any groups and to make the process of selection open and transparent. Polanyi and Cockburn (2003) also identify that the initial stages of the CBR project can lead to some confusion and frustration as to the goals of the project. At the beginning of their CBR project with injured workers, some members were interested in research, but others felt they already had enough information and wanted to take action. Clarification and agreement to form a community-based research partnership is important; the distinction needs to be made between CBR, community organizing, and social action.

Questions for Consideration and Reflection

When beginning a CBR project, it can be helpful to think about questions and issues other practitioners have identified as important. A list of guiding questions is provided here for consideration, dialogue, negotiation, and reflection when beginning and throughout a CBR project (adapted from Mandell, 2010 , 153):

Is the CBR project transparent and inclusive of all stakeholders?

Do the researcher and community partners orient themselves within the same fundamental paradigm of social justice and social change?

Is there general agreement as to the nature of the social problem(s) and the range of possible solutions?

What is the scope of the research project including the research question(s), the methodologies, and the timeline for data collection, analysis, and final reporting? How will the findings be disseminated?

Have research ethics been addressed, including informed consent and confidentiality?

Have expectations, roles, responsibilities, and power sharing been discussed. Is there a sense of trust between partners?

Will there be collaboration at each stage of the project, including dissemination of the findings and co-authorship of any reports or journal articles?

In what ways will all stakeholders and the community benefit from participating in this research project?

Funding and Resources

Before beginning a CBR project, funding, resources, and budgets may be discussed. There are always benefits and challenges to receiving outside funding or grants. To participate in a CBR project takes time, money, and resources, and the scale of this will depend on the size of the project and what is already available from the campus or community. Projects can falter with little outside funding or resources. Resources can be administrative, including computers, meeting and office space, printing flyers and advertising materials, and research guides. Help with transportation may also be necessary to include all stakeholders. Resources can also include staffing; administrative help, and/or a project coordinator. A translator or cultural broker may also be necessary if one is working with individuals and groups from different cultural backgrounds. Polanyi and Cockburn (2003) state that the outside funding they received allowed them to “hire a (part-time) project coordinator, cover expenses for conferences and meetings with injured workers, and provide injured workers with an honorarium for their participation” (21). However, outside funders may require explicit details regarding the sample, research methods, and questions to be asked and the objectives and expected outcomes. This may leave little flexibility that most CBR projects require. Outside funders may also want a “principal investigator,” usually affiliated with an academic institution or agency, to be accountable for budgets, data collection and analysis, and the final report. Academic institutions and funding bodies may be supportive of collaborative research projects but still find it difficult to agree to collective decision making and shared responsibilities.

Flicker, Wilson, Travers, et al. (2009) developed a survey to investigate use and effectiveness of CBR, specifically looking at facilitating and barriers to CBR work with AIDS service organizations (ASOs) in Ontario, Canada. They found that increased funding was critical to facilitating CBR and that “lack of funding and resources (space, computers, time and staff)” and “too many competing demands” were the greatest barriers. The qualitative interviews with community organization staff also found:

The interviews revealed that issues surrounding funding are complex. Agencies were frustrated about how rare it was for community-based organizations to get compensated for their investment and contribution to partnered research endeavors. As such, the issue was not simply about increasing funding but also relocating and reconfiguring budgeting practices so that ASOs could (1) be the direct recipients of research grants and/or (2) increase their internal capacities to conduct research and maintain an active research programs. ( 95)

When decisions about resources are not shared, any intent to foster power sharing can reflect a “false egalitarianism” ( Nygreen, 2009 –2010) and generate mistrust. There is a need to educate funding organizations around issues of democratic decision making, collective responsibility, and capacity building.

Emerging Issues Research Ethics and Professional Boundaries:

Community-based researchers are similar to ethnographers: they need to “get up close and personal” to gain trust and establish a collaborative partnership. As we get to know our partners, questions and concerns can surface about professional boundaries. When is it appropriate to advocate or provide services to community members or to intervene into their personal lives? When does the CBR project end—after dissemination of the findings and the final report is completed or should community-based researchers continue their work into advocacy? How should we navigate our multiple roles, responsibilities, and relationships with our community partners to build trust, respect professional ethics and not exploit our partners? In reviewing the APA Code of Ethics, Baumann, Rodrilguez, & Parra-Cardona (2011) discuss the difficulties CBR practitioners have in negotiating their professional responsibilities. They state, “Establishing multiple and dual relationships with clients and community members carries the risk of becoming harmful and exploitive” (142). The APA Code of Ethics recommends “detached objectivity,” but CBR is about building trust and relationships.

There are also questions regarding the balance between scientific rigor and community needs. Baumann, Rodrilguez, & Parra-Cardona (2011) ask:

How can we balance science and community support? If methodology is changed based on community needs what are the implications to the validity of the methods? To the validity of the findings? (144–145)

The balance between scientific methods and community needs may be challenged at all stages of the research process—for example when community partners are eager to get the voices of certain community members yet random sampling is possible. Researchers may also find that their care and concern for their community partners makes scientific rigor sometimes difficult to uphold. For example, Schwartz (2010) asked students and community participants for their feedback on CBPR partnerships they were involved with and found that problems with communication and issues of power and control surfaced between partners, students, and the instructors. Students identified that they sometimes “felt pressure from their agencies to produce positive results” (8).

Another concern is confidentiality. Special consideration is needed when community members are involved in collecting data from their own communities that may be sensitive or stigmatizing. Smikowski, Dewane, Johnson, Brems, Bruss, & Roberts (2009 , 462) suggest caution:

Given the unique challenges presented in community—researcher partnerships, additional ethical issues arise that often put the researcher in conflict with more traditional research ethics. For example, when community members share in all aspects of the study, there may be difficulties maintaining confidentiality, or a heightened burden for participants with stigmatizing illnesses. [462]

This may require additional training and education regarding research ethics. While this training may extend the timeline for data collection, it builds capacity for future community-initiated research projects. Another dilemma that can arise is the pressure to collect data that fits with stakeholders’ experiences and/or expectations.

Collaboration or Exploitation

There needs to be a continuing discussion of the role of academia and power sharing within CBR partnerships. Can we have long-term and sustained partnerships between academics and community partners without them being exploitive or oppressive? Jackson and Kassam (1998) argue that participatory research programs have been “much criticized for becoming a new form of colonialism whereby western perspectives and priorities are imposed on oppressed groups” (cited in Ledwith & Springett 2010 ; 94). In discussing a PR project in Kyrgyzstan investigating health concerns, Jackson and Kassam discuss what they found: “Observations I made on a recent visit there indicate that the approach has had a substantial impact on the development of skills within rural communities. However, as the process has developed, agencies and government departments and the medical profession with their own agendas have tried to coerce communities into addressing needs that reflect their interests or perceptions” (cited in Ledwith & Springett 2010 ; 96).

Any discussion of power must include questions about “voice” and whose voice is heard and represented in CBR work. Community-based researchers must exercise caution when working with individuals or groups who may not represent the most oppressed or disenfranchised within the community. Working with community-based organizations or institutions can provide access to community members, but they may also function as “gatekeepers.” When we “partner up” with powerful community-based organizations, the staff may restrict access to less-powerful community residents if they are likely to challenge their position of dominance.

Case Study: A Thwarted CBR Project Concerning High School Dropout Rates and Absenteeism

In the spring of 2011, a senior staff member of a large public school department contacted our Office of Community-Based Learning to inquire about the possibilities of a CBR partnership to look into high dropout rates and absenteeism at an alternative high school. I was asked and agreed to meet with the senior coordinator of alternative education programs for the district to learn more about the alternative high school—the programs offered and the students, faculty, staff, and resources available. I was introduced to the background and history of alternative education generally and the specific history of this school. The public school department in this district was not an organization that I had partnered with before. Although many of our students had interned, volunteered, or completed student teaching at schools in the district, there had not been a connection with this particular school. The senior coordinator explained they were interested in learning from students, parents, teachers, staff, and truancy officers about why the alternative high school did not substantially reduce absenteeism and dropout rates as expected.

It was agreed that this could form the basis of a pilot study, a small CBR project with my students in an upper level sociology of education course that fall. They were interested in interviews, observations, and focus groups with multiple stakeholders involved in the research design, data collection, and analysis of the project. To get approval of this small CBR project, we needed to meet with the director of research and evaluation for the district. In meeting with the director, it was explained to us that, while it would be “interesting” to learn more about the high dropout rates and absenteeism from multiple stakeholders involved with the alternative high school, there was no “political will” to do so at this time. It was explained that the politics of public schools are complex and that the bureaucracy is extensive. He was confident that this was not the time to collect data about the successes or failure of any of their alternative education programs. He politely said we could submit a research proposal for this pilot CBR project, but we would be denied at this point in time. He could not say when might be a better time to explore this issue. It did not matter that the senior coordinator of alternative education programs had informal agreement from some parents and teachers to participate. The project ended before it even began.

This case study indicates that, while partnering with community-based organizations can provide benefits, they can also function as gatekeepers that reinforce power inequality within communities. It is necessary to continue to understand and reflect how power and privilege is negotiated, experienced, and challenged in dialogue and action. At this point, the CBR project is not being pursued.

Professional Barriers

Maguire (1987) lists difficulties often encountered by researchers doing PR work and suggests time as one of the greatest challenges for researchers and community partners. CBR can take a great deal of time—especially if one is partnering with a previously unknown organization or group. Building trust can take months or even years before collaboration and partnership are possible. Polanyi & Cockburn (2003 ; 23) in their work with injured workers also identified time commitments as extensive: “Academic participants spoke of how difficult it was to find the time needed to support this intensive process of collaborative inquiry, given heavy teaching, research, and publishing requirements.” Extensive time commitments may be necessary to build motivation and engage community members to establish a research partner. Tandon (cited in Maguire 1987 ) noted in reference to his personal assessment that most of his experience with PR had been a failure: “We simple underestimated people’s passivity” (42–43). Passivity can be experienced by both community members and faculty and can result from a number of factors, but to change this requires support—often institutional supports that are missing.

Institutional Barriers

There has been an increasing demand for academic institutions and funding bodies to facilitate CBR projects. Faculty often feel that their academic institutions do not recognize the scholarship of CBR in their tenure applications, the pedagogy of engaged scholarship, or their commitment to research and social justice work in their communities. Schwartz (2010) surveyed academics to get their feedback about CBR projects and found that faculty highlighted institutional barriers to CBR work as most problematic—time, lack of curriculum flexibility, resources, and the ethics approval process. Cancian (1996) makes the distinction between academic research and activist research and argues that to navigate both worlds of engaged scholar and academia is very difficult to do. She states:

Activist research is “for” women and other disadvantaged people and often involves close social ties and cooperation with the disadvantaged. In contrast, academic research aims at increasing knowledge about questions that are theoretically or socially significant. Academic research is primarily “for” colleagues. “It involves close ties with faculty and students and emotional detachment from the people being studied. Social researchers who do activist research and want a successful academic career thus have to bridge two conflicting social worlds.” [187] “[P]articipatory research is so strongly oriented to the community that it is difficult to maintain an academic career. It is especially difficult to produce the frequent publications required by a research university on the basis of research that faithfully follows the tenets of participatory research. [194]

Academic organizations must also recognize and support transdisciplinary research and scholarship within a CBR paradigm. Levin and Greenwood 2008 ) write, “Action Research’s democratizing agendas and necessary transdiscplinarity run right into the brick walls of academic professional silos and disciplinary control structures to preserve disciplinary power and monopolies over positions and terms of employment and promotion of their disciplines” (212). Votruba (2010) refers to this as the need to “institutionalize this work—provide campus leadership; faculty incentives and rewards; planning and budgeting; annual evaluation, awards, and recognitions; and public policy aligned to support the scholarship of engagement” (xiv).

Twenty-five years ago, Boyer (1996) argued that we should not expect institutions of higher education to lead in tackling some of the world’s greatest problems—that in fact they were part of the problem. He wrote:

[W]hat I find most disturbing... is a growing feeling in this country that higher education is, in fact, part of the problem rather than the solution. Going still further, that it’s become a private benefit, not a public good. Increasingly, the campus is being viewed as a place where students get credentialed and faculty get tenured while the overall work of the academy does not seem particularly relevant to the nation’s most pressing civic, social, economic, and moral problems. [11]

Today there has been much progress within many institutions, However, this must continue as institutional leadership is critical to expanding CBR to tackle contemporary social problems within our communities and globally. Glass and Fitzgerald (2010) have written a “Draft Recommendations for Engagement Benchmarks and Outcomes Indicator Categories” as a way to evaluate the extent to which institutions and faculty are involved and supported in campus–community partnerships. They suggest that the conceptualization of “scholars” and “scholarship” be broadened to reflect the community—creating “the community of scholars” and “community scholarship” to give full support and recognition of all partners.

CBR is difficult to evaluate in terms of assessing our successes and failures. What is a successful outcome of a CBR project? How can we assess or determine if “collaboration,” “empowerment,” or “capacity building” took place and to what extent? Peterson (2009) suggested that there is a growing body of research addressing the question of evaluation:

With the bulk of early research on community-based education focusing on the academic, civic, and moral benefits for students, many researchers in the late 1990s problematized the paltry research that had been conducted on the ways in which communities benefit or are burdened by the involvement of faculty and students in their community work. As a result, in the last 10 years a variety of studies have been conducted to assess this impact (544).

For example, in a comprehensive evaluation of published peer-reviewed articles related to the use and outcomes of CBPR in clinical health trials De Las Nueces, Hacker, DiGirolama and Hicks (2012) found CBPR projects “ had very high success rates in recruiting and retaining minority participants and achieving significant intervention effects” (1379). They also found that authors often reported community participation in detail but were less likely to discuss participant involvement in the interpretation and dissemination of the research findings.

However, evaluation research of engaged scholarship is still limited.

When projects take a very different direction than originally intended (as in Atalay, 2010 ), can it still be considered a successful CBR project? If the researcher does not see any evidence of transformation, but community members suggest they have learned a great deal (as discussed by Nygreen, 2009 –2010), is this still success? Votruba (2010) challenges us to critically look at how we determine success. He states:

We need to do a far better job of assessing our engagement work. We’ve made progress in this regard but, until we have reached agreement regarding what constitutes excellence in this domain, it will remain difficult to measure and reward. For example, should we focus on assessing activities or outcomes? What role does self-assessment play? How about peer assessment? Absent of appropriate and generally accepted standards for evaluating the scholarship of engagement, faculty members are less likely to embrace it because of the risk that it will not be recognized and rewarded. [xiii–xvi]

There are few guidelines as to how to evaluate CBR projects. As said previously, the core principles of CBR are not intended as evaluation criteria. A preliminarily question might be “who” decides on the guidelines and criteria for success? Bowl, Tully & Leahy (2010) suggest, “In reflecting views that some parties to the research would disagree with, we were vulnerable to charges of selectivity and bias. Ensuring the validity of our findings was a challenge.”( 47). They suggested an alternative way to approach validity in the research, by focusing on credibility rather than truth, stating, “Credibility entails a sense that researchers understand the field within which they research, and that they respect those with whom they research. The researchers themselves and not just their tools need to be ‘trustworthy’” (48).

As scholars and researchers working from a social justice and social change paradigm, we often reflect on whether our CBR work has made a significant difference and in what ways. Is social change an important criterion for evaluation of CBR projects? Lykes and Mallona (2008) suggest that engaged researchers and scholars have not been as successful as they might hope in making substantial, lasting change. They state, “A vast literature has emerged documenting and evaluating individual development projects and the ways in which they have or have not contributed to social change. Despite local contributions there is little evidence that the cumulative effect has either redressed social inequalities or reduced structural violence” (113). While this may be true, it suggests the need for continued reflection and action—praxis, not defeat. Small successes do matter, and the cumulative effects may still be emerging. We also need to “mainstream” CBR within academic institutions, communities, and funding bodies to increase opportunities through additional supports and resources.

There has been a huge increase in the scholarship of CBR for engaged scholars to learn from others in the field. Unfortunately, so much of the literature about CBR principles, strategies, and exemplars is written for an academic audience rather than written for community members. Couto (2003 , 71) In his review essay of Minkler and Wallerstein’s edited book Community-Based Participatory Research for Health , states, “Despite the wonderful examples of CBPR for and with community partners, we still have the challenge to develop methods that will permit community groups to conduct research of their own and by themselves. Only by striving to turn research for and with them into tools that community partners can use to do their own research will we really be pushing the cutting edge of concepts such as ‘empowerment,’ ‘community development,’ ‘community organizing,’ ‘representation,’ and ‘participation.’” Fuentes (2009 –2010) also challenges community groups not only to participate in research projects but to take ownership and control over research concerning their communities and recognize their capabilities of being both subjects and architects of research.

CBR is a collaborative research project between researchers, community members, and sometimes students to formulate problems and find solutions that are meaningful and practical for all stakeholders. It has a rich history in critical pedagogy, critical theory, feminist theory, and the epistemology of knowledge that continues to influence the principles and skills that define CBR. Today we have exemplars that help guide new practitioners in their consideration of and engagement with community partners to form a collaborative and transformative relationship. If we use subjective measures to determine “success,” we have an abundance of evidence that suggests CBR and engaged scholarship has had substantial success in finding innovative solutions to complex problems in our communities. Successful projects have occurred in disciplines such as public health, psychology, sociology, anthropology, urban development, and archeology. It has also included projects that are transdisciplinary in design and practice. Success has also been found within diverse communities of interest: children and youth, aboriginal peoples, female bar workers, HIV and AIDS clients, injured workers, and immigrant families to name just a few discussed here. Evaluation research suggests that this paradigm shift to a new “orientation to inquiry” has fostered campus-community partnerships that address the traditional inequities in the research process as a result of the positivist paradigm.

The strength of CBR and scholarship is its diversity and willingness to be transparent in addressing challenges. Practitioners and scholars of CBR continue to struggle with issues related to power and control—how power is used and experienced by the researcher, community members, and other community-based organizations. Questions continue to be raised about encouraging sustained partnerships or developing community scholars who do not need or want outside researchers from academic institutions. At this point, it seems that there is a growing awareness that academic institutions should revisit their public mission to serve, to collaborate with community partners on community-defined issues. I am not convinced that community organizations and/or community members are developing this same mission. However, if independence from academic institutions is a sign of capacity building, then “success” may result in continuously new partnerships. This may be more challenging for researchers and practitioners and warrants further consideration.

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• Deepfakes undermine our perception of reality.
• How not to overwhelm your business website with excessive plugins?
• What are the benefits of creating online shopping websites?
• Backup recovery: Is it possible to prevent your systems from going down?
• The number of ads on websites and social media platforms is overwhelming.
• How does tech companies’ concentration affect local public infrastructure?
• Is Google making us stupid?
• The extreme diversity of AI programs can be confusing for businesses.
• What are the means of defending your data from phishing, DDoS attacks, and malware?

Social Issues & Environment

• Air is polluted with carbon; how does it affect people?
• Is climate change a real issue that we should think about?
• Frozen planet: what are the consequences of air pollution?
• The burning of fossil fuels provokes CO 2 levels to grow.
• Analysis of the climate change global impact.
• How do deforestation and industrial activities lift the air pollution levels?
• Explore the statistics about the deaths caused by air poisons.
• Does replacing fossil fuels with alternative sources help reduce air pollution?
• Policies and financial issues need to be settled to implement new technologies.
• Tropical forests suffer from severe deforestation: what can we do?
• Are there any ethical methods of overpopulation control?
• How do cattle ranching and plantations destroy forests?
• Forests help keep out CO 2 from the atmosphere, and we need them.
• What are the advantages of nuclear power plants?
• Conservation and restoration: describe the methods of forest recovery.
• Explain how bribery contributes to deforestation and pollution.
• Should we teach children to use sustainable energy?
• Should ivory items be banned for the sake of extinct species?
• Explore and present the statistics concerning extinct species.
• The loss of biodiversity will hit hard if we don’t act now.
• Why do some people doubt that there is global warming?
• Poaching is a huge problem that needs governmental control.
• Explore the different ways of wildlife conservation.
• Analyze different ways of soil degradation: monoculture planting, pesticides, and overgrazing.
• Water suffers the most from overpopulation issues.
• Fighting against poverty can improve critical climate change situations.
• Not just outside: how does indoor air quality affect our health?
• What are the significant contributors to water pollution?
• Explore environmental conditions in your region: water, soil, and air.
• It’s up to you: can you influence climate change by not taking flights?
• Asthma issues grow: how can we prevent our children from the disease?
• Analyze your awareness level and tell about your positive impact on the environment.
• Formaldehyde and other poisonous substances: why are they dangerous?
• Don’t drink it: is the tap water in our households safe to use?
• What will happen if marine phytoplankton is extinct?
• Warmer soil can’t store enormous amounts of CO 2 : what does it mean?
• Nitrous oxide: analyze its impact on the greenhouse effect.
• Water shortage is a real problem that many regions have to face.
• Describe the methods of water conservation and filtration.

Health & Health Care Social Issues

• How has COVID-19 become one of the most burning social issues of 2021?
• Vaccination protests: are they disruptive or sensible?
• Doctors are the primary victims of COVID-19.
• Tell about the importance of providing more proper maternal and child care.
• How has COVID exposed the inadequacy of the whole medical industry?
• Explore the impact of lockdown on mental health in different societies.
• Explore the methods of health care systems reinforcement.
• What is the connection between the pandemic and the high divorce rate?
• The power of unity: why is it vital for countries to hold together?
• Social problems of health and healthcare.
• Should we do vaccines if they haven’t been adequately tested?
• The authorities should address health care inequities and reduce them.
• Classify the most harmful consequences of COVID on health.
• Which social groups suffer from COVID the most?
• What is happening to those who suffer from polio, measles, and other diseases in the meantime?
• Antimicrobial resistance: reveal the concept and elaborate on its importance.
• Reveal the essence of such a concept as “global health.”
• Can attending public health forums help raise awareness in society?
• Nations should look for opportunities to avoid health-threatening dangerous situations.
• How do environmental factors stimulate disease spreading?
• Authorities should enhance control over migration processes for the sake of safety.
• Inter-ethnic conflicts should be addressed, for they damage critical health infrastructure.
• The population needs to become more educated in terms of non-communicable diseases.
• How to make quality care more affordable in the United States?
• People should realize and change their lifestyles to prevent non-communicable diseases.
• Compare and contrast statistics concerning NCD’s death rate in wealthy and poor societies.
• Explore the connection between animal health and human well-being.
• The food supply chain suffers a lot from agriculture, pesticides, and improper waste management.
• Veterinary medicine should be considered on a more advanced level.
• Classify the opportunities people have to make a positive impact on global health.
• What are the most common sexually transmitted infections in the US?
• Small contributions matter: how can you act for the sake of global health?
• E-cigarettes have become a new threat to generation Z’s health.
• Should songs with substance abuse romanticization be banned?
• HIV/AIDS remains inappropriate to discuss, and we should change it.
• Explore the dementia issue among young people.
• While the COVID is raging, influenza and pneumonia remain harmful and contagious diseases.

Poverty, Homelessness, & Social Equity Issues

• How has COVID-19 shown huge disparities between countries and societies?
• Explore the correlation between homelessness and poverty.
• Why shouldn’t poverty always be viewed as a drawback for individuals?
• What roles do poverty and hunger play in international relations?
• Does supporting poverty victims make an issue worse?
• We shouldn’t consider poverty a moral failure.
• Poverty is a societal issue: inequity and disparities are the significant reasons.
• What are the causes of poverty?
• Is it possible to overcome poverty due to the lack of work?
• Will poverty be fought if the wages become higher?
• How is discrimination connected with low life quality?
• Social development and poverty reduction.
• Health and poverty: why do low-income families demand more health care resources?
• Can a person grow up properly in inadequate housing and with poor nutrition?
• Why do wealthy people become wealthier and poor ones – poorer?
• Describe global poverty.
• How do housing affordability issues bring family problems?
• Gender and wealth: how do gender prejudices affect financial well-being?
• Race and wealth: how do racial prejudices influence financial well-being?
• The concept of the minimum wage: explore and reveal it.
• How to provide fresh food for low-income families?
• What economic conditions can make the population wealthier?
• Wages and prices go up: is there a correlation between them?
• Is it possible to reduce financial insecurities in times of crisis?
• Should we care about income inequality?
• Classify the countries with the highest unemployment rate.
• Classify the barriers that prevent people from getting employed.
• Lack of work experience shouldn’t be an obstacle to getting a job.
• How can we change the fact that poor employment history decreases job opportunities?
• The rights of homeless people in the US.
• Can a formerly homeless individual become a full society member?
• Reveal the concept of hiring discrimination.
• Classify the countries with the highest homelessness rate.
• What is the situation with homelessness in America?
• Chronically homeless individuals: why do some people get back to homelessness?
• Explore the social forecast in terms of the global poverty rate in the future.
• Sheltered and unsheltered homelessness: expose the essence of these phenomena.
• Is criminalizing homelessness an excellent strategy to fight it?
• The relation of poverty and food security.
• Are there ways to make housing more affordable?
• Why is child hunger an acute social issue in America?
• Expose the connection between poverty and a criminal lifestyle.
• How does poverty correlate with chronic conditions?
• They know the secret: what are the wealthiest countries and why?

Migration & Overpopulation

• Migration: a natural process or danger?
• Describe how COVID-19 affected global migration processes.
• How can conditions in refugee camps be improved?
• Humanitarian protection for immigrants suffered a lot due to the pandemic.
• How has the BLM movement drawn attention to immigrant rights?
• The pandemic has deepened inconveniences for immigrant families.
• How do transit countries suffer from pandemic consequences?
• What are the countries with the most advanced anti-migrant rhetoric?
• What long-term consequences do global restrictions have on migration processes?
• Does the pandemic have any positive influence on migration?
• Xenophobic narratives towards migrants from Africa in the US.
• Migrant workers should obtain more protection due to the pandemic risks.
• Unsanitary conditions: the reasons that made refugees vulnerable to COVID-19.
• Is it fair that immigrant children don’t have proper access to quality education?
• Migrant labor should be regulated more responsibly.
• We should acknowledge the immigrants’ importance in terms of the workforce.
• Explore the psychological reasons for violence against refugees.
• Violence and instability in refugee camps: what can be done?
• Back home: how does chaos at the borders complicate migration processes?
• Are there ways to stop illegal migration?
• Describe what role natural disasters have in migration.
• International colonies should receive more consideration from the authorities.
• The negative attitude towards migration should be eliminated in society.
• Classify the reasons for migration: human rights violations, natural disasters, etc.
• Illegal migration is one of the reasons for economic disruption.
• Explore migration out of wish and out of necessity.
• Expose the essence of such concepts as a “migrant” and “refugee.”
• How can safety be provided to immigrants and refugees?
• What can be done to change hostility towards immigrants?
• Does the crime rate have anything to do with a loose migration policy?
• We all are humans: how can we reach peace between migrants and locals?
• Prejudices or facts: do refugees undermine society’s well-being?
• What impact does illegal immigration have on the education system?
• Explore the connection between migration and overpopulation.
• What is overpopulation, and how can it be addressed?
• Overpopulation has a devastating impact on the global environment.

Human Rights

• Explore the tragic statistics on human rights violations in Russia.
• Classify the countries where human rights are violated to an extended degree.
• What are the fundamental human rights that each person should have?
• The concept of human rights: define its meaning and origins.
• Classify economic, cultural, and social rights.
• Should all people have equal freedom of opinion and expression?
• Bring up the history of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
• Presumption of innocence: is it an archaic human rights concept?
• Classify civil and political rights.
• What is international human rights law?
• Tell about all human rights conventions being adopted since the 20th century.
• Does Human Rights Council cope with its responsibilities?
• The sexual exploitation of children is one of the most terrible human rights violations.
• Research the most acute human rights social issues in America in 2023.
• Do authorities violate human rights by introducing and supporting the death penalty?
• Is mandatory military service a human rights violation?
• Not all people should have equal access to political and social affairs.
• What is lacking in the laws regulating the rights of people with disabilities?
• Plants and factory owners violate our rights to environmentally safe management.
• Freedom of expression: how can dangerous and hateful views be regulated?
• LGBTQ+ rights: how has the situation changed in the USA?
• Freedom of religion and fate: what can be done to provide it in intolerant countries?
• Classify the signs that can indicate your rights are being neglected.
• Are migrants’ human rights sufficiently acknowledged globally?
• How have women’s rights changed over the last two centuries?
• The Gulag in Soviet Russia: tell about the human rights violation in the USSR.
• Far from being perfect: how did Peng Shuai case show that women’s rights are still an issue to work on?
• Holocaust: is it better to remember or forget?
• What are the countries with the most respected human rights?
• Guantanamo and the like: why is human rights violation so common in prisons?
• Is it possible to save girls and women from an occupied Afghanistan?

Discrimination (Racial, Gender, Age, etc.)

• Is racial discrimination an overrated social issue?
• Fat-shaming: why do people care so much about someone else’s weight?
• Discrimination of people with disabilities: sexual violence, stigma, and lack of access to necessary resources.
• Discrimination of any kind is a severe obstacle in combating poverty.
• To eliminate discrimination, we should address the needs of the most vulnerable groups.
• A proper methodology for indicating marginalized groups is a must.
• Explore the problem of discrimination against people of age.
• Should ingenious people in each country be given more respect?
• How to teach people to stop being biased against other ethnicities?
• What is the point of discrimination based on marital status?
• It’s a huge social issue that same-sex marriages aren’t accepted globally.
• Social status shouldn’t be a ground for discrimination.
• Why doesn’t the globalization process reduce the levels of discrimination?
• How to stop victimizing people by their economic position?
• How does ageism reveal itself in everyday life?
• How can society ease the struggle of transgender people?
• Big corporations discriminate employees based on age.
• We all are good enough and worthy regardless of age, appearance, orientation, or social status.
• Explore the difficulties that people with albinism face.
• Young parents shouldn’t be judged for being who they are.
• Is there any chance to eliminate discrimination against people with HIV status?
• Explore the struggles of the Black LGBTQ+ community.
• Analyze the critical situation concerning sex workers’ discrimination.
• Childfree people deserve to be recognized and left alone.
• Discover the most discriminated ethnicities in Europe.
• How are people with disabilities being victimized even in developed countries?
• It is unlawful for companies to be biased against employees for their religion.
• Explore the issue of sexual harassment as a part of gender discrimination.
• National origin discrimination: define the concept and elaborate on it.
• Is it fair to have a bias against pregnant women regarding job opportunities?
• The toxic rhetoric of politicians should be addressed immediately.
• Why is the LGBTQ+ community one of the most discriminated groups in Russia?
• Children should be taught to embrace diversity since nursery school.
• Explore the discrimination issues in Middle Asia.

Social Issues in Criminal Justice

• Explore and classify the reasons for juvenile delinquency.
• Should marijuana-related sentences be so strict?
• Tortures and prisons: can this tandem be ever destroyed?
• Why does the justice system fail to cope with human trafficking?
• Should criminals in jails be provided with good nourishment and other conditions?
• Explore the changes in drug policy of a particular country.
• Should sentences for synthetic drug trafficking be more severe than for murders?
• Police brutality: analyze the case of George Floyd and its consequences.
• Is it possible that cannabis will be legalized in every state in the future?
• Kids in jails: do we need juvenile detention reform?
• Research how states’ authorities are reconsidering the approach to civil rights.
• What are the beneficial sides of marijuana legalization?
• How were punishment trends changing over the last 20 years in the US?
• Analyze the statistics: what are the states with the lowest crime rate?
• Should the death penalty be banned or accepted in all states?
• Police officers should be tested more thoroughly and frequently.
• Police violence or a mistake: explore the different views on Breonna Taylor’s case.
• How did technologies improve the legislation system and police work?
• Vulnerability to justice: how to avoid unjust conviction?
• Prison buildup: do we need more prisons or fewer criminals?
• Can analyses of the prison population help reduce the crime rate in the long run?
• People should protest more actively against police brutality.
• Police departments should provide advanced psychological assistance to their workers.
• Racial discrimination prevents the justice system from being efficient.
• Explore the lack in the justice system.
• Are there any reasonable and peaceful measures against police brutality?
• Recidivism issue: released criminals should be under stricter control.
• Has the BLM movement contributed to justice reform?
• More significant amounts of state budgets should be put into preventing violence.
• How do different states cope with justice reform?
• Police should be prohibited from using force against civilians.
• Social injustice and racial prejudices in drug enforcement.

Research Topics on Social Issues in America

Explore these topics on social issues in America.

• Obesity among young people: how to fight it?
• Why can’t body positivity be an excuse for obesity?
• Disney actors and pop singers: should children choose them as role models?
• Should ingenious people in the USA obtain more human rights?
• Electroconvulsive therapy turned out to be a promising treatment for severe depression. Is it ethical?
• Should social disparity be an obstacle the access to higher education?
• The political system in the USA is going through tough times.
• Should higher education in the USA become more affordable?
• Authorities should resolve social issues instead of equipping the army.
• What are the difficulties Hispanic Americans face?
• The government should support the rise of psychedelic retreats.
• PTSD spread among military men is an acute issue that needs to be addressed.
• Explore the issue of the San Francisco homeless crisis.
• Instagram has a strong negative impact on teens: how to protect them?
• Current problems and weaknesses of education in the US.
• How to deal with the dramatic death rate growth during the pandemic?
• Describe the values of a modern American family.
• Should schoolchildren be allowed to miss classes for mental health reasons?
• What can be learned from the case of Britney Spears’ conservatorship?
• What are the outcomes of teenage pregnancy?
• Why do veterans look for support for psychedelic drug decriminalization?
• How to nurture sympathy and kindness in new generation representatives?
• What is the situation with gun crimes in the USA?
• Body shaming has many faces: what is wrong with fitness culture?
• Is it safe to use ketamine as a depression treatment?
• How does adult acne prevent people from being socially active?
• Explore the issue of racial disparity in schizophrenia diagnoses in nursing homes.
• How have hate crimes facilitated Asian Americans to undergo therapy during a pandemic?
• Are Instagram and TikTok threatening American teens’ well-being?
• What measures can be taken to protect citizens from personal data exposure?
• Should the government take Meta under stricter control?
• More mentally ill people become suicide victims: what can be done?
• Drug abuse in nursing homes: what do we know about it?
• Female refugees in America become victims of abuse and discrimination.
• Why is gun violence still an unresolved problem after so many precedents?
• Are Generation Z representatives able to be responsible for the country’s future?
• Hate crimes against Asian Americans: we need to address the issue.
• Health affordability is one of the most burning issues in today’s America.
• Is it reasonable to let in the country more immigrants?
• Why is religious freedom in the USA problematic?
• What impact does media have on society?
• The declining marriage rate in America: is it a threat to society?
• The higher education costs grow, but the quality decreases.
• What are the benefits of having sex education in school?
• It is essential to dispel environmental myths and address real climate issues.
• Explore the state budget-related issues in the USA.
• How do video games affect children?
• The welfare system in America doesn’t work correctly for the poor.
• Is voter fraud a big problem in the USA?
• Tell about the agricultural crisis in rural areas of the USA.
• How to prevent and manage work stress?
• Parental care: do young parents in America receive sufficient support?
• Who should be role models for American teenagers?
• How can American citizens contribute to safeguarding electoral processes?
• What are the most critical environmental issues in the USA?
• The government should provide affordable housing for low-income families.

Research Topics Related to Community Problems

If you are looking for a qualitative or quantitative research title about social issues for your essay, check out some ideas below!

• The role of social support networks in combating homelessness.
• Veterans’ barriers to accessing mental health services.
• How does war influence the level of terrorism in society?
• Global unemployment and methods of reducing it.
• The effectiveness of legal measures in addressing domestic violence cases.
• Assessment of understanding and support for transgender people’s rights.
• The prevalence and causes of teenage pregnancy.
• What are the benefits and pitfalls of abortion legalization?
• The experience of living with HIV/AIDS in vulnerable populations.
• How does modern technology promote social isolation?
• The main causes of war between nations in the 21st century.
• Attitudes and beliefs of young people about immigration.
• The experiences of individuals with disabilities in the workplace.
• The possible drawbacks of gender and racial stereotyping.
• What factors affect the level of crime in society?

Other Social Issues Essay Topics

• Social Issues: The Uses of Global Poverty .
• Child Poverty in Canada Problem Analysis .
• Gender Inequality in the Workplace and Career .
• Homelessness and Poverty in the United States .
• Media Violence: Myths and Facts .
• The Concept of Animal Rights and Their Violation.
• Culture and Representations: Why Culture and Representation Matter.
• Social Problem, Its Components and Stages .
• The Maker Movement in Education: Achievements and Prospects .
• Gangs and Community-Based Organizations in Chicago .
• How Might Child Neglect Affect a Child’s Self-Esteem in Adulthood.
• Globalization Drives Inequality: Liberalist and Structuralist Perspectives .
• Degrees of Inequality in the UK .
• Environmental Ethics: the Case for Animal Rights .
• The Civil Rights Movement .
• Racial Discrimination Practices in Recruitment and Selection .
• American Civil Rights Movement Origins and Development.
• Gangs and Social Learning Theory Relationship.
• Social Institution of Family in the USA .
• Immigration Policies Affecting the Success of Immigrants in United States and Canada .
• Domestic Violence Issue and the Ways to Solve It.
• Corporate Social Responsibility: Business Benefits .
• Mental Health Issue and the Role of Social Worker .
• Challenges Immigrants Face in the USA.
• Women in Sports: Main Challenges.
• Human Trafficking, Its History and Statistics.
• Hate Crimes Toward Minorities in the United States.
• American Culture Reflection in Sport .
• Cinemas and Culture. Discussion of Readings and Films.
• Television Violence and Children’s Aggressiveness.
• Ethnic Groups and Discrimination.
• War on Drugs: Reducing and Defining the Trade of Illegal Drugs .
• Muslim Women’s Representation in American Newspapers.
• Family Support and Intervention in Substance Abuse Among Adolescents.
• Social Changes and Trends.
• Abortion Ethics: Right-to-Life vs. Pro-Choice.
• The Social Work: Ecological Perspective.
• Should Euthanasia Be Legal in Some Countries and Why?
• Teenage Sex: The Importance of Sex Education.
• A Family System and Social Care Service Users.

📝 Sample – Social Injustice Essay

Here you can find an essay sample on one of the sharp social issues. Read this sample and complete your paper assignment!

Recent studies have shown that teens who are active social media users are more prone to depression and other mental health disorders. In comparison to those who use social media less, the former ones have higher rates of depression. [ place for statistical evidence .] Even without statistical data, it has been known that social media abuse is critical to mental state. The first reason is the seeming success bloggers display on their Instagram pages. It is difficult for an adult to avoid constant comparisons, but it’s even more challenging for teenagers. Their fragile psyches tend to be extremely sensitive and perceptive to the content. The feeling of being “not good enough” brings youngsters down, causing depressive conditions. The other thing is perfect body images that teens see on the influencers’ and models’ pages. They start to look at their bodies critically. At the same time, they fail to understand that a perfect picture is just a part of modeling. We all are humans with flaws in real life, and it is okay. However, the trend for real pictures without filters and Instagram masks is spreading. Besides, it has also become more popular to share one’s genuine feelings and emotions on Instagram without trying to conceal the flaws and struggles of one’s life. Perhaps, the trend for sincerity will grow into something bigger, and social media’s negative impact on mental health will recede.

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Articles on Community health

Displaying 1 - 20 of 27 articles.

Are you living in a food desert? These maps suggest it can make a big difference to your health

Nicky Morrison , Western Sydney University and Gregory Paine , UNSW Sydney

Liverpool’s unsung COVID heroes: how the city’s arts scene became a life support network

Josie Billington , University of Liverpool ; Ekaterina Balabanova , University of Liverpool , and Joanne Worsley , University of Liverpool

Canadian mining project in Guatemala opposed in local vote over environmental concerns

Giada Ferrucci , Western University

Listening to young people could help reduce pandemic-related harms to children

Tammy Chang , University of Michigan and Jonathan Todres , Georgia State University

Community healthcare workers were left feeling isolated and under-appreciated during the pandemic

Eleanor Holroyd , Auckland University of Technology ; Antje Deckert , Auckland University of Technology ; Edmond Samuel Fehoko , University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata Rau ; Laumua Tunufai , Auckland University of Technology ; Megan Laws , London School of Economics and Political Science ; Nayananta Appleton , Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of Wellington ; Nelly Martin-Anatias , Auckland University of Technology ; Nicholas J. Long , London School of Economics and Political Science ; Rogena Sterling , University of Waikato ; Sharyn Graham Davies , Monash University , and Susanna Trnka , University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata Rau

Medical technologies have been central to US pandemic response – but social behaviors matter just as much

Eyal Oren , San Diego State University

4 low-cost ways to create safe public spaces where all kids can play

Renee Umstattd Meyer , Baylor University and J. Aaron Hipp , North Carolina State University

How The Gambia beat trachoma, an infection that causes blindness

Musa Mutali , University of Benin

Planning shake-up needed to help those whose job it is to make NSW a healthy place

Nicky Morrison , Western Sydney University ; Gregory Paine , UNSW Sydney ; Ryan van den Nouwelant , Western Sydney University , and Susan Thompson , UNSW Sydney

Long-term care for the aged in Ghana is on the back burner. Here is how to change it

Cati Coe , Rutgers University

Mass COVID-19 immunization: Ensuring equitable access to vaccination

Thilina Bandara , University of Saskatchewan ; Cory Neudorf , University of Saskatchewan , and Nazeem Muhajarine , University of Saskatchewan

Students play an integral role in healthcare delivery: findings from South Africa

Ian Couper , Stellenbosch University ; Jana Müller , Stellenbosch University ; Julia Blitz , Stellenbosch University , and Susan Van Schalkwyk , Stellenbosch University

Working the system: 3 ways planners can defy the odds to promote good health for all of us

Jennifer L. Kent , University of Sydney

Clinics manage hypertension patients better when more hands are on deck

Jane Goudge , University of the Witwatersrand ; Felix Limbani , University of the Witwatersrand ; Francesco Xavier Gomez-Olive Casas , University of the Witwatersrand , and Margaret Thorogood , University of the Witwatersrand

Healthy outrage: the story of a pioneer of community healthcare in South Africa

Peter Cooper , University of the Witwatersrand

Young people want walkable neighbourhoods, but safety is a worry

Jan Garrard , Deakin University

Are you part of a social group? Making sure you are will improve your health

Alexander Saeri , UNSW Sydney ; Chris G. Sibley , University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata Rau ; Fiona Kate Barlow , The University of Queensland ; Sam Stronge , University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata Rau , and Tegan Cruwys , The University of Queensland

Why Ronald McDonald Houses should welcome homemade casseroles

Richard Gunderman , Indiana University

Beyond Medicare levies: joining the dots to create places that are good for our health

Susan Thompson , UNSW Sydney and Gregory Paine , UNSW Sydney

Hospitals feel the heat too from extreme weather and its health impacts

Martin Loosemore , UNSW Sydney and Anumitra Mirti Chand , UNSW Sydney

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Research assistant, Western Sydney University, UNSW Sydney

Professor of Planning and Director of Urban Transformations Research Centre, Western Sydney University

Professor of Planning and Associate Director, City Futures Research Centre, UNSW Sydney

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Academic, Population Health, The University of Melbourne

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Research Fellow, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT University

Chancellor's Professor of Medicine, Liberal Arts, and Philanthropy, Indiana University

Assistant Professor, University of Saskatchewan

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Professor of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins University

Research Scientist, Cancer Prevention Institute of California and Director of Community Health and Research, Asian Health Services and Consulting Assistant Professor of Epidemiology, Stanford University

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Senior Research Fellow in Urbanism, University of Sydney

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155 Social Problems Essay Topics & Research Questions to Write about

Are you looking for the best social issues topics? You’re at the right place! StudyCorgi has prepared a list of social problems research topics and questions for your speech, essay, and other writing assignments. You’ll find titles about inequality, teenage pregnancy, violence, hunger, and other problems facing contemporary society.

⚠️ 7 Social Issues Topics 2024

✅ easy social issues to write about, 🏆 best social issues essay topics, 👍 good social problems research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting social issues research topics, 💡 simple social issues topics for project, ❓ research questions on social issues, 🔎 current research topics on social issues, 🗣️ social issues topics for speech.

• Poverty as a Social Problem
• Migration as a Social Problem
• Violence: The Social Problem
• Juvenile Delinquency as Social Problem Within Education Institutions
• Bullying: A Serious Social Problem
• Social Problem Analysis: Social Inequality in Education
• Social Problems Related to Alcohol and Drugs

If you need to write a paper on social issues and wonder what social problems to write about, here are a few easy options you can consider:

• Social Problems Assignment: Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile delinquency or illegal behaviors committed by underage children is a significant social problem in the United States and worldwide.
• Social Deviance Contribution to Social Problems The paper examines the forms that social deviance may acquire contributing them to social issues, that is criminal and non-criminal deviance.
• Oppression as a Social Problem The paper defines oppression in terms of marginalization, exploitation, powerlessness, cultural imperialism and violence: the key facets of oppression according to Iris Young.
• Social Problems of People with Disabilities People living with disabilities go through several challenges in life because society is yet to appreciate their presence.
• Substance Abuse: The Cause of Social Problems Substance abuse is a contributing factor to social problems but cannot be said to be the one that is most responsible.
• The Use of Statistics in Evaluating Social Problems Statistics are an important tool for researchers and policymakers when analyzing particular social-related issues. The types of statistics are objective or subjective.
• Educational Institutions’ Social Problems: Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile delinquency is the problem that profoundly affects educational institutions as its representatives are people involved in education the most.
• America’s Social Problems Through the Song “Cookie Jar” by J. Johnson The song Cookie Jar is a song written by Jack Johnson song talks about the blame game that is going on and in American society.
• Social Problems and Policy: Youth Unemployment and Mental Health In the history of the US, the federal and state governments have been at the forefront to facilitate effective social programs.
• Addressing Teenage Obesity in America The paper states that adolescence is one of the most crucial developmental phases of human life during which the issue of obesity must be solved.
• The Social Problem of Bullying and the School System The present paper focuses on the connection between the social problem of bullying and the school system, describing each of these concepts.
• Social Problem and Policy Analysis Human rights and social work perspectives show how standardized testing promotes inequality and increases the barriers for non-white individuals.
• Modern Social Problems Through the Sociological Imagination Prism This paper aims to discuss the concept of the sociological imagination and its significance in understanding contemporary social problems.
• Benchmark as Social Problems The impact of social phenomenon, for instance, social inequality, vulnerable population and other problems with politics, on poverty from a macro and micro perspectives.
• Solving Social Problems With a Nudge The speaker’s perspective is on the human mind’s diversity and complexity, making people manufacture irrational behavior, perpetuating poverty, corruption, and discrimination.
• Social Problems in Wilson’s “Fences” Play People who have been subjected to social oppression have a good chance of developing mental health problems in the future.
• Social Problem of Inequality Studies of social inequality included non-urban areas and social inequality factors that had not been included in previous studies.
• Analyzing Social Problems: Health Disparities This discussion will examine the unequal access to healthcare and its cause, investigate its prevalence, describe vulnerable populations.
• Juvenile Delinquency as Social Problem of Vulnerable Populations The theme of this paper is such a problem of vulnerable populations as juvenile delinquency, its interconnection with other social problems, and possible ways of its solution.
• World Poverty as a Global Social Problem Poverty and the key methods helping to reduce it attract the attention of numerous researchers in different areas of expertise.
• Queer (LGBTQ) Community as a Social Problem in Canada The Canadian government has shown interest in LGBTQ matters in recent years. Canadian queer persons are more likely to be victims of violent crime.
• The Social Problems Behind the Military Suicide
• How Overpopulation Causes Social Problems?
• Ethical and Social Problems of Genetic Engineering
• The Economic and Social Problems of the 1930s
• Social Problems Among College Students
• Alphonso Pinkney’s Black American: Chronic Social Problems
• Race and Gender Impact on Social Problems
• Behavior and Social Problems in Classrooms
• Social Problems About School Drop Outs
• Current Political and Social Problems of Pakistan
• Social Problems Associated With Street Gangs
• Social Problems and the Theories of Emile Durkheim
• Unemployment and Social Problems in the Post-war United States
• Social Problems and Issues in Pakistan
• Sociology and Various Social Problems
• The Major Social Problems Facing the Teenagers of Today
• Values, Social Problems, and Balanced Development in Malaysia
• Political, Economic and Social Problems of France
• Social Problems Associated With Health and Happiness
• The Environment and Social Problems
• Social Problems Amongst the Homeless
• Mauritius: Tourism and Social Problems
• Social Problems Affecting Youth Today and Ways To Solve Them
• Nature and Social Problems
• Social Problems and Drug Abuse
• Critical Social Problems Affecting African Americans
• Social Problems Arise From the Views and Values of the Society
• Connection Between Social Problems and Urbanization
• Unemployment Social Problems Faced by China and West
• Social Problems Among Youth in Malaysia
• The Covid-19 Related Social Problems The paper discusses the Covid-19 pandemic that has caused devastating social disruption where millions of individuals have fallen into extreme poverty.
• Social Problem: Hunger in the United States Hunger problem, income gap, race discrimination, poverty in rural regions, and COVID-19 outbreak have severe effects on the hunger problem.
• Americas Social Problems Nowadays The article explains the social, economic, political, technological, and legal impacts of war and how the global community can address the reality of terrorism.
• American Modern Social Problem The United States is not renowned to having one of the best systems of health care worldwide, rather the U .S. is known for its best system in emergency care worldwide.
• Meth Epidemic as a Social Problem: Film Analysis Drug consumption has become a major social problem for many states in the US as many drug users and addicts consider meth as their top choice.
• Development of Children’s Friendship and Social Problems This analysis was reached upon following a close thirty-minute observation of infants, and it suggests various types of behaviors presented by children in play.
• The Role of Social Workers in Addressing Teenage Obesity The social worker should be the bridge uniting obese individuals and society advertising social changes, and ending injustice and discrimination.
• Policies for Social Problems Social problems dominate in different parts of the world. Good policies should be devised to make it possible to pronounce dominant sociological problems.
• The Most Crucial Social Problems To conclude, it is essential not to forget about less fortunate people who have nothing to eat and nowhere to live.
• Social Problems Within Educational Institutions It is necessary to understand and analyze the connection between various social problems within U.S. educational institutions.
• Analyzing Social Problems – Case Study: Jake Levy The analysis of Jake Levy’s case led to lobby the state legislature to start a suicide prevention program for veterans who are getting mental health services.
• Perspectives on the Central Social Problem in Modern Society Social ills plaguing modern society have been a basic concern for many prominent philosophers throughout the ages.
• Potential Threat of Coronavirus as a Social Problem in Haines City, Florida SARS coronavirus is only a potential threat for Haines City so far, but preventing misinformation and potential panic is still an important social problem.
• Social Problems: Exploring the Main Types There are four main social problems; crime, violence, drug abuse, and environmental problems. The other social problems are very closely related to the above.
• Childhood Obesity: Medical Complications and Social Problems The children have also suffered from the adverse effects that have been instilled into our society. Obesity has become a common problem in children of American and European countries.
• American Social Problems of Women and the Elderly The issues of social discrimination experienced by women and elderly people have their roots in two fundamental perspectives of social life.
• Modern American Social Problems The essay lists the current American social problems and describes the key point of each problem the society faced nowadays.
• American Social Problems: Family and Education The family and education are major socializing agents in society and to be particular the United States of America.
• Rawls vs. Nozick on Social Problems and Criminal Justice The essay reflects on the articles of Rawls and Nozick to compare their key points and determine whose theory is most applicable to social problems and criminal justice.
• Global Warming: Solving a Social Problem Global warming may be a cause of the cooling in some parts of the world. Global warming can slow down ocean heat transport which becomes the reason for cooling in some regions.
• The Issue of Adolescent Pregnancy as a Major Social Problem The purpose of this study is to investigate the issue of adolescent pregnancy as a significant challenge that affects society across the globe.
• Texting and Driving: Social Problems Texting and driving refers to the act of receiving, reading and sending text messages while operating a motor vehicle, which is a hazardous practice that causes many fatalities.
• Social Problems Exam Practice
• PRS and Its Social Problems
• Social Problems and Legalization of Marijuana
• The Increasing Social Problems of Violence in the 20th Century
• Child Abuse – Social Problems
• Social Problems and Solutions Chart
• The Social Problems Facing Homeless Youth
• Social Problems Are Due to Society’s Tolerance of Immorality
• Realist and Constructivist Approaches to Social Problems
• Social Problems During the Industrial Revolution
• Emile Durkheim and Social Problems
• Literature During the Old Times Until Now Contribute To Address Social Problems
• Substance Abuse and Social Problems
• Public Education and the Impact of Social Problems
• Social Problems Facing Our US Veterens
• Physiological and Social Problems in the Middle East
• Social Problems and Homelessness in Savannah, Georgia
• Technical and Social Problems of Nuclear Waste
• Social Problems Associated With Interfaith Marriages
• Technology and Social Problems
• Social Problems Affecting Students and Schools in the US
• Ethnography: Social Problems
• Social Problems Affecting Society, Big and Small
• Appalachia: Culture and Social Problems
• Social Problems Associated With Racial Discrimination
• Political, Economic, and Social Problems in India
• Social Problems Behind Sexual Deviance
• Poor Neighborhoods Give Rise to Social Problems
• Literary Realism and Social Problems
• Prevalent Social Problems That Impacts Society
• What Are the Ethical and Social Issues of Genetic Engineering?
• What Social Problems Occur in Substance Abuse?
• What Are the Main Social Issues among the Youth in Malaysia?
• What Are the Social Problems behind War Suicide?
• What Are the Economic and Social Issues of Women Entrepreneurs in Turkey?
• What Are the Incentives for Solving Social Problems?
• What Business and Social Problems Does Data Center?
• Why Do Poor Neighborhoods Give Rise to Social Problems?
• What Are the Reasons for the Social Problems of Adolescents?
• What Are the Economic and Social Issues of the Caribbean?
• What Social Problems Arise Because of Society’s Tolerance for Immorality?
• What Are the Various Social Issues Faced by Black Women in the American South?
• How Social Problems Caused by the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601?
• What Are Pakistan’s Current Political and Social Problems?
• What Are the Common Social Problems Affecting Society?
• What Is the Influence of Literary Realism on Social Problems?
• What Business and Social Problems Does Data Center Power Consumption Cause?
• How Does the Media Impact Social Problems?
• What Social Problems Are Revealed in the Great Gatsby?
• What Are the Social Problems Associated with Interfaith Marriages?
• Should the State Pay More Attention to Solving the Pressing Social Problems of Our Time?
• What Is the Connection between Social Policy and Social Problems?
• What Are the Social Problems Faced by Homeless Youth?
• What Are the Physiological and Social Problems in the Middle East?
• Online misinformation and its effects on society.
• Racial bias and discrimination in policing.
• The impact of populism on democracies.
• Factors perpetuating the gender pay gap.
• The influence of climate change on vulnerable populations.
• The impact of automation on the job market.
• The effects of cyberbullying on adolescents.
• The social consequences of rapid urbanization.
• Youth unemployment and social exclusion.
• Social implications of genetic modification technologies.
• Strategies to prevent cyberbullying and online harassment.
• The impact of social media on youth.
• Access to quality education for all.
• The importance of safeguarding personal information online.
• Encouraging youth to get involved in the democratic process.
• The influence of technology on social interactions.
• Ways to combat human trafficking.
• Raising awareness of human rights violations in conflict zones.
• The effects of social media on body image.
• Why should guns be prohibited?

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• v.1(1); 2004 Jan

Community-Based Health Research: Issues and Methods

Children's National Medical Center, George Washington University School Of Medicine, Washington, DC

Fitzhugh Mullan

George Washington University, Washington, DC

Daniel S. Blumenthal and Ralph J. DiClemente  Community-Based Health Research: Issues and Methods. New York: Springer Publishing Company. October 2003. 27 ISBN: 0-8261-2025-3 Price: $39.95 (domestic), $44.80 (foreign) 240 pages  

When a book on community-based research opens with comments about Imhotep, Hippocrates, and Aesculapius, it certainly catches the reader's attention. Such is the case with Community-Based Health Research: Issues and Methods , a new book edited by Daniel S. Blumenthal and Ralph J. DiClemente.

Community-Based Health Research: Issues and Methods is an important text for future public health researchers. As the authors note, public health prevention has moved from treating infectious diseases to preventing chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart disease. This evolution argues that our approaches must change as well. The Blumenthal and DiClemente volume provides 3 key perspectives on how to conduct community-based health research and its application to public health.

First, the text successfully places community-based health research on equal standing with clinical, basic science, and health services research as the "fourth" estate. The authors make a strong and logical argument that community-based health research is essential for addressing the new public health problems posed by chronic diseases. As they point out, community-based health research "guides public health workers who are engaged in improving the health of populations just as traditional clinical research guides the actions of clinicians in caring for individual patients."

In line with the authors' view of their field's importance, the book argues that community-based health researchers should be held to the same level of scientific rigor as their counterparts in bench or clinical research: "As public health leaders and decision makers, we need to have confidence in our practices, programs, and services. Yet, all too often there are little or no data sufficient to evaluate the effectiveness of our community-based interventions. There is a paucity of reliable information that enables informed decisions to be made concerning competing options for program design, or comparing one program approach to another. There is too little information to guide decisions about program content, structure, or application based upon documented evidence of the effectiveness of those options or programs, when assessed by valid scientific methods and reported in the scientific literature." It is time for this lack of reporting to change, and this text provides the conceptual basis for that change.

Second, the strength of this text is in the experience of its authors, who move beyond providing theory and anecdotes and instead give the reader clear examples of community-based research in action. In Chapter 7, "Qualitative Methods in Community-Based Research," the reader is given a clear understanding of the variety of qualitative research methods used in community-based work. Then in Chapter 8, "HIV/AIDS Prevention: A Case Study in Qualitative Research," the authors provide a compelling example of the stepwise application of those methodologies.

Third and finally, the authors make a clear distinction between conducting research on or in a community rather than with a community in a "partnership arrangement." In line with the authors' theme of treating the community as an equal partner, community members write the chapter, "The View from the Community," which reads, "Community-owned health programs focus on the community and cultural capacity of local citizens working as partners with health and academic professions. These programs should be inclusive in nature and be based on community and cultural assets, which shifts the mindset of all involved from one of service-providing to that of capacity-building (true empowerment)." This is the essence of community-based health research.

The authors' perspectives will resonate with practitioners of both community-oriented primary care (COPC) and community-based participatory research (CPBR), whose principles are reinforced in each chapter. Community-Based Health Research: Issues and Methods will prove an essential text for students of these important fields.

One suggested improvement to the book would be to include a chapter on the use of community-based health research to address and eliminate health disparities. The benefit of community-based research is the ability to reach people where they are and identify the root cause of disease.

"The community-level approach to disease prevention is based not on a medical model but on a public health model. That is, it seeks to change not simply individuals or groups of individuals but the distribution of disease in the population as a whole." To use the metaphor put forth so eloquently in the text, individual-level interventions and research, working "downstream," pull people who are drowning from the river, but community-level interventions and research seek to find out what is "upstream," initially pushing people into the water. It is time for us to move upstream as a field, and this text provides a detailed map to help get us there.

The opinions expressed by authors contributing to this journal do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or the authors' affiliated institutions. Use of trade names is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by any of the groups named above.

Suggested citation for this article : Horn I, Mullan F. Community-based health research: issues and methods. Preventing Chronic Disease [serial online] 2004 Jan [date cited]. Available from: URL: http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2004/jan/03_0031.htm

Contributor Information

Ivor Horn, Children's National Medical Center, George Washington University School Of Medicine, Washington, DC.

Fitzhugh Mullan, George Washington University, Washington, DC.

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A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question. In the social and behavioral sciences, studies are most often framed around examining a problem that needs to be understood and resolved in order to improve society and the human condition.

Bryman, Alan. “The Research Question in Social Research: What is its Role?” International Journal of Social Research Methodology 10 (2007): 5-20; Guba, Egon G., and Yvonna S. Lincoln. “Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 105-117; Pardede, Parlindungan. “Identifying and Formulating the Research Problem." Research in ELT: Module 4 (October 2018): 1-13; Li, Yanmei, and Sumei Zhang. "Identifying the Research Problem." In Applied Research Methods in Urban and Regional Planning . (Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2022), pp. 13-21.

Importance of...

The purpose of a problem statement is to:

• Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied . The reader is oriented to the significance of the study.
• Anchors the research questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to follow . It offers a concise statement about the purpose of your paper.
• Place the topic into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated.
• Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information.

In the social sciences, the research problem establishes the means by which you must answer the "So What?" question. This declarative question refers to a research problem surviving the relevancy test [the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy]. Note that answering the "So What?" question requires a commitment on your part to not only show that you have reviewed the literature, but that you have thoroughly considered the significance of the research problem and its implications applied to creating new knowledge and understanding or informing practice.

To survive the "So What" question, problem statements should possess the following attributes:

• Clarity and precision [a well-written statement does not make sweeping generalizations and irresponsible pronouncements; it also does include unspecific determinates like "very" or "giant"],
• Demonstrate a researchable topic or issue [i.e., feasibility of conducting the study is based upon access to information that can be effectively acquired, gathered, interpreted, synthesized, and understood],
• Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden words and terms,
• Identification of an overarching question or small set of questions accompanied by key factors or variables,
• Identification of key concepts and terms,
• Articulation of the study's conceptual boundaries or parameters or limitations,
• Some generalizability in regards to applicability and bringing results into general use,
• Conveyance of the study's importance, benefits, and justification [i.e., regardless of the type of research, it is important to demonstrate that the research is not trivial],
• Does not have unnecessary jargon or overly complex sentence constructions; and,
• Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing only a snapshot of the issue or phenomenon under investigation.

Bryman, Alan. “The Research Question in Social Research: What is its Role?” International Journal of Social Research Methodology 10 (2007): 5-20; Brown, Perry J., Allen Dyer, and Ross S. Whaley. "Recreation Research—So What?" Journal of Leisure Research 5 (1973): 16-24; Castellanos, Susie. Critical Writing and Thinking. The Writing Center. Dean of the College. Brown University; Ellis, Timothy J. and Yair Levy Nova. "Framework of Problem-Based Research: A Guide for Novice Researchers on the Development of a Research-Worthy Problem." Informing Science: the International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline 11 (2008); Thesis and Purpose Statements. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Thesis Statements. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Selwyn, Neil. "‘So What?’…A Question that Every Journal Article Needs to Answer." Learning, Media, and Technology 39 (2014): 1-5; Shoket, Mohd. "Research Problem: Identification and Formulation." International Journal of Research 1 (May 2014): 512-518.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types and Content

There are four general conceptualizations of a research problem in the social sciences:

• Casuist Research Problem -- this type of problem relates to the determination of right and wrong in questions of conduct or conscience by analyzing moral dilemmas through the application of general rules and the careful distinction of special cases.
• Difference Research Problem -- typically asks the question, “Is there a difference between two or more groups or treatments?” This type of problem statement is used when the researcher compares or contrasts two or more phenomena. This a common approach to defining a problem in the clinical social sciences or behavioral sciences.
• Descriptive Research Problem -- typically asks the question, "what is...?" with the underlying purpose to describe the significance of a situation, state, or existence of a specific phenomenon. This problem is often associated with revealing hidden or understudied issues.
• Relational Research Problem -- suggests a relationship of some sort between two or more variables to be investigated. The underlying purpose is to investigate specific qualities or characteristics that may be connected in some way.

A problem statement in the social sciences should contain :

• A lead-in that helps ensure the reader will maintain interest over the study,
• A declaration of originality [e.g., mentioning a knowledge void or a lack of clarity about a topic that will be revealed in the literature review of prior research],
• An indication of the central focus of the study [establishing the boundaries of analysis], and
• An explanation of the study's significance or the benefits to be derived from investigating the research problem.

NOTE:   A statement describing the research problem of your paper should not be viewed as a thesis statement that you may be familiar with from high school. Given the content listed above, a description of the research problem is usually a short paragraph in length.

II.  Sources of Problems for Investigation

The identification of a problem to study can be challenging, not because there's a lack of issues that could be investigated, but due to the challenge of formulating an academically relevant and researchable problem which is unique and does not simply duplicate the work of others. To facilitate how you might select a problem from which to build a research study, consider these sources of inspiration:

Deductions from Theory This relates to deductions made from social philosophy or generalizations embodied in life and in society that the researcher is familiar with. These deductions from human behavior are then placed within an empirical frame of reference through research. From a theory, the researcher can formulate a research problem or hypothesis stating the expected findings in certain empirical situations. The research asks the question: “What relationship between variables will be observed if theory aptly summarizes the state of affairs?” One can then design and carry out a systematic investigation to assess whether empirical data confirm or reject the hypothesis, and hence, the theory.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives Identifying a problem that forms the basis for a research study can come from academic movements and scholarship originating in disciplines outside of your primary area of study. This can be an intellectually stimulating exercise. A review of pertinent literature should include examining research from related disciplines that can reveal new avenues of exploration and analysis. An interdisciplinary approach to selecting a research problem offers an opportunity to construct a more comprehensive understanding of a very complex issue that any single discipline may be able to provide.

Interviewing Practitioners The identification of research problems about particular topics can arise from formal interviews or informal discussions with practitioners who provide insight into new directions for future research and how to make research findings more relevant to practice. Discussions with experts in the field, such as, teachers, social workers, health care providers, lawyers, business leaders, etc., offers the chance to identify practical, “real world” problems that may be understudied or ignored within academic circles. This approach also provides some practical knowledge which may help in the process of designing and conducting your study.

Personal Experience Don't undervalue your everyday experiences or encounters as worthwhile problems for investigation. Think critically about your own experiences and/or frustrations with an issue facing society or related to your community, your neighborhood, your family, or your personal life. This can be derived, for example, from deliberate observations of certain relationships for which there is no clear explanation or witnessing an event that appears harmful to a person or group or that is out of the ordinary.

Relevant Literature The selection of a research problem can be derived from a thorough review of pertinent research associated with your overall area of interest. This may reveal where gaps exist in understanding a topic or where an issue has been understudied. Research may be conducted to: 1) fill such gaps in knowledge; 2) evaluate if the methodologies employed in prior studies can be adapted to solve other problems; or, 3) determine if a similar study could be conducted in a different subject area or applied in a different context or to different study sample [i.e., different setting or different group of people]. Also, authors frequently conclude their studies by noting implications for further research; read the conclusion of pertinent studies because statements about further research can be a valuable source for identifying new problems to investigate. The fact that a researcher has identified a topic worthy of further exploration validates the fact it is worth pursuing.

III.  What Makes a Good Research Statement?

A good problem statement begins by introducing the broad area in which your research is centered, gradually leading the reader to the more specific issues you are investigating. The statement need not be lengthy, but a good research problem should incorporate the following features:

1.  Compelling Topic The problem chosen should be one that motivates you to address it but simple curiosity is not a good enough reason to pursue a research study because this does not indicate significance. The problem that you choose to explore must be important to you, but it must also be viewed as important by your readers and to a the larger academic and/or social community that could be impacted by the results of your study. 2.  Supports Multiple Perspectives The problem must be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead supports the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general rule of thumb in the social sciences is that a good research problem is one that would generate a variety of viewpoints from a composite audience made up of reasonable people. 3.  Researchability This isn't a real word but it represents an important aspect of creating a good research statement. It seems a bit obvious, but you don't want to find yourself in the midst of investigating a complex research project and realize that you don't have enough prior research to draw from for your analysis. There's nothing inherently wrong with original research, but you must choose research problems that can be supported, in some way, by the resources available to you. If you are not sure if something is researchable, don't assume that it isn't if you don't find information right away--seek help from a librarian !

NOTE:   Do not confuse a research problem with a research topic. A topic is something to read and obtain information about, whereas a problem is something to be solved or framed as a question raised for inquiry, consideration, or solution, or explained as a source of perplexity, distress, or vexation. In short, a research topic is something to be understood; a research problem is something that needs to be investigated.

IV.  Asking Analytical Questions about the Research Problem

Research problems in the social and behavioral sciences are often analyzed around critical questions that must be investigated. These questions can be explicitly listed in the introduction [i.e., "This study addresses three research questions about women's psychological recovery from domestic abuse in multi-generational home settings..."], or, the questions are implied in the text as specific areas of study related to the research problem. Explicitly listing your research questions at the end of your introduction can help in designing a clear roadmap of what you plan to address in your study, whereas, implicitly integrating them into the text of the introduction allows you to create a more compelling narrative around the key issues under investigation. Either approach is appropriate.

The number of questions you attempt to address should be based on the complexity of the problem you are investigating and what areas of inquiry you find most critical to study. Practical considerations, such as, the length of the paper you are writing or the availability of resources to analyze the issue can also factor in how many questions to ask. In general, however, there should be no more than four research questions underpinning a single research problem.

Given this, well-developed analytical questions can focus on any of the following:

• Highlights a genuine dilemma, area of ambiguity, or point of confusion about a topic open to interpretation by your readers;
• Yields an answer that is unexpected and not obvious rather than inevitable and self-evident;
• Provokes meaningful thought or discussion;
• Raises the visibility of the key ideas or concepts that may be understudied or hidden;
• Suggests the need for complex analysis or argument rather than a basic description or summary; and,
• Offers a specific path of inquiry that avoids eliciting generalizations about the problem.

NOTE:   Questions of how and why concerning a research problem often require more analysis than questions about who, what, where, and when. You should still ask yourself these latter questions, however. Thinking introspectively about the who, what, where, and when of a research problem can help ensure that you have thoroughly considered all aspects of the problem under investigation and helps define the scope of the study in relation to the problem.

V.  Mistakes to Avoid

Beware of circular reasoning! Do not state the research problem as simply the absence of the thing you are suggesting. For example, if you propose the following, "The problem in this community is that there is no hospital," this only leads to a research problem where:

• The need is for a hospital
• The objective is to create a hospital
• The method is to plan for building a hospital, and
• The evaluation is to measure if there is a hospital or not.

This is an example of a research problem that fails the "So What?" test . In this example, the problem does not reveal the relevance of why you are investigating the fact there is no hospital in the community [e.g., perhaps there's a hospital in the community ten miles away]; it does not elucidate the significance of why one should study the fact there is no hospital in the community [e.g., that hospital in the community ten miles away has no emergency room]; the research problem does not offer an intellectual pathway towards adding new knowledge or clarifying prior knowledge [e.g., the county in which there is no hospital already conducted a study about the need for a hospital, but it was conducted ten years ago]; and, the problem does not offer meaningful outcomes that lead to recommendations that can be generalized for other situations or that could suggest areas for further research [e.g., the challenges of building a new hospital serves as a case study for other communities].

Alvesson, Mats and Jörgen Sandberg. “Generating Research Questions Through Problematization.” Academy of Management Review 36 (April 2011): 247-271 ; Choosing and Refining Topics. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; D'Souza, Victor S. "Use of Induction and Deduction in Research in Social Sciences: An Illustration." Journal of the Indian Law Institute 24 (1982): 655-661; Ellis, Timothy J. and Yair Levy Nova. "Framework of Problem-Based Research: A Guide for Novice Researchers on the Development of a Research-Worthy Problem." Informing Science: the International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline 11 (2008); How to Write a Research Question. The Writing Center. George Mason University; Invention: Developing a Thesis Statement. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Problem Statements PowerPoint Presentation. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Procter, Margaret. Using Thesis Statements. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Shoket, Mohd. "Research Problem: Identification and Formulation." International Journal of Research 1 (May 2014): 512-518; Trochim, William M.K. Problem Formulation. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Thesis and Purpose Statements. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Thesis Statements. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Pardede, Parlindungan. “Identifying and Formulating the Research Problem." Research in ELT: Module 4 (October 2018): 1-13; Walk, Kerry. Asking an Analytical Question. [Class handout or worksheet]. Princeton University; White, Patrick. Developing Research Questions: A Guide for Social Scientists . New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2009; Li, Yanmei, and Sumei Zhang. "Identifying the Research Problem." In Applied Research Methods in Urban and Regional Planning . (Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2022), pp. 13-21.

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20 Thesis topics related to Community Architecture

Academic research is a wonderful opportunity that allows students to expand their creativity in resolving grounded practical issues faced by the industry. The architectural thesis produced by students in their final year is a thrilling journey of an explorer seeking solutions into the vast expanse of case studies , reviews, journals and documentations. While the thesis marks the joy of having the finish line in view, choosing a topic can be a confusing and harrowing phase. This article can be a step up for those who have an eye on public architecture and community designing. It is true that the subject must be highly individual and something you are passionate about, but here are 20 topics related to community architecture to spur your brain to creative action!

1. Community recuperation in the face of a global pandemic | Community Architecture

While the COVID-19 pandemic has unleashed a plethora of life changes, the use of public spaces and communal areas are the hot topics of concern and discussion. The way we live, move and behave as a community is to be reset. As architects and designers, the spaces we design can shape and influence the community’s behaviour and attitudes towards a healthier and safer society. What would be some shifts that we as designers should make in this regard?

2. The identity of temporal public spaces in an instantaneous society

As technology overtakes the contemporary world, we live in a world of instant messaging, online shopping and fast food. Everything is available at a click and the constant ‘feed’ of information and visuals train the mind to require constant change in scene and settings to be able to garner interest. How would public spaces cater to this constant ‘need’ of a changing landscape? What identity would temporal public spaces popping up in unexpected places hold in this instantaneous generation?

3. The role of community gardens in urban neighbourhoods | Community Architecture

While research increasingly indicates the need for the human-nature connection for healthy societies, the practical issues of over-population and urbanisation have resulted in tight urban neighbourhoods suffocating from lack of any form of natural/green spaces. Further aggravation is caused by the modern lifestyle that highly reduces neighbourly interactions making cities dead and lifeless. It is the role and responsibility of the designers to find creative ways to sustain these vital relationships. Could community gardens address this twin issue faced in increasingly urban neighbourhoods?

4. Creating resilient communities in the face of natural disasters

Natural disasters, while identifiable to an extent, are usually unexpected and leave behind unforeseen impacts and damages to not just infrastructure but also to communities. Therefore, it is highly significant in natural disaster management scenarios to not just address the rebuilding of a broken community but also measures to empower the communities to withstand and sustain any future disasters. Could past lessons help in creating a resilient future?

5. Resurfacing the persona of public architecture through placemaking | Community Architecture

While public architecture universally seeks to cultivate public interaction, the lack of an individualistic personality leads to a stale and stagnant space – a mindless repetition with no vitality. A downside of modern architecture is the ‘created labels’ for public architecture where every mall has an atrium and every city has a botanic garden . What makes these spaces distinct and enjoyably sustaining in the long run would be the unique character and connection they hold to the cultural context. Could we revive the persona of public architecture through the art of placemaking?

6. Redefining the public realm with modern technology

As modern technology permeates our life from daily routines to work to play, it is inevitable that the public realm which is the heartbeat of life in cities should incorporate these ‘tech components’. From using lights and projections to music and artificial intelligence , artists, engineers and designers have joined hands to create fabulous installations. What would the tech-public realm look like in the future?

7. Uplifting public spaces with universal access principles

Thanks to modern inventions , differently abled people can live and move independently. It is therefore imperative that public places are inclusive and easily accessible for such people. While newly created spaces are designed with their needs in mind, do we need to consider creative and practical upgrade measures to make existing public places universally accessible?

8. Aligning design to the voices of the community | Community Architecture

While architecture has always been the art of expressing oneself – primarily the designer, when it comes to community architecture, a shift is required to make the end user the primary expression. As the community is the ultimate benefactor of the space, the voices of the community become chief drivers of communal design . Could we explore effective methods to blend the voices of the community into the creative and technical flair of the designers to attain a successful outcome?

9. The role of design in the identity of a community

In designing to the strengths of a community, the designer holds the key to influencing society positively. A successful design would not just tick the boxes but accentuate the identity of the community.  While every community has multiple facets with diverse strengths, the challenge lies in identifying the unifying thread that would tug them together. How significant a role does design play in defining and empowering a community?

10. The role of the designer as an intermediate between people and the built environment | Community Architecture

The behavioural psychology and diversity of people makes designing public spaces a grey area.  The designer plays the role of an intermediary in reconciling the needs of the people with an appropriate built solution. It is just the tip of the iceberg that this matchmaker role requires competent assessment of needs on one side and potential on the other to meet these needs. What more does this role initiate?

Chrysolyte Gladys is an explorer who looks for the reason behind things, employing diligent architectural research to discover practical solutions for issues plaguing contemporary designers. She treasures the influential ability of designers in creating better living environments and highly appreciates the intertwining of natural and historical context with the built outcome.

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Uncovering research trends and topics of communities in machine learning

• Published: 09 November 2020
• Volume 80 , pages 9281–9314, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

• Deepak Sharma   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6132-1719 1 ,
• Bijendra Kumar 1 ,
• Satish Chand 2 &
• Rajiv Ratn Shah 3  

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This paper aims to uncover the research topics in machine learning research communities in a scientific collaboration network (SCN) to enhance the characteristic of systems such as retrieval or recommendation in intelligence-based systems. The existing research mainly focuses on the community evolution and measurement of typical features of the network. It is however unexplored how to identify the research interest of the communities along with authors in each community. A dataset is prepared consisting of 21,906 scientific articles from six top journals in the field of machine learning published from 1988 to 2017. An integrated approach combining the author-topic (AT) model with communities using through the directed affiliations (CoDA) method is explored to identify the research interest of the communities in a scientific collaboration network. The top rank communities are identified using the crank network community prioritization method. Finally, the similarity and dissimilarity of research interest in communities across decades are uncovered using the cosine similarity. The experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness and efficacy of the proposed technique. This study may be helpful for upcoming researchers to explore the research trends and topics in machine learning research communities.

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Department of Computer Engineering, Netaji Subash Institute of Technology, University of Delhi, Sector-3, Dwarka, Delhi, 110078, India

Deepak Sharma & Bijendra Kumar

School of Computer & Systems Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi, 110067, India

Satish Chand

Multimodal Digital Media Analysis Lab, Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, Delhi, 110020, India

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Sharma, D., Kumar, B., Chand, S. et al. Uncovering research trends and topics of communities in machine learning. Multimed Tools Appl 80 , 9281–9314 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-020-10072-8

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Received : 23 December 2019

Revised : 25 August 2020

Accepted : 13 October 2020

Published : 09 November 2020

Issue Date : March 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-020-10072-8

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

Are you also learning about dynamic equilibrium in your science class? We break this sometimes tricky concept down so it's easy to understand in our complete guide to dynamic equilibrium .

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Want to know the fastest and easiest ways to convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius? We've got you covered! Check out our guide to the best ways to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit (or vice versa).

These recommendations are based solely on our knowledge and experience. If you purchase an item through one of our links, PrepScholar may receive a commission.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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64 Comments

This is an helpful tool 🙏

Special education

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Research title related to school of students

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Research title related to students

My field is research measurement and evaluation. Need dissertation topics in the field

Assalam o Alaikum I’m a student Bs educational Resarch and evaluation I’m confused to choose My thesis title please help me in choose the thesis title

Good idea I’m going to teach my colleagues

You can find our list of nursing-related research topic ideas here: https://gradcoach.com/research-topics-nursing/

Write on action research topic, using guidance and counseling to address unwanted teenage pregnancy in school

Thanks a lot

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Thank you for the information.. I would like to request a topic based on school major in social studies

parental involvement and students academic performance

Science education topics?

plz tell me if you got some good topics, im here for finding research topic for masters degree

How about School management and supervision pls.?

Hi i am an Deputy Principal in a primary school. My wish is to srudy foe Master’s degree in Education.Please advice me on which topic can be relevant for me. Thanks.

Every topic proposed above on primary education is a starting point for me. I appreciate immensely the team that has sat down to make a detail of these selected topics just for beginners like us. Be blessed.

Kindly help me with the research questions on the topic” Effects of workplace conflict on the employees’ job performance”. The effects can be applicable in every institution,enterprise or organisation.

Greetings, I am a student majoring in Sociology and minoring in Public Administration. I’m considering any recommended research topic in the field of Sociology.

I’m a student pursuing Mphil in Basic education and I’m considering any recommended research proposal topic in my field of study

Research Defense for students in senior high

Kindly help me with a research topic in educational psychology. Ph.D level. Thank you.

Project-based learning is a teaching/learning type,if well applied in a classroom setting will yield serious positive impact. What can a teacher do to implement this in a disadvantaged zone like “North West Region of Cameroon ( hinterland) where war has brought about prolonged and untold sufferings on the indegins?

I wish to get help on topics of research on educational administration

I wish to get help on topics of research on educational administration PhD level

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Can i request your suggestion topic for my Thesis about Teachers as an OFW. thanx you

Would like to request for suggestions on a topic in Economics of education,PhD level

Would like to request for suggestions on a topic in Economics of education

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Am offering degree in education senior high School Accounting. I want a topic for my project work

l would like to request suggestions on a topic in managing teaching and learning, PhD level (educational leadership and management)

request suggestions on a topic in managing teaching and learning, PhD level (educational leadership and management)

I would to inquire on research topics on Educational psychology, Masters degree

I am PhD student, I am searching my Research topic, It should be innovative,my area of interest is online education,use of technology in education

request suggestion on topic in masters in medical education .

Look at British Library as they keep a copy of all PhDs in the UK Core.ac.uk to access Open University and 6 other university e-archives, pdf downloads mostly available, all free.

May I also ask for a topic based on mathematics education for college teaching, please?

Please I am a masters student of the department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education Please I am in need of proposed project topics to help with my final year thesis

Am a PhD student in Educational Foundations would like a sociological topic. Thank

please i need a proposed thesis project regardging computer science

Greetings and Regards I am a doctoral student in the field of philosophy of education. I am looking for a new topic for my thesis. Because of my work in the elementary school, I am looking for a topic that is from the field of elementary education and is related to the philosophy of education.

Masters student in the field of curriculum, any ideas of a research topic on low achiever students

In the field of curriculum any ideas of a research topic on deconalization in contextualization of digital teaching and learning through in higher education

Amazing guidelines

I am a graduate with two masters. 1) Master of arts in religious studies and 2) Master in education in foundations of education. I intend to do a Ph.D. on my second master’s, however, I need to bring both masters together through my Ph.D. research. can I do something like, ” The contribution of Philosophy of education for a quality religion education in Kenya”? kindly, assist and be free to suggest a similar topic that will bring together the two masters. thanks in advance

Hi, I am an Early childhood trainer as well as a researcher, I need more support on this topic: The impact of early childhood education on later academic success.

I’m a student in upper level secondary school and I need your support in this research topics: “Impact of incorporating project -based learning in teaching English language skills in secondary schools”.

Although research activities and topics should stem from reflection on one’s practice, I found this site valuable as it effectively addressed many issues we have been experiencing as practitioners.

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Public’s Positive Economic Ratings Slip; Inflation Still Widely Viewed as Major Problem

2. top problems facing the u.s., table of contents.

• Views of top problems facing the nation
• Americans’ views of the state of the nation
• Similar shares in both parties view personal financial situation positively
• Americans’ views on the future of the economy and their financial situation
• Changes in views of the country’s top problems
• Acknowledgments
• The American Trends Panel survey methodology

Inflation and the affordability of health care top the public’s list of the biggest problems facing the country, with 62% of Americans describing inflation as a very big problem and 60% saying this about health care costs.

Narrower majorities say that partisan cooperation (57%), drug addiction (55%) and gun violence (53%) are very big problems in the country today.

And roughly half say that violent crime (51%), the federal budget deficit (49%), the state of moral values (48%) and the quality of public K-12 schools (46%) are each very big problems.

Illegal immigration, climate change and racism each rate lower on the public’s list of the country’s top problems, though majorities rate these and several other issues included in the survey as at least moderately big problems.

Inflation ranked as the country’s top issue in Pew Research Center surveys from 2023 and 2022 , though its perceived importance is lower than it was in 2022. Today, 62% of Americans say inflation is a very big problem, down from 70% in 2022.

Partisan differences in views of inflation

• Eight-in-ten Republicans and independents who lean to the Republican Party say that inflation is a very big problem. A far smaller share of Democrats and Democratic leaners – 46% – say the same.
• The share of Republicans who see inflation as a big problem is up slightly over the past year (from 77% to 80%). In contrast, the share of Democrats seeing inflation as a very big problem for the country has decreased by 6 percentage points over this period.

Federal budget deficit

A narrow majority of the public (53%) says the federal budget deficit is a very big problem. This is little changed in recent years.

Since Joe Biden took office in 2021, Republicans have consistently been about twice as likely as Democrats to describe the federal budget deficit as a very big problem for the country. Roughly seven-in-ten Republicans (71%) say this, compared with 35% of Democrats. During the Trump administration, there was no partisan gap in these views.

Unemployment

Just a quarter of Americans – including similar shares of Republicans (27%) and Democrats (22%) – describe unemployment as a very big problem. The share who view unemployment as a very big problem is essentially unchanged since 2022.

Illegal immigration

The share of the public that views illegal immigration as a very big problem has increased slightly in the past year, to 51% from 47%.

Nearly eight-in-ten Republicans (78%) say illegal immigration is a very big problem, up from 70% a year ago. In contrast, just 27% of Democrats say this, almost unchanged from the 25% of Democrats who said illegal immigration was a very big problem a year ago.

Crime and gun violence

Americans are less likely to view both gun violence and violent crime as very big problems than they were a year ago. The shares of both Republicans and Democrats who describe each of these as a very big problem are down somewhat over this period.

Democrats are still far more likely than Republicans to see gun violence as a very big problem (68% of Democrats say this vs. 27% of Republicans). And it ranks as one of the top national problems seen by Democrats (as it did in 2023).

And Republicans continue to be more likely than Democrats (56% vs. 39%) to view violent crime as a very big problem for the country.

Climate change

About a third of Americans (36%) say climate change is a very big problem, down 11 points since 2021.

Democrats are 13 points less likely to say this than they were in 2021, when 71% of Democrats described climate change as a very big problem. Republicans’ views of the importance of climate change have declined by 7 points since 2021.

Overall, 29% of Americans say racism is a very big problem. This is a substantial decline since 2021, when 45% said this. Among Democrats, the decline is particularly steep: 42% of Democrats now say that racism is a very big problem in the country today, down from 67% in 2021.

(For Republicans’ and Democrats’ views of all problems asked about in this survey, please visit the overview of this report .)

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