research studies for psychology students

• The 25 Most Influential Psychological Experiments in History

While each year thousands and thousands of studies are completed in the many specialty areas of psychology, there are a handful that, over the years, have had a lasting impact in the psychological community as a whole. Some of these were dutifully conducted, keeping within the confines of ethical and practical guidelines. Others pushed the boundaries of human behavior during their psychological experiments and created controversies that still linger to this day. And still others were not designed to be true psychological experiments, but ended up as beacons to the psychological community in proving or disproving theories.

This is a list of the 25 most influential psychological experiments still being taught to psychology students of today.

1. A Class Divided

Study conducted by: jane elliott.

Study Conducted in 1968 in an Iowa classroom

Experiment Details: Jane Elliott’s famous experiment was inspired by the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the inspirational life that he led. The third grade teacher developed an exercise, or better yet, a psychological experiment, to help her Caucasian students understand the effects of racism and prejudice.

Elliott divided her class into two separate groups: blue-eyed students and brown-eyed students. On the first day, she labeled the blue-eyed group as the superior group and from that point forward they had extra privileges, leaving the brown-eyed children to represent the minority group. She discouraged the groups from interacting and singled out individual students to stress the negative characteristics of the children in the minority group. What this exercise showed was that the children’s behavior changed almost instantaneously. The group of blue-eyed students performed better academically and even began bullying their brown-eyed classmates. The brown-eyed group experienced lower self-confidence and worse academic performance. The next day, she reversed the roles of the two groups and the blue-eyed students became the minority group.

At the end of the experiment, the children were so relieved that they were reported to have embraced one another and agreed that people should not be judged based on outward appearances. This exercise has since been repeated many times with similar outcomes.

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2. Asch Conformity Study

Study conducted by: dr. solomon asch.

Study Conducted in 1951 at Swarthmore College

Experiment Details: Dr. Solomon Asch conducted a groundbreaking study that was designed to evaluate a person’s likelihood to conform to a standard when there is pressure to do so.

A group of participants were shown pictures with lines of various lengths and were then asked a simple question: Which line is longest? The tricky part of this study was that in each group only one person was a true participant. The others were actors with a script. Most of the actors were instructed to give the wrong answer. Strangely, the one true participant almost always agreed with the majority, even though they knew they were giving the wrong answer.

The results of this study are important when we study social interactions among individuals in groups. This study is a famous example of the temptation many of us experience to conform to a standard during group situations and it showed that people often care more about being the same as others than they do about being right. It is still recognized as one of the most influential psychological experiments for understanding human behavior.

3. Bobo Doll Experiment

Study conducted by: dr. alburt bandura.

Study Conducted between 1961-1963 at Stanford University

In his groundbreaking study he separated participants into three groups:

• one was exposed to a video of an adult showing aggressive behavior towards a Bobo doll
• another was exposed to video of a passive adult playing with the Bobo doll
• the third formed a control group

Children watched their assigned video and then were sent to a room with the same doll they had seen in the video (with the exception of those in the control group). What the researcher found was that children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior towards the doll themselves. The other groups showed little imitative aggressive behavior. For those children exposed to the aggressive model, the number of derivative physical aggressions shown by the boys was 38.2 and 12.7 for the girls.

The study also showed that boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than boys exposed to aggressive female models. When exposed to aggressive male models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by boys averaged 104. This is compared to 48.4 aggressive instances exhibited by boys who were exposed to aggressive female models.

While the results for the girls show similar findings, the results were less drastic. When exposed to aggressive female models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by girls averaged 57.7. This is compared to 36.3 aggressive instances exhibited by girls who were exposed to aggressive male models. The results concerning gender differences strongly supported Bandura’s secondary prediction that children will be more strongly influenced by same-sex models. The Bobo Doll Experiment showed a groundbreaking way to study human behavior and it’s influences.

4. Car Crash Experiment

Study conducted by: elizabeth loftus and john palmer.

Study Conducted in 1974 at The University of California in Irvine

The participants watched slides of a car accident and were asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses to the scene. The participants were put into two groups and each group was questioned using different wording such as “how fast was the car driving at the time of impact?” versus “how fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car?” The experimenters found that the use of different verbs affected the participants’ memories of the accident, showing that memory can be easily distorted.

This research suggests that memory can be easily manipulated by questioning technique. This means that information gathered after the event can merge with original memory causing incorrect recall or reconstructive memory. The addition of false details to a memory of an event is now referred to as confabulation. This concept has very important implications for the questions used in police interviews of eyewitnesses.

5. Cognitive Dissonance Experiment

Study conducted by: leon festinger and james carlsmith.

Study Conducted in 1957 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: The concept of cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting:

This conflict produces an inherent feeling of discomfort leading to a change in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to minimize or eliminate the discomfort and restore balance.

Cognitive dissonance was first investigated by Leon Festinger, after an observational study of a cult that believed that the earth was going to be destroyed by a flood. Out of this study was born an intriguing experiment conducted by Festinger and Carlsmith where participants were asked to perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour). Participant’s initial attitudes toward this task were highly negative.

They were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell a participant waiting in the lobby that the tasks were really interesting. Almost all of the participants agreed to walk into the waiting room and persuade the next participant that the boring experiment would be fun. When the participants were later asked to evaluate the experiment, the participants who were paid only $1 rated the tedious task as more fun and enjoyable than the participants who were paid $20 to lie.

Being paid only $1 is not sufficient incentive for lying and so those who were paid $1 experienced dissonance. They could only overcome that cognitive dissonance by coming to believe that the tasks really were interesting and enjoyable. Being paid $20 provides a reason for turning pegs and there is therefore no dissonance.

6. Fantz’s Looking Chamber

Study conducted by: robert l. fantz.

Study Conducted in 1961 at the University of Illinois

Experiment Details: The study conducted by Robert L. Fantz is among the simplest, yet most important in the field of infant development and vision. In 1961, when this experiment was conducted, there very few ways to study what was going on in the mind of an infant. Fantz realized that the best way was to simply watch the actions and reactions of infants. He understood the fundamental factor that if there is something of interest near humans, they generally look at it.

To test this concept, Fantz set up a display board with two pictures attached. On one was a bulls-eye. On the other was the sketch of a human face. This board was hung in a chamber where a baby could lie safely underneath and see both images. Then, from behind the board, invisible to the baby, he peeked through a hole to watch what the baby looked at. This study showed that a two-month old baby looked twice as much at the human face as it did at the bulls-eye. This suggests that human babies have some powers of pattern and form selection. Before this experiment it was thought that babies looked out onto a chaotic world of which they could make little sense.

7. Hawthorne Effect

Study conducted by: henry a. landsberger.

Study Conducted in 1955 at Hawthorne Works in Chicago, Illinois

Landsberger performed the study by analyzing data from experiments conducted between 1924 and 1932, by Elton Mayo, at the Hawthorne Works near Chicago. The company had commissioned studies to evaluate whether the level of light in a building changed the productivity of the workers. What Mayo found was that the level of light made no difference in productivity. The workers increased their output whenever the amount of light was switched from a low level to a high level, or vice versa.

The researchers noticed a tendency that the workers’ level of efficiency increased when any variable was manipulated. The study showed that the output changed simply because the workers were aware that they were under observation. The conclusion was that the workers felt important because they were pleased to be singled out. They increased productivity as a result. Being singled out was the factor dictating increased productivity, not the changing lighting levels, or any of the other factors that they experimented upon.

The Hawthorne Effect has become one of the hardest inbuilt biases to eliminate or factor into the design of any experiment in psychology and beyond.

8. Kitty Genovese Case

Study conducted by: new york police force.

Study Conducted in 1964 in New York City

Experiment Details: The murder case of Kitty Genovese was never intended to be a psychological experiment, however it ended up having serious implications for the field.

According to a New York Times article, almost 40 neighbors witnessed Kitty Genovese being savagely attacked and murdered in Queens, New York in 1964. Not one neighbor called the police for help. Some reports state that the attacker briefly left the scene and later returned to “finish off” his victim. It was later uncovered that many of these facts were exaggerated. (There were more likely only a dozen witnesses and records show that some calls to police were made).

What this case later become famous for is the “Bystander Effect,” which states that the more bystanders that are present in a social situation, the less likely it is that anyone will step in and help. This effect has led to changes in medicine, psychology and many other areas. One famous example is the way CPR is taught to new learners. All students in CPR courses learn that they must assign one bystander the job of alerting authorities which minimizes the chances of no one calling for assistance.

9. Learned Helplessness Experiment

Study conducted by: martin seligman.

Study Conducted in 1967 at the University of Pennsylvania

Seligman’s experiment involved the ringing of a bell and then the administration of a light shock to a dog. After a number of pairings, the dog reacted to the shock even before it happened. As soon as the dog heard the bell, he reacted as though he’d already been shocked.

During the course of this study something unexpected happened. Each dog was placed in a large crate that was divided down the middle with a low fence. The dog could see and jump over the fence easily. The floor on one side of the fence was electrified, but not on the other side of the fence. Seligman placed each dog on the electrified side and administered a light shock. He expected the dog to jump to the non-shocking side of the fence. In an unexpected turn, the dogs simply laid down.

The hypothesis was that as the dogs learned from the first part of the experiment that there was nothing they could do to avoid the shocks, they gave up in the second part of the experiment. To prove this hypothesis the experimenters brought in a new set of animals and found that dogs with no history in the experiment would jump over the fence.

This condition was described as learned helplessness. A human or animal does not attempt to get out of a negative situation because the past has taught them that they are helpless.

10. Little Albert Experiment

Study conducted by: john b. watson and rosalie rayner.

Study Conducted in 1920 at Johns Hopkins University

The experiment began by placing a white rat in front of the infant, who initially had no fear of the animal. Watson then produced a loud sound by striking a steel bar with a hammer every time little Albert was presented with the rat. After several pairings (the noise and the presentation of the white rat), the boy began to cry and exhibit signs of fear every time the rat appeared in the room. Watson also created similar conditioned reflexes with other common animals and objects (rabbits, Santa beard, etc.) until Albert feared them all.

This study proved that classical conditioning works on humans. One of its most important implications is that adult fears are often connected to early childhood experiences.

11. Magical Number Seven

Study conducted by: george a. miller.

Study Conducted in 1956 at Princeton University

Experiment Details:   Frequently referred to as “ Miller’s Law,” the Magical Number Seven experiment purports that the number of objects an average human can hold in working memory is 7 ± 2. This means that the human memory capacity typically includes strings of words or concepts ranging from 5-9. This information on the limits to the capacity for processing information became one of the most highly cited papers in psychology.

The Magical Number Seven Experiment was published in 1956 by cognitive psychologist George A. Miller of Princeton University’s Department of Psychology in Psychological Review .  In the article, Miller discussed a concurrence between the limits of one-dimensional absolute judgment and the limits of short-term memory.

In a one-dimensional absolute-judgment task, a person is presented with a number of stimuli that vary on one dimension (such as 10 different tones varying only in pitch). The person responds to each stimulus with a corresponding response (learned before).

Performance is almost perfect up to five or six different stimuli but declines as the number of different stimuli is increased. This means that a human’s maximum performance on one-dimensional absolute judgment can be described as an information store with the maximum capacity of approximately 2 to 3 bits of information There is the ability to distinguish between four and eight alternatives.

12. Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Study conducted by: ivan pavlov.

Study Conducted in the 1890s at the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg, Russia

Pavlov began with the simple idea that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn. He observed that dogs do not learn to salivate when they see food. This reflex is “hard wired” into the dog. This is an unconditioned response (a stimulus-response connection that required no learning).

Pavlov outlined that there are unconditioned responses in the animal by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and then measuring its salivary secretions. In the experiment, Pavlov used a bell as his neutral stimulus. Whenever he gave food to his dogs, he also rang a bell. After a number of repeats of this procedure, he tried the bell on its own. What he found was that the bell on its own now caused an increase in salivation. The dog had learned to associate the bell and the food. This learning created a new behavior. The dog salivated when he heard the bell. Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.

This theory came to be known as classical conditioning.

13. Robbers Cave Experiment

Study conducted by: muzafer and carolyn sherif.

Study Conducted in 1954 at the University of Oklahoma

Experiment Details: This experiment, which studied group conflict, is considered by most to be outside the lines of what is considered ethically sound.

In 1954 researchers at the University of Oklahoma assigned 22 eleven- and twelve-year-old boys from similar backgrounds into two groups. The two groups were taken to separate areas of a summer camp facility where they were able to bond as social units. The groups were housed in separate cabins and neither group knew of the other’s existence for an entire week. The boys bonded with their cabin mates during that time. Once the two groups were allowed to have contact, they showed definite signs of prejudice and hostility toward each other even though they had only been given a very short time to develop their social group. To increase the conflict between the groups, the experimenters had them compete against each other in a series of activities. This created even more hostility and eventually the groups refused to eat in the same room. The final phase of the experiment involved turning the rival groups into friends. The fun activities the experimenters had planned like shooting firecrackers and watching movies did not initially work, so they created teamwork exercises where the two groups were forced to collaborate. At the end of the experiment, the boys decided to ride the same bus home, demonstrating that conflict can be resolved and prejudice overcome through cooperation.

Many critics have compared this study to Golding’s Lord of the Flies novel as a classic example of prejudice and conflict resolution.

14. Ross’ False Consensus Effect Study

Study conducted by: lee ross.

Study Conducted in 1977 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: In 1977, a social psychology professor at Stanford University named Lee Ross conducted an experiment that, in lay terms, focuses on how people can incorrectly conclude that others think the same way they do, or form a “false consensus” about the beliefs and preferences of others. Ross conducted the study in order to outline how the “false consensus effect” functions in humans.

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In the first part of the study, participants were asked to read about situations in which a conflict occurred and then were told two alternative ways of responding to the situation. They were asked to do three things:

• Guess which option other people would choose
• Say which option they themselves would choose
• Describe the attributes of the person who would likely choose each of the two options

What the study showed was that most of the subjects believed that other people would do the same as them, regardless of which of the two responses they actually chose themselves. This phenomenon is referred to as the false consensus effect, where an individual thinks that other people think the same way they do when they may not. The second observation coming from this important study is that when participants were asked to describe the attributes of the people who will likely make the choice opposite of their own, they made bold and sometimes negative predictions about the personalities of those who did not share their choice.

15. The Schacter and Singer Experiment on Emotion

Study conducted by: stanley schachter and jerome e. singer.

Study Conducted in 1962 at Columbia University

Experiment Details: In 1962 Schachter and Singer conducted a ground breaking experiment to prove their theory of emotion.

In the study, a group of 184 male participants were injected with epinephrine, a hormone that induces arousal including increased heartbeat, trembling, and rapid breathing. The research participants were told that they were being injected with a new medication to test their eyesight. The first group of participants was informed the possible side effects that the injection might cause while the second group of participants were not. The participants were then placed in a room with someone they thought was another participant, but was actually a confederate in the experiment. The confederate acted in one of two ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who had not been informed about the effects of the injection were more likely to feel either happier or angrier than those who had been informed.

What Schachter and Singer were trying to understand was the ways in which cognition or thoughts influence human emotion. Their study illustrates the importance of how people interpret their physiological states, which form an important component of your emotions. Though their cognitive theory of emotional arousal dominated the field for two decades, it has been criticized for two main reasons: the size of the effect seen in the experiment was not that significant and other researchers had difficulties repeating the experiment.

16. Selective Attention / Invisible Gorilla Experiment

Study conducted by: daniel simons and christopher chabris.

Study Conducted in 1999 at Harvard University

Experiment Details: In 1999 Simons and Chabris conducted their famous awareness test at Harvard University.

Participants in the study were asked to watch a video and count how many passes occurred between basketball players on the white team. The video moves at a moderate pace and keeping track of the passes is a relatively easy task. What most people fail to notice amidst their counting is that in the middle of the test, a man in a gorilla suit walked onto the court and stood in the center before walking off-screen.

The study found that the majority of the subjects did not notice the gorilla at all, proving that humans often overestimate their ability to effectively multi-task. What the study set out to prove is that when people are asked to attend to one task, they focus so strongly on that element that they may miss other important details.

17. Stanford Prison Study

Study conducted by philip zimbardo.

Study Conducted in 1971 at Stanford University

The Stanford Prison Experiment was designed to study behavior of “normal” individuals when assigned a role of prisoner or guard. College students were recruited to participate. They were assigned roles of “guard” or “inmate.”  Zimbardo played the role of the warden. The basement of the psychology building was the set of the prison. Great care was taken to make it look and feel as realistic as possible.

The prison guards were told to run a prison for two weeks. They were told not to physically harm any of the inmates during the study. After a few days, the prison guards became very abusive verbally towards the inmates. Many of the prisoners became submissive to those in authority roles. The Stanford Prison Experiment inevitably had to be cancelled because some of the participants displayed troubling signs of breaking down mentally.

Although the experiment was conducted very unethically, many psychologists believe that the findings showed how much human behavior is situational. People will conform to certain roles if the conditions are right. The Stanford Prison Experiment remains one of the most famous psychology experiments of all time.

18. Stanley Milgram Experiment

Study conducted by stanley milgram.

Study Conducted in 1961 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: This 1961 study was conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. It was designed to measure people’s willingness to obey authority figures when instructed to perform acts that conflicted with their morals. The study was based on the premise that humans will inherently take direction from authority figures from very early in life.

Participants were told they were participating in a study on memory. They were asked to watch another person (an actor) do a memory test. They were instructed to press a button that gave an electric shock each time the person got a wrong answer. (The actor did not actually receive the shocks, but pretended they did).

Participants were told to play the role of “teacher” and administer electric shocks to “the learner,” every time they answered a question incorrectly. The experimenters asked the participants to keep increasing the shocks. Most of them obeyed even though the individual completing the memory test appeared to be in great pain. Despite these protests, many participants continued the experiment when the authority figure urged them to. They increased the voltage after each wrong answer until some eventually administered what would be lethal electric shocks.

This experiment showed that humans are conditioned to obey authority and will usually do so even if it goes against their natural morals or common sense.

19. Surrogate Mother Experiment

Study conducted by: harry harlow.

Study Conducted from 1957-1963 at the University of Wisconsin

Experiment Details: In a series of controversial experiments during the late 1950s and early 1960s, Harry Harlow studied the importance of a mother’s love for healthy childhood development.

In order to do this he separated infant rhesus monkeys from their mothers a few hours after birth and left them to be raised by two “surrogate mothers.” One of the surrogates was made of wire with an attached bottle for food. The other was made of soft terrycloth but lacked food. The researcher found that the baby monkeys spent much more time with the cloth mother than the wire mother, thereby proving that affection plays a greater role than sustenance when it comes to childhood development. They also found that the monkeys that spent more time cuddling the soft mother grew up to healthier.

This experiment showed that love, as demonstrated by physical body contact, is a more important aspect of the parent-child bond than the provision of basic needs. These findings also had implications in the attachment between fathers and their infants when the mother is the source of nourishment.

20. The Good Samaritan Experiment

Study conducted by: john darley and daniel batson.

Study Conducted in 1973 at The Princeton Theological Seminary (Researchers were from Princeton University)

Experiment Details: In 1973, an experiment was created by John Darley and Daniel Batson, to investigate the potential causes that underlie altruistic behavior. The researchers set out three hypotheses they wanted to test:

• People thinking about religion and higher principles would be no more inclined to show helping behavior than laymen.
• People in a rush would be much less likely to show helping behavior.
• People who are religious for personal gain would be less likely to help than people who are religious because they want to gain some spiritual and personal insights into the meaning of life.

Student participants were given some religious teaching and instruction. They were then were told to travel from one building to the next. Between the two buildings was a man lying injured and appearing to be in dire need of assistance. The first variable being tested was the degree of urgency impressed upon the subjects, with some being told not to rush and others being informed that speed was of the essence.

The results of the experiment were intriguing, with the haste of the subject proving to be the overriding factor. When the subject was in no hurry, nearly two-thirds of people stopped to lend assistance. When the subject was in a rush, this dropped to one in ten.

People who were on the way to deliver a speech about helping others were nearly twice as likely to help as those delivering other sermons,. This showed that the thoughts of the individual were a factor in determining helping behavior. Religious beliefs did not appear to make much difference on the results. Being religious for personal gain, or as part of a spiritual quest, did not appear to make much of an impact on the amount of helping behavior shown.

21. The Halo Effect Experiment

Study conducted by: richard e. nisbett and timothy decamp wilson.

Study Conducted in 1977 at the University of Michigan

Experiment Details: The Halo Effect states that people generally assume that people who are physically attractive are more likely to:

• be intelligent
• be friendly
• display good judgment

To prove their theory, Nisbett and DeCamp Wilson created a study to prove that people have little awareness of the nature of the Halo Effect. They’re not aware that it influences:

• their personal judgments
• the production of a more complex social behavior

In the experiment, college students were the research participants. They were asked to evaluate a psychology instructor as they view him in a videotaped interview. The students were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Each group was shown one of two different interviews with the same instructor. The instructor is a native French-speaking Belgian who spoke English with a noticeable accent. In the first video, the instructor presented himself as someone:

• respectful of his students’ intelligence and motives
• flexible in his approach to teaching
• enthusiastic about his subject matter

In the second interview, he presented himself as much more unlikable. He was cold and distrustful toward the students and was quite rigid in his teaching style.

After watching the videos, the subjects were asked to rate the lecturer on:

• physical appearance

His mannerisms and accent were kept the same in both versions of videos. The subjects were asked to rate the professor on an 8-point scale ranging from “like extremely” to “dislike extremely.” Subjects were also told that the researchers were interested in knowing “how much their liking for the teacher influenced the ratings they just made.” Other subjects were asked to identify how much the characteristics they just rated influenced their liking of the teacher.

After responding to the questionnaire, the respondents were puzzled about their reactions to the videotapes and to the questionnaire items. The students had no idea why they gave one lecturer higher ratings. Most said that how much they liked the lecturer had not affected their evaluation of his individual characteristics at all.

The interesting thing about this study is that people can understand the phenomenon, but they are unaware when it is occurring. Without realizing it, humans make judgments. Even when it is pointed out, they may still deny that it is a product of the halo effect phenomenon.

22. The Marshmallow Test

Study conducted by: walter mischel.

Study Conducted in 1972 at Stanford University

In his 1972 Marshmallow Experiment, children ages four to six were taken into a room where a marshmallow was placed in front of them on a table. Before leaving each of the children alone in the room, the experimenter informed them that they would receive a second marshmallow if the first one was still on the table after they returned in 15 minutes. The examiner recorded how long each child resisted eating the marshmallow and noted whether it correlated with the child’s success in adulthood. A small number of the 600 children ate the marshmallow immediately and one-third delayed gratification long enough to receive the second marshmallow.

In follow-up studies, Mischel found that those who deferred gratification were significantly more competent and received higher SAT scores than their peers. This characteristic likely remains with a person for life. While this study seems simplistic, the findings outline some of the foundational differences in individual traits that can predict success.

23. The Monster Study

Study conducted by: wendell johnson.

Study Conducted in 1939 at the University of Iowa

Experiment Details: The Monster Study received this negative title due to the unethical methods that were used to determine the effects of positive and negative speech therapy on children.

Wendell Johnson of the University of Iowa selected 22 orphaned children, some with stutters and some without. The children were in two groups. The group of children with stutters was placed in positive speech therapy, where they were praised for their fluency. The non-stutterers were placed in negative speech therapy, where they were disparaged for every mistake in grammar that they made.

As a result of the experiment, some of the children who received negative speech therapy suffered psychological effects and retained speech problems for the rest of their lives. They were examples of the significance of positive reinforcement in education.

The initial goal of the study was to investigate positive and negative speech therapy. However, the implication spanned much further into methods of teaching for young children.

24. Violinist at the Metro Experiment

Study conducted by: staff at the washington post.

Study Conducted in 2007 at a Washington D.C. Metro Train Station

During the study, pedestrians rushed by without realizing that the musician playing at the entrance to the metro stop was Grammy-winning musician, Joshua Bell. Two days before playing in the subway, he sold out at a theater in Boston where the seats average $100. He played one of the most intricate pieces ever written with a violin worth 3.5 million dollars. In the 45 minutes the musician played his violin, only 6 people stopped and stayed for a while. Around 20 gave him money, but continued to walk their normal pace. He collected $32.

The study and the subsequent article organized by the Washington Post was part of a social experiment looking at:

• the priorities of people

Gene Weingarten wrote about the social experiment: “In a banal setting at an inconvenient time, would beauty transcend?” Later he won a Pulitzer Prize for his story. Some of the questions the article addresses are:

• Do we perceive beauty?
• Do we stop to appreciate it?
• Do we recognize the talent in an unexpected context?

As it turns out, many of us are not nearly as perceptive to our environment as we might like to think.

25. Visual Cliff Experiment

Study conducted by: eleanor gibson and richard walk.

Study Conducted in 1959 at Cornell University

Experiment Details: In 1959, psychologists Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk set out to study depth perception in infants. They wanted to know if depth perception is a learned behavior or if it is something that we are born with. To study this, Gibson and Walk conducted the visual cliff experiment.

They studied 36 infants between the ages of six and 14 months, all of whom could crawl. The infants were placed one at a time on a visual cliff. A visual cliff was created using a large glass table that was raised about a foot off the floor. Half of the glass table had a checker pattern underneath in order to create the appearance of a ‘shallow side.’

In order to create a ‘deep side,’ a checker pattern was created on the floor; this side is the visual cliff. The placement of the checker pattern on the floor creates the illusion of a sudden drop-off. Researchers placed a foot-wide centerboard between the shallow side and the deep side. Gibson and Walk found the following:

• Nine of the infants did not move off the centerboard.
• All of the 27 infants who did move crossed into the shallow side when their mothers called them from the shallow side.
• Three of the infants crawled off the visual cliff toward their mother when called from the deep side.
• When called from the deep side, the remaining 24 children either crawled to the shallow side or cried because they could not cross the visual cliff and make it to their mother.

What this study helped demonstrate is that depth perception is likely an inborn train in humans.

Among these experiments and psychological tests, we see boundaries pushed and theories taking on a life of their own. It is through the endless stream of psychological experimentation that we can see simple hypotheses become guiding theories for those in this field. The greater field of psychology became a formal field of experimental study in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory dedicated solely to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt was the first person to refer to himself as a psychologist. Since 1879, psychology has grown into a massive collection of:

• methods of practice

It’s also a specialty area in the field of healthcare. None of this would have been possible without these and many other important psychological experiments that have stood the test of time.

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About the Author

After earning a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology from Rutgers University and then a Master of Science in Clinical and Forensic Psychology from Drexel University, Kristen began a career as a therapist at two prisons in Philadelphia. At the same time she volunteered as a rape crisis counselor, also in Philadelphia. After a few years in the field she accepted a teaching position at a local college where she currently teaches online psychology courses. Kristen began writing in college and still enjoys her work as a writer, editor, professor and mother.

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Research Topics & Ideas: Psychology

100+ Psychology Topic Ideas To Fast-Track Your Research

If you’re starting out on the dissertation or thesis journey for your psychology degree, the very first challenge you’ll face is finding a solid research topic . In this post, we’ll help get the topic ideation process started by providing a meaty list of research ideas, spanning a range of psychology sub-disciplines. We’ll also look at some examples from actual theses and dissertations to give you an idea of what these look like in the real world.

NB – This is just the start…

The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps (which we’ll explain a little later). Therefore, it’s important to recognise that this post is only the first step in finding a high-quality psychology-centred research topic. To develop a research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this all sounds a bit intimidating, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course , which covers the process of writing a dissertation or thesis from A-Z. You can also sign up for our free webinar that explores how to find a high-quality research topic. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, have a look at our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Psychology-Related Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• Behavioural psychology
• Clinical psychology
• Cognitive psychology
• Developmental psychology
• Educational psychology
• Forensic psychology
• Social psychology
• Sports psychology
• Examples of actual dissertation topics
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

How To Find A Research Topic

In the video below, we explain how to find suitable research ideas (in psychology or any field), and how to then refine those into well-articulated potential topics for your dissertation or thesis. We also discuss a few important evaluation criteria to help you make the right choice for your project.

Below you’ll find a list of research ideas to get your thinking started. Please note that these research topic ideas are intentionally broad and generic, so you will need to refine them a fair deal using the techniques we discussed in the video above.

We’ve grouped the topic ideas based on a few popular areas of psychology to make it a little easier for you to find something in your particular field of interest. That said, there is naturally some overlap between topics, so keep this in mind.

Research Ideas: Behavioural Psychology

• Cultural variation in behaviour and mental health of adolescents during a disaster: a case study
• The impact of parental drug use and risky behaviour on early child development
• The effects of video game violence on aggressive behaviour among teenage boys in school
• The relationship between adverse childhood experiences and adult risk-seeking behaviour
• The impact of physical exercise on anxiety and health-harming behaviour
• The relationship between personality traits and addiction behaviour
• The effects of reinforcement schedules on decision-making and associative learning
• The effects of daily mindfulness practice on stress and anxiety in middle-aged women
• The use of behavioural interventions in the treatment of eating disorders in poorer communities
• Understanding implicit cognitive processes involved in the over-consumption of fast food
• The use of cognitive behavioural therapy for alcohol addiction treatment
• The impact of extensive technology use in children on long-term attention and focus
• The impact of social media on self-destructive behaviour and poor mental health outcomes
• Exploring the role of sleep and sleep deprivation on healthy behaviours

Research Ideas: Clinical Psychology

• The use of mindfulness-based approaches in the treatment of anxiety disorders among college students
• The use of technology in the delivery of psychological services in war-torn countries
• The effectiveness of dialectical behaviour therapy for borderline personality disorder
• The use of virtual reality technology in the treatment of phobias and PTSD among war veterans
• The role of childhood adversity on adult mental health in immigrant populations in the USA
• The role of genetics and epigenetics in the development of bipolar disorder in Pakistani women: an integrative review
• The effectiveness of pharmacotherapy in the treatment of social anxiety among hikikomori in Japan
• The perception of healthcare workers and patients on the use of teletherapy for the delivery of psychological services
• The impact of social support on mental health outcomes among single parents.
• The effectiveness of integrative therapeutic approaches in the treatment of schizophrenia
• The effectiveness of trauma-focused therapies on post-traumatic growth in domestic abuse survivors
• The role and use of cognitive-behavioural therapy for depression among first-generation students
• The effectiveness of family therapy in addressing childhood trauma and depression
• The impact of cultural mistrust on the diagnosis and treatment of mental health issues in culturally-diverse populations
• The effectiveness of group therapy on post-traumatic stress symptoms among survivors of sexual assault

Research Ideas: Cognitive Psychology

• The impact of lifelong aerobic exercise on cognitive function in old age
• The effects of evening screen use on cognitive development in preschool children
• The impact of sleep deprivation on decision-making among graduate students
• The use of neuroimaging to understand the neural basis of memory retrieval
• The effect of conservative religious homes on social functioning in LGBT+ adolescents
• The role of positive emotions in working memory among high school learners
• The neural basis of decision-making and problem-solving during undergraduate statistic assessments
• The neural basis of language processing among adults learning English as a second language
• The role of technological tools in improving working memory in older adults
• The role of attention in emotional face processing among adult males
• The impact of depression on cognitive function during ageing The impact of daily meditation and mindfulness practice on cognitive function
• The relationship between increased protein intake and improved cognitive function
• The effects of stress on cognitive function among final-year learners

Research Ideas: Developmental Psychology

• The impact of maternal affection on cognitive, social, and emotional development
• The effects of parenting styles on children’s executive function
• The impact of late-night screen use on child development
• The role of digital play on child development outcomes
• Exploring the impact of poverty on early child development in Brazil
• The trauma-informed care as moderating the impact of trauma on child development
• Evaluating the relationship between peer relationship quality and child social development
• The impact of child-targeted media and advertising on child behavioural development
• The role of parental attachment in child resilience
• The moderating impact of culture on bullying and child social development
• The impact of single-parenting on child development in India
• The impact of early educational interventions on child socio-emotional development
• The impact of digital technology use on adolescent development and mental health
• The impact of socioeconomic status on child executive function
• The role of genetics and epigenetics on child neurodevelopmental outcomes linked to depression

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Research Ideas: Educational Psychology

• The relationship between self-regulated learning and academic performance in asynchronous versus synchronous learning environments
• Exploring effective parental involvement strategies and their impact on student achievement
• The role of intrinsic motivation in formative assessment in the classroom
• The impact of classroom management and practice on student learning and behaviour
• University students’ preference regarding online learning environments
• The effects of gentrification on student achievement in traditionally poor neighbourhoods
• The impact of teacher expectations and academic self-concept on K12 student mathematics performance
• The use and effectiveness of game-based learning in a high school biology classroom
• The impact of prejudice on the relationship between student motivation and academic performance among Black university students
• The impact of culture on second language English student learning preferences
• The effects of student self-efficacy and engagement on academic performance in secondary school mathematics
• The role of metacognition in learning musicality in hip hop
• The role of small group instruction on teacher efficacy and stress in early childhood education
• The perception and use of multimedia among high school biology teachers in France
• The use of augmented reality applications and its impact on student learning, motivation and attitude

Research Ideas: Forensic Psychology

• The impact of trauma on the psychological functioning of police officers and first responders
• Understanding cultural considerations during forensic psychological assessment and treatment of trauma
• Ethical considerations of the use of AI in forensic psychology in the legal system
• The psychological factors related to recidivism among white collar female offenders in the USA
• The psychological factors related to false confessions among juveniles
• Understanding the use of psychological assessment in the evaluation of eyewitness testimony in criminal courts in England
• The impact of trauma on the reflective functioning of adult female sexual assault victims
• The use and effectiveness of psychological interventions in reducing recidivism among non-violent criminals
• The impact of domestic violence on the mental health and forensic evaluation of men
• Exploring the ethical considerations and use of behavioural analysis in the study of criminal behaviour
• The use and limitations of neuropsychological assessment in forensic evaluations
• The use of social media forensics in evaluating criminal behaviour in violent crimes
• The racialised use of psychological assessment in the evaluation of competency to stand trial in Canada
• Exploring the use and availability of virtual reality technologies in forensic psychology in Spain
• The impact of motivational interviewing-based interventions among criminalized drug users

Research Ideas: Social Psychology

• The impact of prejudice and discrimination on social behaviour among African immigrants in South Africa
• The impact of social networks on behaviour and well-being among young adult females
• The effects of social identity on non-conformity in University students
• The effects of group dynamics on risk-seeking behaviour in adult men
• The impact of social media on the quality of interpersonal relationships among high school learners
• The impact of parental emotional intelligence on pro-social behaviour in children and adolescents
• The effects of conformity and deviance on social attitudes and behaviour during a global recession
• The effects of Tik Tok on social comparison and self-esteem among teenage girls
• Understanding gendered differences in social influence and algorithms on impulsive decision-making
• The effects of social support on mental health among healthcare workers in the UK
• The effects of gender roles on social behaviour among trans teens
• The impact of perceived power and social status on the behaviour of social media influencers
• The impact of social norms on prosocial behaviour among women
• The effects of community participation on aggression and violence in middle-aged men
• The impact of culture and gender on social behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic

Research Ideas: Sports Psychology

• The moderating role of cultural factors on the relationship between mental health and sports performance in team sports
• The role of mindfulness practice in addressing stress and anxiety in young national athletes
• The relationship between team cohesion and performance in cricket teams
• The effect of transformational leadership on female sports teams in Canada
• The effect of positive self-talk on athletic performance and motivation among Olympic athletes
• The use and perception of hypnosis in New Zealand team sports Understanding stress and burnout in University team athletes
• The efficacy of personalised nutrition and diet on athletic performance among sprinters
• Exploring mental preparation techniques and their effect on athletic motivation and resilience among team-sport athletes
• Exploring the perception and understanding of goal-setting characteristics on athletic performance among team coaches
• The effects of motivational feedback on the performance of female gymnasts
• The perception and use of visualization and imagery among coaches as a means to enhance sport performance
• The impact of sports injuries on mental health and recovery in high school athletes
• The moderating role of sleep on mental toughness and sports performance in Olympic athletes
• The use and perception of technology in sports training and performance in little league softball

Psychology-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in psychology, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various psychology degree programs to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• Effects of a Patient Question Prompt List on Outpatient Palliative Care Appointments (McDarby, 2022)
• The role of affect and exercise goals in physical activity engagement in younger and older adults (Stojanovic, 2022)
• Lay Theories about Whether Emotion Helps or Hinders Reasoning and Well-being (Karnaze, 2022)
• The effects of blast-induced traumatic brain injury on two transgenic models of Alzheimer’s Disease (Gann, 2020)
• Understanding the parental mind: Examining the stability of parental reflective functioning across the birth of a child and associations with maternal mind-mindedness (Pitzen, 2021)
• An investigation of ineffective ally behaviours (Collier, 2019)
• Response Inhibition-Related Beta Power: Distinguishing Cognitively Intact Elders by Risk for Alzheimer’s Disease (Evans, 2021)
• Recognition Memory of Extremely High-Frequency Words (Miller, 2019)
• The Relationship between Dementia Caregiver Burden and Caregiver Communications in a Memory Clinic Setting (Martin, 2021)
• Examination of Maternal Versus Paternal Ratings of Child Pre-Injury Functioning in Predicting Child Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms (Sayer, 2021)
• Electromyography As A Means of Predicting The Rubber Hand Illusion (Teaford, 2021)
• Linking Diversity Climate and Feedback Seeking Through Interpersonal Processes and Race Effects (Flores, 2021)

Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are far more specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. This is an important thing to keep in mind as you develop your own research topic. That is to say, to create a top-notch research topic, you must be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.

Fast-Track Your Topic Ideation

Still unsure about how to find the right topic for your research project? Check out our private coaching services , where we work with psychology students on a 1:1 basis to help them find the perfect topic.

10 Comments

Great insight

A very interesting site that offers a variety of options regarding research topics.

You’re most welcome

A good platform to get information

Amazing and interesting options 👌

Very useful but had not any field of research in health psychology

I feel honored going through this lovely stuff put together. Thank you so much

I need counseling psychology research topics

very empowering and insightful presentations. Can I be assisted in crafting a school psychology-related research topic about African context

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Research Methods In Psychology

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Research methods in psychology are systematic procedures used to observe, describe, predict, and explain behavior and mental processes. They include experiments, surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observations, ensuring data collection is objective and reliable to understand and explain psychological phenomena.

Hypotheses are statements about the prediction of the results, that can be verified or disproved by some investigation.

There are four types of hypotheses :

• Null Hypotheses (H0 ) – these predict that no difference will be found in the results between the conditions. Typically these are written ‘There will be no difference…’
• Alternative Hypotheses (Ha or H1) – these predict that there will be a significant difference in the results between the two conditions. This is also known as the experimental hypothesis.
• One-tailed (directional) hypotheses – these state the specific direction the researcher expects the results to move in, e.g. higher, lower, more, less. In a correlation study, the predicted direction of the correlation can be either positive or negative.
• Two-tailed (non-directional) hypotheses – these state that a difference will be found between the conditions of the independent variable but does not state the direction of a difference or relationship. Typically these are always written ‘There will be a difference ….’

All research has an alternative hypothesis (either a one-tailed or two-tailed) and a corresponding null hypothesis.

Once the research is conducted and results are found, psychologists must accept one hypothesis and reject the other. 

So, if a difference is found, the Psychologist would accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null.  The opposite applies if no difference is found.

Sampling techniques

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study.

A sample is the participants you select from a target population (the group you are interested in) to make generalizations about.

Representative means the extent to which a sample mirrors a researcher’s target population and reflects its characteristics.

Generalisability means the extent to which their findings can be applied to the larger population of which their sample was a part.

• Volunteer sample : where participants pick themselves through newspaper adverts, noticeboards or online.
• Opportunity sampling : also known as convenience sampling , uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out and willing to take part. It is based on convenience.
• Random sampling : when every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. An example of random sampling would be picking names out of a hat.
• Systematic sampling : when a system is used to select participants. Picking every Nth person from all possible participants. N = the number of people in the research population / the number of people needed for the sample.
• Stratified sampling : when you identify the subgroups and select participants in proportion to their occurrences.
• Snowball sampling : when researchers find a few participants, and then ask them to find participants themselves and so on.
• Quota sampling : when researchers will be told to ensure the sample fits certain quotas, for example they might be told to find 90 participants, with 30 of them being unemployed.

Experiments always have an independent and dependent variable .

• The independent variable is the one the experimenter manipulates (the thing that changes between the conditions the participants are placed into). It is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.
• The dependent variable is the thing being measured, or the results of the experiment.

Operationalization of variables means making them measurable/quantifiable. We must use operationalization to ensure that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.

For instance, we can’t really measure ‘happiness’, but we can measure how many times a person smiles within a two-hour period. 

By operationalizing variables, we make it easy for someone else to replicate our research. Remember, this is important because we can check if our findings are reliable.

Extraneous variables are all variables which are not independent variable but could affect the results of the experiment.

It can be a natural characteristic of the participant, such as intelligence levels, gender, or age for example, or it could be a situational feature of the environment such as lighting or noise.

Demand characteristics are a type of extraneous variable that occurs if the participants work out the aims of the research study, they may begin to behave in a certain way.

For example, in Milgram’s research , critics argued that participants worked out that the shocks were not real and they administered them as they thought this was what was required of them. 

Extraneous variables must be controlled so that they do not affect (confound) the results.

Randomly allocating participants to their conditions or using a matched pairs experimental design can help to reduce participant variables. 

Situational variables are controlled by using standardized procedures, ensuring every participant in a given condition is treated in the same way

Experimental Design

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to each condition of the independent variable, such as a control or experimental group.

• Independent design ( between-groups design ): each participant is selected for only one group. With the independent design, the most common way of deciding which participants go into which group is by means of randomization. 
• Matched participants design : each participant is selected for only one group, but the participants in the two groups are matched for some relevant factor or factors (e.g. ability; sex; age).
• Repeated measures design ( within groups) : each participant appears in both groups, so that there are exactly the same participants in each group.
• The main problem with the repeated measures design is that there may well be order effects. Their experiences during the experiment may change the participants in various ways.
• They may perform better when they appear in the second group because they have gained useful information about the experiment or about the task. On the other hand, they may perform less well on the second occasion because of tiredness or boredom.
• Counterbalancing is the best way of preventing order effects from disrupting the findings of an experiment, and involves ensuring that each condition is equally likely to be used first and second by the participants.

If we wish to compare two groups with respect to a given independent variable, it is essential to make sure that the two groups do not differ in any other important way. 

Experimental Methods

All experimental methods involve an iv (independent variable) and dv (dependent variable)..

The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances,  using a standardized procedure.

• Field experiments are conducted in the everyday (natural) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting. It may be possible to control extraneous variables, though such control is more difficult than in a lab experiment.
• Natural experiments are when a naturally occurring IV is investigated that isn’t deliberately manipulated, it exists anyway. Participants are not randomly allocated, and the natural event may only occur rarely.

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. It uses information from a range of sources, such as from the person concerned and also from their family and friends.

Many techniques may be used such as interviews, psychological tests, observations and experiments. Case studies are generally longitudinal: in other words, they follow the individual or group over an extended period of time. 

Case studies are widely used in psychology and among the best-known ones carried out were by Sigmund Freud . He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

Case studies provide rich qualitative data and have high levels of ecological validity. However, it is difficult to generalize from individual cases as each one has unique characteristics.

Correlational Studies

Correlation means association; it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. One of the variables can be regarded as the predictor variable with the other one as the outcome variable.

Correlational studies typically involve obtaining two different measures from a group of participants, and then assessing the degree of association between the measures. 

The predictor variable can be seen as occurring before the outcome variable in some sense. It is called the predictor variable, because it forms the basis for predicting the value of the outcome variable.

Relationships between variables can be displayed on a graph or as a numerical score called a correlation coefficient.

• If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other, then this is known as a positive correlation .
• If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other, then this is known as a negative correlation .
• A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.

After looking at the scattergraph, if we want to be sure that a significant relationship does exist between the two variables, a statistical test of correlation can be conducted, such as Spearman’s rho.

The test will give us a score, called a correlation coefficient . This is a value between 0 and 1, and the closer to 1 the score is, the stronger the relationship between the variables. This value can be both positive e.g. 0.63, or negative -0.63.

A correlation between variables, however, does not automatically mean that the change in one variable is the cause of the change in the values of the other variable. A correlation only shows if there is a relationship between variables.

Correlation does not always prove causation, as a third variable may be involved. 

Interview Methods

Interviews are commonly divided into two types: structured and unstructured.

A fixed, predetermined set of questions is put to every participant in the same order and in the same way. 

Responses are recorded on a questionnaire, and the researcher presets the order and wording of questions, and sometimes the range of alternative answers.

The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social distance from the interviewee.

There are no set questions, and the participant can raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. Questions are posed about participants’ answers to the subject

Unstructured interviews are most useful in qualitative research to analyze attitudes and values.

Though they rarely provide a valid basis for generalization, their main advantage is that they enable the researcher to probe social actors’ subjective point of view. 

Questionnaire Method

Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone, or post.

The choice of questions is important because of the need to avoid bias or ambiguity in the questions, ‘leading’ the respondent or causing offense.

• Open questions are designed to encourage a full, meaningful answer using the subject’s own knowledge and feelings. They provide insights into feelings, opinions, and understanding. Example: “How do you feel about that situation?”
• Closed questions can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” or specific information, limiting the depth of response. They are useful for gathering specific facts or confirming details. Example: “Do you feel anxious in crowds?”

Its other practical advantages are that it is cheaper than face-to-face interviews and can be used to contact many respondents scattered over a wide area relatively quickly.

Observations

There are different types of observation methods :

• Covert observation is where the researcher doesn’t tell the participants they are being observed until after the study is complete. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular observation method.
• Overt observation is where a researcher tells the participants they are being observed and what they are being observed for.
• Controlled : behavior is observed under controlled laboratory conditions (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll study).
• Natural : Here, spontaneous behavior is recorded in a natural setting.
• Participant : Here, the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are observing. The researcher becomes a member of the group they are researching.  
• Non-participant (aka “fly on the wall): The researcher does not have direct contact with the people being observed. The observation of participants’ behavior is from a distance

Pilot Study

A pilot  study is a small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate the feasibility of the key s teps in a future, full-scale project.

A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation; it involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. It is possible to save time, and in some cases, money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the researcher.

A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised.

Sometimes the task is too hard, and the researcher may get a floor effect, because none of the participants can score at all or can complete the task – all performances are low.

The opposite effect is a ceiling effect, when the task is so easy that all achieve virtually full marks or top performances and are “hitting the ceiling”.

Research Design

In cross-sectional research , a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time

Sometimes, we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.

In cohort studies , the participants must share a common factor or characteristic such as age, demographic, or occupation. A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study in which researchers monitor and observe a chosen population over an extended period.

Triangulation means using more than one research method to improve the study’s validity.

Reliability

Reliability is a measure of consistency, if a particular measurement is repeated and the same result is obtained then it is described as being reliable.

• Test-retest reliability :  assessing the same person on two different occasions which shows the extent to which the test produces the same answers.
• Inter-observer reliability : the extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers.

Meta-Analysis

Meta-analysis is a statistical procedure used to combine and synthesize findings from multiple independent studies to estimate the average effect size for a particular research question.

Meta-analysis goes beyond traditional narrative reviews by using statistical methods to integrate the results of several studies, leading to a more objective appraisal of the evidence.

This is done by looking through various databases, and then decisions are made about what studies are to be included/excluded.

• Strengths : Increases the conclusions’ validity as they’re based on a wider range.
• Weaknesses : Research designs in studies can vary, so they are not truly comparable.

Peer Review

A researcher submits an article to a journal. The choice of the journal may be determined by the journal’s audience or prestige.

The journal selects two or more appropriate experts (psychologists working in a similar field) to peer review the article without payment. The peer reviewers assess: the methods and designs used, originality of the findings, the validity of the original research findings and its content, structure and language.

Feedback from the reviewer determines whether the article is accepted. The article may be: Accepted as it is, accepted with revisions, sent back to the author to revise and re-submit or rejected without the possibility of submission.

The editor makes the final decision whether to accept or reject the research report based on the reviewers comments/ recommendations.

Peer review is important because it prevent faulty data from entering the public domain, it provides a way of checking the validity of findings and the quality of the methodology and is used to assess the research rating of university departments.

Peer reviews may be an ideal, whereas in practice there are lots of problems. For example, it slows publication down and may prevent unusual, new work being published. Some reviewers might use it as an opportunity to prevent competing researchers from publishing work.

Some people doubt whether peer review can really prevent the publication of fraudulent research.

The advent of the internet means that a lot of research and academic comment is being published without official peer reviews than before, though systems are evolving on the internet where everyone really has a chance to offer their opinions and police the quality of research.

Types of Data

• Quantitative data is numerical data e.g. reaction time or number of mistakes. It represents how much or how long, how many there are of something. A tally of behavioral categories and closed questions in a questionnaire collect quantitative data.
• Qualitative data is virtually any type of information that can be observed and recorded that is not numerical in nature and can be in the form of written or verbal communication. Open questions in questionnaires and accounts from observational studies collect qualitative data.
• Primary data is first-hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation.
• Secondary data is information that has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research e.g. taken from journals, books or articles.

Validity means how well a piece of research actually measures what it sets out to, or how well it reflects the reality it claims to represent.

Validity is whether the observed effect is genuine and represents what is actually out there in the world.

• Concurrent validity is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure and obtains close results. For example, a new intelligence test compared to an established test.
• Face validity : does the test measure what it’s supposed to measure ‘on the face of it’. This is done by ‘eyeballing’ the measuring or by passing it to an expert to check.
• Ecological validit y is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other settings / real life.
• Temporal validity is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other historical times.

Features of Science

• Paradigm – A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.
• Paradigm shift – The result of the scientific revolution: a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.
• Objectivity – When all sources of personal bias are minimised so not to distort or influence the research process.
• Empirical method – Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience.
• Replicability – The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers.
• Falsifiability – The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue.

Statistical Testing

A significant result is one where there is a low probability that chance factors were responsible for any observed difference, correlation, or association in the variables tested.

If our test is significant, we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative hypothesis.

If our test is not significant, we can accept our null hypothesis and reject our alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis is a statement of no effect.

In Psychology, we use p < 0.05 (as it strikes a balance between making a type I and II error) but p < 0.01 is used in tests that could cause harm like introducing a new drug.

A type I error is when the null hypothesis is rejected when it should have been accepted (happens when a lenient significance level is used, an error of optimism).

A type II error is when the null hypothesis is accepted when it should have been rejected (happens when a stringent significance level is used, an error of pessimism).

Ethical Issues

• Informed consent is when participants are able to make an informed judgment about whether to take part. It causes them to guess the aims of the study and change their behavior.
• To deal with it, we can gain presumptive consent or ask them to formally indicate their agreement to participate but it may invalidate the purpose of the study and it is not guaranteed that the participants would understand.
• Deception should only be used when it is approved by an ethics committee, as it involves deliberately misleading or withholding information. Participants should be fully debriefed after the study but debriefing can’t turn the clock back.
• All participants should be informed at the beginning that they have the right to withdraw if they ever feel distressed or uncomfortable.
• It causes bias as the ones that stayed are obedient and some may not withdraw as they may have been given incentives or feel like they’re spoiling the study. Researchers can offer the right to withdraw data after participation.
• Participants should all have protection from harm . The researcher should avoid risks greater than those experienced in everyday life and they should stop the study if any harm is suspected. However, the harm may not be apparent at the time of the study.
• Confidentiality concerns the communication of personal information. The researchers should not record any names but use numbers or false names though it may not be possible as it is sometimes possible to work out who the researchers were.

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• v.7(12); 2021 Dec

Psychology students' attitudes towards research: the role of critical thinking, epistemic orientation, and satisfaction with research courses

Miguel landa-blanco.

a Universidad Internacional Iberoamericana, Mexico

b Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Honduras

Antonio Cortés-Ramos

c Universidad de Málaga, Spain

Associated Data

Data will be made available on request.

The current study aimed to determine how attitudes towards research are related to epistemic orientation, critical thinking, and satisfaction with research courses in psychology university students. Control variables included respondents' gender, current academic degree (undergraduate or postgraduate), number of research methods courses completed, number of research projects completed, and academic score. A quantitative, cross-sectional design was used, with a non-probabilistic sample size of 137 students. Correlational findings suggest that students with high scores in critical thinking domains and empiric and rational dispositions, tend to achieve higher academic grades. Rationality and reflexive skepticism were related to the number of research projects completed by the student. While an intuitive disposition is inversely related to academic scores and the number of research courses completed. Results from a hierarchical linear regression model suggest that attitudes towards research are significantly and positively affected by students' satisfaction with research courses, empiric epistemic orientation, and critical openness. On the other hand, an intuitive epistemic orientation has significant detrimental effects on attitudes towards research. Rational epistemic orientation and skeptic reflexiveness yielded non-significant coefficients. Overall, the model containing all independent variables accounted for 47.4% of the variance in attitudinal scores; this constitutes a large effect size. Results are discussed in light of previous research and their implications for the teaching of psychology in higher education.

Scientific attitudes, Critical thinking, Epistemology, Student research.

1. Introduction

Attitudes are defined as a cognitive preference and behavioral predisposition towards an object, thus resulting in a favorable or unfavorable evaluation regarding a specific stimulus ( Eagly and Chaiken, 1993 ). Attitudes play an important role in predicting behavior ( Glasman and Albarracín, 2006 ), and consequently are a recurrent topic in educational and psychological studies. The present article will focus specifically on psychology students' attitudes towards research.

Research skills play an important role in higher education ( Lambie et al., 2014 ) and the psychological sciences ( Veilleux and Chapman, 2017 ). In higher education, specific competencies within psychology include the epistemic comprehension of science, critical scientific thinking, as well as the capability to design, execute and understand research ( American Psychological Association, 2011 ). However, on many occasions, psychology students dislike research methods courses ( Ciarocco et al., 2012 ). This might be due to the fact that students perceived disconnection between research courses content and its applicability to their professional field. A semantic analysis found that university students tend to consider psychology as a science, but less than natural sciences. Moreover, the term "psychology" and "science" were semantically linked by concepts related to research ( Richardson and Lacroix, 2021 ). Additionally, undergraduate psychology students tend to be more interested in practitioner activities than in scientific/research activities ( Holmes, 2014 ).

Students report several factors that dissuade them from doing research; these include considering that research activities are time-consuming, difficulties associated with the lack of mentorship and funding ( AlGhamdi et al., 2014 ; Siemens et al., 2010 ). Instructors of research methods classes often report that students have negative attitudes and disinterest in such courses ( Gurung and Stoa, 2020 ). In part, attitudes towards research can be explained by variables such as research anxiety, the perceived importance and usefulness students attribute to research, and believing that research has an unbiased nature ( Gredig and Bartelsen-Raemy, 2018 ). In this last regard, it is important to consider students' epistemic orientation.

Epistemic orientation refers to the individuals' preferences on how to gain and use knowledge ( Silva Palma et al., 2018 ). One taxonomy of epistemic orientations identifies three main preferences ( Royce, 1975 ; Silva Palma et al., 2018 ; Wilkinson and Migotsky, 1994 ): intuitive, rational, and empirical. The intuitive orientation assumes that knowledge is subjective and might be attained through metaphors and symbolisms. On the other hand, a rational orientation uses logic to evaluate arguments as true or false. An empiric orientation assumes that knowledge can only be attained through structured observations and experimentation. Science is greatly based on a combination of rational and empiric orientations.

Critical thinking is the process in which a person elaborates conclusions based on evidence ( Wallmann and Hoover, 2012 ), focusing on argumentation and reasoning. This requires synthetic, introspective skills, skepticism, openness to new arguments or evidence, evaluating different options and their ramifications, dialogical thinking, self-questioning, self-monitoring, self-criticism ( Garrett and Cutting, 2017 ; Reznitskaya and Sternberg, 2012 ; Sosu, 2013 ; Sternberg, 1987 ). Critical thinking is an essential element of scientific thinking ( Shargel and Twiss, 2019 ), and an essential skill in the academic formation of psychologists. Consequently, students are, ideally, trained to admit the role of randomness, evaluate the methodological quality of arguments, understand the differences between correlation and causality, acknowledge the complex and multicausal nature of events, and understand the importance of falsification ( Lawson, 1999 ; Lawson et al., 2015 ). Therefore it is evident that there is a link between critical thinking and research within the psychological sciences ( Meltzoff and Cooper, 2018 ).

Recent studies have found that research and statistics courses may enhance students' knowledge of the topic without increasing their interest ( Sizemore and Lewandowski, 2009 ). Specifically, teachers play an important role in developing students' research competencies, including its attitudinal component ( Udompong et al., 2014 ). Students' satisfaction with university courses is related to teaching quality and expertise ( Green et al., 2015 ). As such, it is vital to determine the role satisfaction with research courses plays in students' attitudes towards research.

The National Autonomous University of Honduras (UNAH) offers psychology programs in undergraduate (BA) and postgraduate (master's) degrees. The undergraduate program consists of 45 courses, of which 4 are mandatory-sequential Research Methods classes ( UNAH, 2019 ). By the end of the degree, students are expected to be competent in elaborating research proposals, literature reviews, the basic design of quantitative and qualitative instruments, applying descriptive and basic inferential statistics, and writing technical reports. On the other hand, the postgraduate degree has 18 compulsory courses, of which 4 are mandatory research classes ( UNAH, 2021 ). Their content is thesis-oriented, as it is a graduation requirement for the postgraduate programs of the UNAH.

Considering this, the purpose of our exploratory study was to test the following hypothesis: attitudes towards research are related to epistemic orientation, critical thinking, and satisfaction with research courses in psychology university students of Honduras. This while controlling for respondents' gender, current academic degree (undergraduate or postgraduate), number of research methods courses completed, number of research projects completed, and academic score.

2.1. Participants

The current study included students in the final year of their bachelor's degree, and students enrolled in a master's degree psychology program at a public university in Honduras. The sample was collected online through a non-probabilistic approach using volunteer and snowball sampling. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all university courses are held exclusively online. Considering this, invitations to participate in the study were sent via email to all 603 undergraduate students coursing final year classes and internships. Similarly, emails invitations were sent to all 62 masters' degree students. However, due to low response rates, students who completed the survey were also asked to send the email invitation to fellow students.

This resulted in a final sample size of 137 participants, of which 75.91% ( n = 104) were undergraduate students, accounting for 17.24% of the population of undergraduate students. On the other hand, 24.09% ( n = 33) were enrolled in a master's degree, representing 53.22% of the postgraduate population. Most respondents ( n = 113; 82.48%) were female, while male students only accounted for 17.52% of the total sample ( n = 24). The gender distribution in the sample is coherent with the population's demographic characteristics, in which 76.24% are female students, and 23.76% are male ( National Autonomous University of Honduras, 2021 ).

The mean academic score was 83.75% ( SD = 7.11); this represents the weighted average from all academic courses completed by the students. Students had completed an average of 5.08 research courses ( SD = 1.96) and participated in an average of 4.18 research projects ( SD = 2.86). The overall age of the respondents was 28.20 years ( SD = 7.61). Specifically, undergraduate students had a mean age of 26 years ( SD = 5.46), while master's degree students had a mean age of 35.12 years ( SD = 9.23).

2.2. Variables and measures

2.2.1. attitudes towards research.

Data was collected using the Attitudes Towards Research Scale-Revised (EACIN-R) ( Aldana de Becerra et al., 2020 ), a revised version of the original EACIN ( Aldana de Becerra et al., 2016 ). It consists of 28 items, with a five-point Likert-type response set, with scores varying from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree), with higher scores indicating more favorable attitudes towards research. Some items included in the EACIN-R are: "All professionals should know how to do research", "I do not believe research should be taught at universities" and "I am interested in doing research activities". As measured by Cronbach's Alpha, the internal consistency for this sample was 0.89, 95% CI [0.86; 0.91].

2.2.2. Epistemic orientation

The Epistemic Orientation Short Scale (EOSS) consists of 11 items with a five-point Likert-type response set, with scores varying from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree), with higher scores indicating a more prevalent epistemic orientation. The EOSS measures the following subscales: rationalism ( α = 0.71), intuitivism ( α = 0.77), and empiricism ( α = 0.72) ( Silva Palma et al., 2018 ). The current study determined the internal consistency coefficients for each dimension: rationalism, α = 0.83, 95% CI [0.78; 0.87]; intuitivism, α = 0.65, 95% CI [0.54; 0.73]; empiricism α = 0.64, 95% CI [0.52; 0.73]. Some items from the EOSS include: "My opinions are commonly based on feelings and intuitions" (intuitivism), "I tend to make decisions based on reasons I can clearly explain" (rationalism), and "I tend to make decisions based on my experiences and practical situations" (empiricism).

2.2.3. Critical thinking

The Critical Thinking Disposition Scale (CTDS) is an 11-item instrument with a five-point Likert-type response set, with scores varying from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree), with higher scores indicating higher self-reported critical thinking disposition. The CTDS has a bi-dimensional structure consisting of two factors: critical openness and reflective skepticism. Previous research reported an overall Cronbach's alpha of 0.81 ( Sosu, 2013 ), similar to the one found in the current study, α = 0.86, 95% CI [0.82; 0.89]. Some items included in the CTDS are: "I sometimes find a good argument that challenges some of my firmly held beliefs" (Critical Openness) and "I usually check the credibility of the source of information before making judgments" (reflective skepticism).

2.2.4. Satisfaction with University Research Courses

The authors of the current study elaborated the Satisfaction with University Research Courses Scale (SURCS). Items were built by the authors and later sent to three Research Methods university professors who revised the wording and validity of every item. The experts rated each question on a 5-point scale according to their importance, pertinence, and wording; items with low scores were rephrased according to the experts' opinions. The final version of the SURCS consists of 12 Likert-type items with a five-point response set, with scores varying from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree) . Higher scores indicate higher satisfaction with research university courses. The items reflects course content-related satisfaction, teacher satisfaction, perceived importance of the Research Methods courses, and personal satisfaction with such courses.

The instrument had an overall internal reliability of 0.91, 95% CI [0.89; 0.93], the average inter-item correlation was of 0.48, 95% CI [0.41; 0.54], Table 1 details the reliability for each item included in the SRUCS. Some of the items included in the SURCS are: "I enjoyed taking the Research Methods courses", "I believe my teachers of Research Methods courses had plenty experience as researchers", "I believe the content of the Research Methods courses is relevant".

Table 1

Item reliability for the satisfaction with University Research Courses Scale.

Note. Item 5 was inversely recoded.

2.2.5. Demographic and educational questionnaire

Additional demographic and educational data were collected through a questionnaire that gathered information regarding respondents' gender (0 = male, 1 = female), age, current academic degree (0 = undergraduate, 1 = postgraduate), number of research methods courses completed, number of research projects completed, and self-reported academic grade. On this last point, students were asked to enter the academic grade as reported in their official university online certification. The academic grade is a score that ranges between 0 and 100.

2.3. Data analysis

Items were averaged to determine the total for each scale. An exploratory correlational analysis, using Pearson's r , was used to assess inter-variable dynamics. Comparisons between undergraduate and postgraduate students were made by using Student's t-test, a power analysis with its corresponding confidence intervals was also made. Later, a hierarchical linear regression model was used to explain the scores students achieved at the Attitudes Towards Research Scale-Revised (EACIN-R). The independent variables tested included: EOSS-rational, EOSS-intuitive, EOSS-empiric, CTDS-critical openness, CTDS-reflexive skepticism, and satisfaction with research courses. This while controlling for: gender, current academic degree, number of research methods courses completed, number of research projects completed, and academic grade. A post-hoc analysis was used to determine the achieved power of the regression model. An α = 0.05 was used as a significance threshold. Participants were required to answer all items; therefore, no missing data were included in the study. All statistical analyses were made using JASP ( JASP Team, 2020 ).

2.4. Ethical considerations

The study design and execution were approved by the Ethical Committee of the Universidad Internacional Iberoamericana (UNINI), under certificate N˚ CE-025. All potential participants were presented with an Informed Consent form that included the study's purpose, confidentiality agreement, voluntary participation clause, data management, etc. Agreeing to the Informed Consent was required to allow students to participate in the study.

Results indicate that students had an average score of 3.87 ( SD = 0.50) in the Attitudes Towards Research Scale-Revised. The mean of the Satisfaction with Research University Courses Scale was 4.04 ( SD = 0.71). The most prevalent epistemic orientation was the EOSS-Empiric disposition ( M = 4.09; SD = 0.65), followed by EOSS-Rational ( M = 3.87; SD = 0.73), and EOSS-Intuitive as less prevalent disposition ( M = 3.40; SD = 0.75). Regarding critical thinking, CTDS-Reflexive-Skepticism scores ( M = 4.31; SD = 0.69) were higher than CTDS-Critical Openness ( M = 4.19; SD = 0.54).

Satisfaction with research courses and attitudes towards research were significantly higher for postgraduate students than for undergraduate respondents. Such differences are not only statistically significant ( p < 0.01), but also achieve medium effect sizes ( d = -0.64). Empiric and rational epistemic orientations are similarly scored by undergraduate and postgraduate students ( p > .05); however, intuitive orientation is significantly lower for postgraduate respondents ( p = 0.04). Critical thinking disposition subscales do not vary significantly between undergraduate and postgraduate students ( p > .05). Table 2 provides a detailed description of mean differences, significance, and effect size.

Table 2

Score comparisons between undergraduate and postgraduate students.

Note. df = 135.

A relational analysis determined that academic score is significantly and positively correlated ( p < 0.05) with CTDS-Critical Openness, CTDS Reflexive Skepticism, EOSS-Empiric, EOSS-Rational, satisfaction with research courses, and attitudes towards research. On the other hand, EOSS-Intuitive is inversely related to academic scores and the number of research courses completed. The number of research projects completed was significantly and positively associated with CTDS-Reflexive Skepticism, EOSS-Rational, satisfaction with research courses, and attitudes towards research. Additionally, both rational and empiric orientations correlate positively with critical thinking domains. Attitudes towards research also have positive relationships with EOSS-Rational and EOSS Empiric, but are inversely related with EOSS-Intuitive, see Table 3 .

Table 3

Correlational analysis between educational variables, critical thinking, and epistemic orientation.

Note. Correlation coefficients were calculated through Pearson's r . Significant p -values (<0.05) are presented in bold letters.

Furthermore, a hierarchical regression model was used to determine how attitudes towards research are explained by critical thinking, epistemic orientation, and satisfaction with research courses. The base model, containing control variables, had an r 2 of .197, F (5, 131) = 6.411, p < .001. The final model, containing all independent variables, had an r 2 of .474, F (11, 125) = 10.229, p < 0.001, this constitutes a large effect size ( Cohen, 1992 ), f 2 = .901, with a high power >0.99. The changes between the base and final model are statistically significant, r 2 Δ = .277, FΔ = 3.818, p < 0.001.

While controlling for the academic degree, number of research courses completed, number of completed research projects, academic grade and gender, the following independent variables had a significant effect on attitudes towards research: satisfaction with research courses ( β = 0.256, p = 0.001), empiric epistemic orientation ( β = 0.254, p = 0.003), intuitive epistemic orientation ( β = -0.149, p = 0.039) and critical openness ( β = 0.197, p = 0.049). Rational epistemic orientation ( β = 088, p = 0.32) and skeptic reflexiveness ( β = -0.043, p = 0.665) yielded non-significant coefficients ( p > 0.05), see Table 4 .

Table 4

Regression model explaining students' attitudes towards research.

Note. Significant p -values (<0.05) are presented in bold letters. All Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) scores range from 1.09 to 2.35, indicating no collinearity issues.

4. Discussion

The current research provides evidence that suggests that attitudes towards research are positively and significantly affected by students' satisfaction with research courses, empiric epistemic orientation, and critical openness. On the other hand, an intuitive epistemic orientation has significant detrimental effects on attitudes towards research. Students with high scores in critical thinking domains and empiric and rational dispositions, tend to achieve higher academic grades. Rationality and reflexive skepticism were related to the number of research projects completed by the student. While an intuitive disposition is inversely related to academic scores and the number of research courses completed.

Considering this, our study indicates that students' attitudes towards research could improve by reinforcing the quality of research methods courses, promoting empirical epistemic values and critical openness. On the first topic, knowledge of research methods is a premise of scientific thinking; therefore, effective research training should promote scientific thinking skills while considering students' epistemic beliefs ( Murtonen and Salmento, 2019 ). Teaching students how to evaluate the credibility and validity of information sources is a key component to promote critical thinking ( Carlson, 1995 ). Teachers should also promote inquiry-based activities in their classes; these include: students creating and answering their own questions, reciprocal peer questioning and, including questions that require holistic-integrative responses ( King, 1995 ). Such methods should enhance critical thinking and rational epistemic orientation.

Defining questions and hypotheses, critical thinking, and epistemic understanding are vital to overcoming intuitive-based decisions and non-scientific beliefs, leading to an evidence-based approach to problem-solving ( Murtonen and Salmento, 2019 ). An empiric epistemic orientation has significant effects on attitude towards research. Empiricism is highly driven by observational and experimental reports ( American Psychological Association, 2020 ), and is an essential pillar of scientific research.

Our study provides evidence that an intuitive epistemic orientation has detrimental effects on students' attitudes towards scientific research. This finding is coherent with previous research made in a sample of psychotherapists, in which intuitive thinking was related to negative attitudes towards research, as well as more resistance to adopting evidence-based treatments in their professional practice. Psychotherapists with higher intuitive thinking were more willing to endorse alternative therapies and misconceptions about health ( Gaudiano et al., 2011 ).

Likewise, critical openness was found to be a significant predictor of students' attitudes towards research. Considering that critical openness refers to the willingness to explore new or alternative arguments ( Sosu, 2013 ), it is logical that such openness was a significant predictor of students' attitudes towards research. In this sense, prior research has determined that scientists, in contrast to non-scientists, report significantly higher scores on openness ( Sato, 2016 ). Contemplating and evaluating new or alternative arguments is a key component to promote scientific development, and as such, these skills should be promoted in higher education settings. Teachers play an important part in enhancing students' critical thinking skills, playing a facilitator role, emphasizing the analytical process related to decision making, promoting discussion among peers, autonomous learning, and dialogical thinking ( Reznitskaya and Sternberg, 2012 ; Sternberg, 1987 ).

Our findings indicate that the number of research courses completed by the students does not influence their attitudes towards research. This finding is coherent with Sizemore and Lewandowsk (2009) , who concluded that completing research and statistics courses may enhance students' knowledge on the topic, without necessarily increasing their interest. Therefore, to better understand students' attitudes towards research, the focus should not reside on the number of research courses completed by the students, but rather on their satisfaction with such classes.

Satisfaction with research courses plays an important role in developing students' attitudes towards research. Thus, such courses should be taught by teachers highly trained in research and teaching skills, with updated, relevant, and applicable content that captures students' interest in research methods. This suggestion is in line with previous research, which identifies that teaching quality and expertise promote students' satisfaction with research courses ( Green et al., 2015 ). In this sense, teacher engagement has significant effects on student engagement ( Cardwell, 2011 ).

Overall, teachers should explicitly state and evidence the relationship between scientific thinking and research skills, as well as their application beyond academic activities. Students should also have clarity about the research process and what is expected of them as researchers. In this sense, quality feedback, adequate mentorship, peer support, and collaborative learning may enhance favorable attitudes towards the research process ( Balloo, 2019 ).

Future studies should consider using qualitative and mixed methods designs to understand students' epistemic beliefs better, further exploring the meaning of psychology as a science. On the other hand, additional studies could specifically focus on postgraduate students and their attitudes and experiences on research activities, such as thesis writing.

The present study is not without limitations. The non-probabilistic selection process and the limited sample size may restrict the representativeness of the results. The nature of the epistemic, scientific, and attitudinal variables also possess an issue because it requires the respondents to have acquired a certain level of epistemic maturity ( Murtonen and Salmento, 2019 ). Such awareness and metacognitive capabilities might not be adequately developed in all students. Additionally, the relatively low reliability of the EOSS subscales of Intuitivism ( α = 0.65) and Empiricism ( α = 0.64) is a limitation to consider when interpreting our research results. Future studies should also investigate further the psychometric properties of the SURCS. Finally, high scores in the EACIN-R indicate favorable attitudes towards research, and low scores indicate unfavorable attitudes. However, the EACIN-R lacks a system to categorize attitudinal scores through cut-off values ( Aldana de Becerra et al., 2020 ). In this sense, more research is yet needed to further validate the scale in university populations.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

Miguel Landa-Blanco and Antonio Cortés-Ramos: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Declaration of interests statement.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

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61 intriguing psychology research topics to explore

Last updated

11 January 2024

Reviewed by

Brittany Ferri, PhD, OTR/L

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Psychology is an incredibly diverse, critical, and ever-changing area of study in the medical and health industries. Because of this, it’s a common area of study for students and healthcare professionals.

We’re walking you through picking the perfect topic for your upcoming paper or study. Keep reading for plenty of example topics to pique your interest and curiosity.

• How to choose a psychology research topic

Exploring a psychology-based topic for your research project? You need to pick a specific area of interest to collect compelling data. 

Use these tips to help you narrow down which psychology topics to research:

Focus on a particular area of psychology

The most effective psychological research focuses on a smaller, niche concept or disorder within the scope of a study. 

Psychology is a broad and fascinating area of science, including everything from diagnosed mental health disorders to sports performance mindset assessments. 

This gives you plenty of different avenues to explore. Having a hard time choosing? Check out our list of 61 ideas further down in this article to get started.

Read the latest clinical studies

Once you’ve picked a more niche topic to explore, you need to do your due diligence and explore other research projects on the same topic. 

This practice will help you learn more about your chosen topic, ask more specific questions, and avoid covering existing projects. 

For the best results, we recommend creating a research folder of associated published papers to reference throughout your project. This makes it much easier to cite direct references and find inspiration down the line.

Find a topic you enjoy and ask questions

Once you’ve spent time researching and collecting references for your study, you finally get to explore. 

Whether this research project is for work, school, or just for fun, having a passion for your research will make the project much more enjoyable. (Trust us, there will be times when that is the only thing that keeps you going.) 

Now you’ve decided on the topic, ask more nuanced questions you might want to explore. 

If you can, pick the direction that interests you the most to make the research process much more enjoyable.

• 61 psychology topics to research in 2024

Need some extra help starting your psychology research project on the right foot? Explore our list of 61 cutting-edge, in-demand psychology research topics to use as a starting point for your research journey.

• Psychology research topics for university students

As a university student, it can be hard to pick a research topic that fits the scope of your classes and is still compelling and unique. 

Here are a few exciting topics we recommend exploring for your next assigned research project:

Mental health in post-secondary students

Seeking post-secondary education is a stressful and overwhelming experience for most students, making this topic a great choice to explore for your in-class research paper. 

Examples of post-secondary mental health research topics include:

Student mental health status during exam season

Mental health disorder prevalence based on study major

The impact of chronic school stress on overall quality of life

The impacts of cyberbullying

Cyberbullying can occur at all ages, starting as early as elementary school and carrying through into professional workplaces. 

Examples of cyberbullying-based research topics you can study include:

The impact of cyberbullying on self-esteem

Common reasons people engage in cyberbullying 

Cyberbullying themes and commonly used terms

Cyberbullying habits in children vs. adults

The long-term effects of cyberbullying

• Clinical psychology research topics

If you’re looking to take a more clinical approach to your next project, here are a few topics that involve direct patient assessment for you to consider:

Chronic pain and mental health

Living with chronic pain dramatically impacts every aspect of a person’s life, including their mental and emotional health. 

Here are a few examples of in-demand pain-related psychology research topics:

The connection between diabetic neuropathy and depression

Neurological pain and its connection to mental health disorders

Efficacy of meditation and mindfulness for pain management

The long-term effects of insomnia

Insomnia is where you have difficulty falling or staying asleep. It’s a common health concern that impacts millions of people worldwide. 

This is an excellent topic because insomnia can have a variety of causes, offering many research possibilities. 

Here are a few compelling psychology research topics about insomnia you could investigate:

The prevalence of insomnia based on age, gender, and ethnicity

Insomnia and its impact on workplace productivity

The connection between insomnia and mental health disorders

Efficacy and use of melatonin supplements for insomnia

The risks and benefits of prescription insomnia medications

Lifestyle options for managing insomnia symptoms

The efficacy of mental health treatment options

Management and treatment of mental health conditions is an ever-changing area of study. If you can witness or participate in mental health therapies, this can make a great research project. 

Examples of mental health treatment-related psychology research topics include:

The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for patients with severe anxiety

The benefits and drawbacks of group vs. individual therapy sessions

Music therapy for mental health disorders

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for patients with depression 

• Controversial psychology research paper topics

If you are looking to explore a more cutting-edge or modern psychology topic, you can delve into a variety of controversial and topical options:

The impact of social media and digital platforms

Ever since access to internet forums and video games became more commonplace, there’s been growing concern about the impact these digital platforms have on mental health. 

Examples of social media and video game-related psychology research topics include:

The effect of edited images on self-confidence

How social media platforms impact social behavior

Video games and their impact on teenage anger and violence

Digital communication and the rapid spread of misinformation

The development of digital friendships

Psychotropic medications for mental health

In recent years, the interest in using psychoactive medications to treat and manage health conditions has increased despite their inherently controversial nature. 

Examples of psychotropic medication-related research topics include:

The risks and benefits of using psilocybin mushrooms for managing anxiety

The impact of marijuana on early-onset psychosis

Childhood marijuana use and related prevalence of mental health conditions

Ketamine and its use for complex PTSD (C-PTSD) symptom management

The effect of long-term psychedelic use and mental health conditions

• Mental health disorder research topics

As one of the most popular subsections of psychology, studying mental health disorders and how they impact quality of life is an essential and impactful area of research. 

While studies in these areas are common, there’s always room for additional exploration, including the following hot-button topics:

Anxiety and depression disorders

Anxiety and depression are well-known and heavily researched mental health disorders. 

Despite this, we still don’t know many things about these conditions, making them great candidates for psychology research projects:

Social anxiety and its connection to chronic loneliness

C-PTSD symptoms and causes

The development of phobias

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) behaviors and symptoms

Depression triggers and causes

Self-care tools and resources for depression

The prevalence of anxiety and depression in particular age groups or geographic areas

Bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder is a complex and multi-faceted area of psychology research. 

Use your research skills to learn more about this condition and its impact by choosing any of the following topics:

Early signs of bipolar disorder

The incidence of bipolar disorder in young adults

The efficacy of existing bipolar treatment options

Bipolar medication side effects

Cognitive behavioral therapy for people with bipolar 

Schizoaffective disorder

Schizoaffective disorder is often stigmatized, and less common mental health disorders are a hotbed for new and exciting research. 

Here are a few examples of interesting research topics related to this mental health disorder:

The prevalence of schizoaffective disorder by certain age groups or geographic locations

Risk factors for developing schizoaffective disorder

The prevalence and content of auditory and visual hallucinations

Alternative therapies for schizoaffective disorder

• Societal and systematic psychology research topics

Modern society’s impact is deeply enmeshed in our mental and emotional health on a personal and community level. 

Here are a few examples of societal and systemic psychology research topics to explore in more detail:

Access to mental health services

While mental health awareness has risen over the past few decades, access to quality mental health treatment and resources is still not equitable. 

This can significantly impact the severity of a person’s mental health symptoms, which can result in worse health outcomes if left untreated. 

Explore this crucial issue and provide information about the need for improved mental health resource access by studying any of the following topics:

Rural vs. urban access to mental health resources

Access to crisis lines by location

Wait times for emergency mental health services

Inequities in mental health access based on income and location

Insurance coverage for mental health services

Systemic racism and mental health

Societal systems and the prevalence of systemic racism heavily impact every aspect of a person’s overall health.

Researching these topics draws attention to existing problems and contributes valuable insights into ways to improve access to care moving forward.

Examples of systemic racism-related psychology research topics include: 

Access to mental health resources based on race

The prevalence of BIPOC mental health therapists in a chosen area

The impact of systemic racism on mental health and self-worth

Racism training for mental health workers

The prevalence of mental health disorders in discriminated groups

LGBTQIA+ mental health concerns

Research about LGBTQIA+ people and their mental health needs is a unique area of study to explore for your next research project. It’s a commonly overlooked and underserved community.

Examples of LGBTQIA+ psychology research topics to consider include:

Mental health supports for queer teens and children

The impact of queer safe spaces on mental health

The prevalence of mental health disorders in the LGBTQIA+ community

The benefits of queer mentorship and found family

Substance misuse in LQBTQIA+ youth and adults

• Collect data and identify trends with Dovetail

Psychology research is an exciting and competitive study area, making it the perfect choice for projects or papers.

Take the headache out of analyzing your data and instantly access the insights you need to complete your next psychology research project by teaming up with Dovetail today.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Student motivation to study music and sport – a comparison between study subjects and study programs on intrinsic and extrinsic motivational aspects.

• Freiburg Institute of Musicians’ Medicine, University of Music Freiburg, Freiburg University Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg Center for Music Research and Teaching, Freiburg, Germany

Instruction: In both subjects, music and sport, the engagement with the subject content – learning an instrument or training in a sports club – usually begins in early childhood. This makes these subjects special and similar. It is therefore of interest to examine the motivation for choosing music and sport as subjects for university study.

Methods: In the present investigation, 151 students at the beginning of their university studies were examined. Among these were 110 music university students in the Bachelor of Music (B.Mus.) and music teacher education program, and 41 sport university students in the Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) and sport teacher education program. The study contained a custom-made questionnaire on sociodemographic data, questions on study choice alternatives and biographical musical or sporting background, as well as two standardized questionnaires on motivation for enrollment (STUWA) and on aspects that are important for the profession.

Results: Music and sport students were at a rather high and similar level of intrinsic motivation to study their subjects. However, materialistic goals motivated the teacher education students more than the bachelor’s students with an artistic program. The difference between the study programs was also found in the context of extrinsic-social motivation, where the teacher training students answered with higher scores. With regard to socially-induced motivation, it was shown that music students and sport teacher education students were more socially induced to study the respective subject compared to the general student population. With regard to uncertainty when choosing a course, it was found that Bachelor of Music students were more certain that they wanted to study exactly their particular subject. The ages at which music and sport were started in childhood were similar, but the first-year music students were younger than the sport students were. Compared to sports students, music students decided their area of study earlier, and bachelor’s students in music in particular had fewer alternative study options than sports students.

Discussion: The results provide a differentiated picture of student motivation to study and thus allow a deeper insight into the subject cultures of music and sport. They also open up opportunities for follow-up studies in comparison with other study subjects and programs.

1 Introduction

1.1 clarification of the terms motivation and study motivation.

The term motivation originates mainly from the psychology of learning and motivation and is often used in the context of learning motivation ( Myers and DeWall, 2023 ). Motivational and learning psychology asks what drives a person, where this drive comes from, what a person wants to achieve with their behavior and what it is aimed at ( Bak, 2019 ). Reasons for motivation can be differentiated between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Extrinsic motivation , on the other hand, describes the desire to perform a certain behavior because of expected rewards or the threat of punishment ( Myers and DeWall, 2023 ). While intrinsic motivation thus arises from a person’s inner desires and needs, external motivation is initiated by environmental factors and relevant reference persons and groups. The differentiation between intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors plays a central role in the discussion about university students’ motivation for study in higher education.

According to Großmann (2016) , many research studies analyzing study motivation use this term without precisely defining the underlying construct and its components. Motivation is understood and used in different ways in relation to the choice of a university subject. In German-speaking discourse, the terms study motivation [Studienmotivation], study choice motivation [Studienwahlmotivation] or career choice motivation [Berufswahlmotivation] are used quite synonymously. In the English-language literature, on the other hand, the focus tends to be on careers with terms such as career decision and career choice .

In his reflections on study motivation, Großmann (2012) assumed that students pursue certain goals and interests with their studies. He defines study motivation as a “set of specific attitudes and expectations that are linked to completing a university degree” ( Großmann, 2012 , p. 447).

In this publication, we use the term study motivation as a general concept to describe the motivation of university students (see also Grüneberg and Süß, 2023 ). Following Großmann (2016) , we understand study motivation as a hypothetical construct that explains the type of action and behavior in the context of studying. In this sense, it means the individual attitude toward studying as well as the decision to study in general, the motivation for enrollment and the decision for a particular subject or study program at a particular university ( Großmann, 2016 ).

1.2 Study motivation in higher education research

Study motivation is currently being discussed in several fields of higher education research. On the one hand, study motivation plays a prominent role with regard to changing subjects or student drop-out from higher education institutions ( Heublein, 2014 ; Heublein and Schmelzer, 2018 ; Messerer et al., 2023 ). In addition, the relation between motivation and academic success ( Heinze, 2018 ; Hillebrecht, 2019 ; Baalmann and Speck, 2020 ; Leichner et al., 2022 ; Stellmacher and Paetsch, 2023 ) or the link between study motivation and study satisfaction ( Künsting and Lipowsky, 2011 ; Kaub et al., 2012 ) or teacher health ( Schüle et al., 2014 ; Janke, 2020 ; Merkle et al., 2023 ) has been investigated in numerous studies. Also, study motivation subsumes individual orientations and motivations for starting a university degree ( Bornhorst et al., 2020 ) or choosing a particular subject ( Piroth, 2013 ). On this basis, Großmann (2016) emphasizes that study motivation is an important model for researching subject cultures [ Fachkulturen ] – such as music or sport.

Subject-specific differences are evident in a survey among university students in Germany on their values, goals and perspectives ( Hinz, 2022 ). The students were asked about their motives for choosing their study subject, revealing a gender-specific difference: compared to women, men attached more importance to good earning potential (men 41% vs. women 32%) and career opportunities (men 40% vs. women 31%) when choosing a degree course. Women, on the other hand, attached much more importance to personal interest (women 59% vs. men 50%) as a motive for choosing a subject than male students. There were also differences between the study subjects. When choosing a course of study, personal interest was particularly frequent as a major reason among university students of the humanities (78%), cultural (75%), social (67%), natural (59%) and linguistic/literary sciences (54%) as well as among university students of medicine (61%). Only for law (51%), engineering/computer science (48%) and economics students (44%) earning opportunities were the more important motives. Among the humanities students, for example, only 24% stated that good earning opportunities were a very important reason for their choice of degree course. No conclusions were drawn from the results of the study about music and sports university students.

In a qualitative study on career orientation patterns and the study motivation of bachelor university students from different study programs and subjects, Bornhorst et al. (2020) found a high level of intrinsic study motivation with a high level of commitment to the subjects over all university students. It became clear that biographically based career goals – based on experience, internships, etc. – were already formed before the start of the degree course and were specifically implemented by the students during their studies. The authors ( Bornhorst et al., 2020 ) also emphasize that the issues surrounding the topic of study motivation are highly complex and that the educational biography, the identity formation process of the students and their social background should also be taken into account. Janke et al. (2023) pursued a quantitative approach to recording study motivation and therefore developed a reliable and valid instrument to measure different facets of study motivation and motivation for enrollment (STUWA: Ein multifaktorielles Inventar zur Erfassung von Studienwahlmotivation, Janke et al., 2023 ). Conventional inventories often focus on specific study programs (e.g., FEMOLA: Fragebogen zur Erfassung der Motivation für die Wahl des Lehramtsstudiums; [Questionnaire to assess motivation for choosing a teaching degree program] Pohlmann and Möller, 2010 ). The STUWA questionnaire, on the other hand, is a generalized multifactorial scale for recording study motivation that can be used in all subjects and in various study programs. This enables group comparisons to be made between students of different subjects with regard to their study motivation. Thus, Janke et al. (2023) found interesting results in group comparisons between business students and student teachers: Teacher education students reported an extrinsic-social and socially induced study motivation, while business students in comparison to other students reported higher extrinsic-materialistic motivation for enrollment. Student teachers decided to study teacher education and to become a teacher because they were encouraged by friends, family, or colleagues (socially induced motivation). The compatibility of family and career was also important to them when making their decision. They want to have time for family, friends, and hobbies in addition to their career (extrinsic-social motivation). Business students, on the other hand, showed that extrinsic-materialistic aspects such as a good income later on and financial security seemed to be more important to them.

1.3 Study motivation of teacher education students

As mentioned above, teaching is a well-researched profession and there are a large number of studies on the motivation of prospective teachers and their decision to study to become a teacher ( Pohlmann and Möller, 2010 ; Rothland, 2014 ; Besa, 2018 ; Grüneberg and Süß, 2023 ; Janke et al., 2023 ). As an example, the publication by Grüneberg and Süß (2023) is examined in more detail. The authors found that an intrinsic study motivation was the main reason of first-semester university students to choose a teacher education program. The university students want especially to support children and young people in their personal development and education. Thus, most student teachers are united by a high level of professional interest. The authors also compared the results of intrinsic motivation in relation to the type of school, showing that a strong subject orientation prevails among prospective secondary school teachers. On the other hand, prospective primary school teachers are more interested in the pedagogical-educational challenge of working with students at school. These results can also be seen in the study by Retelsdorf and Möller (2012) , where they analyze the association between the education study program – primary and secondary school – and the motivation for choosing teacher education. They observed that subject interest was strongly related to choosing a teacher program for secondary school, whereas educational interest was rather related to prospective teachers in elementary school. As a further result, Grüneberg and Süß (2023) found that student teachers tended to agree with the statements that the teaching profession offers good employment opportunities, flexibility, free time, and compatibility with family life. Against this background, the majority of students in the study stated that they were quite sure about their decision to study teacher education. This is also reflected in the answer to the question about alternatives: teacher education is the preferred choice of study for 87.8% of the students asked.

In addition to the quantitative part of their study, Grüneberg and Süß (2023) also conducted interviews with student teachers about their study motivation. When asked about the main reasons for their choice of study and their motivation to study, the participants primarily responded with professional status and ideal career “teacher” as well as subject interest, study content, and exchange of content. They also cite practical teaching experience during their studies as a further reason for motivation.

Only a few studies in teacher education deal with study motivation in individual subject cultures, such as Piroth (2013) with the study motivation and career expectations of students in Protestant religious and community education, or Fischer et al. (2019) , who compare sport and mathematics students. As part of our study, we were interested in how motivation to study behaves in specific subject cultures such as music and sport. Previous studies on the fields of sport and music are therefore described below.

2 Subject-specific perspectives on music and sport

2.1 studying sport.

Sport students bring with them a wide range of biographical experiences in sports – from school to extracurricular activities. Sports socialization, which is often linked to sport clubs, usually begins very early, sometimes as early as preschool age ( Lüsebrink et al., 2014 ; Wyllemann et al., 2020 ). Klinge (2002) thus speaks of an athlete or a sport habitus acquired prior to studying. In his model of the professional biographical development of sport teachers, Miethling (2018) attributes the development of sporting lifestyles to childhood and adolescence. In this phase, habitual patterns are acquired through milieu-specific sporting and educational experiences.

Wylleman (2019) illustrated the career of athletes in his holistic athletic career (HAC) model, defining six stages of development, each stage consisting of different successive phases. Thus, the model reflects the development of athletes’ careers on a sporting, psychological, psychosocial, academic/professional, financial, and legal level of development. The discourse on the decision to study sport takes place at the point from phase two to phase three – the athletic level between development to mastery stage. Wylleman (2019) gives an approximate age of between 18 and 20 years for this psychosocial transition between adolescence and young adulthood in his model. On an academic and vocational level, the transition is accompanied by a change from school to university and thus from secondary to higher education. Peers, coaches, parents, teammates, and sports students are important in this process on a psychosocial level.

While Wylleman (2019) approaches the biography of athletes on a conceptual level, Volkmann (2008) chooses an empirical approach in her work on the biographical knowledge of teachers. She examines the influence of biographical experiences in the subject of sport. With her qualitative analysis, she was able to show that biographical knowledge has a major influence on the professionalization process of sport teachers and its progression. She reconstructed from her data that personal sporting activities and enthusiasm for sport are of great importance for the career choice. The practical sports components of the degree course are just as important for teachers working in the profession ( Volkmann, 2008 ).

In their study, Streblow and Brandhorst (2018) looked at prospective teachers in sport and were able to differentiate between three types of students based on their motives for choosing teacher education. When comparing the three types, Streblow and Brandhorst (2018) found no difference in study motivation between sport students and non-sport students. However, they found a significant correlation between the study motivation and the chosen teaching education program. There is a comparatively high proportion of extrinsically motivated students among elementary school student teachers, while a high proportion of intrinsically motivated students predominate among secondary school student teachers. This result complements the studies by Retelsdorf and Möller (2012) and Grüneberg and Süß (2023) on a subject-specific level.

Other studies also deal with the subject-specific motivation of university students. Fischer and Bisterfeld (2015) compared the motivation of sport students for choosing a degree in teacher education (subject-specific) with the motivation of student teachers in general (non-subject-specific). The analysis of the findings reveals that the intrinsic motivation factors with educational interest, ability beliefs, and subject-specific interest are more prevalent than the extrinsic ones. Overall, the subject-specific comparison shows only minor differences: personal career-related ability beliefs and subject-specific interest are less relevant for sport students than for student teachers of other subjects ( Fischer and Bisterfeld, 2015 ).

Fischer and Golenia (2021) also investigated the question of why physical education students decide to choose teacher education as a study program. The four profiles identified each relate to a characteristic bundle of motivations and show that sport students are a heterogeneous group in terms of their decision-making motivation. This study ( Fischer and Golenia, 2021 ) complements previous findings that have identified the intrinsic pedagogical motivation of sport students and student teachers in general as the main decision-making motivation.

2.2 Studying music

An analogy between sport and music exists due to the extensive biographical experiences in both areas, which has already been established in many contexts, e.g., in the context of biographical work ( Immerz and Tralle, 2022 ). It can therefore be assumed that childhood and adolescent experiences form a kind of “background foil” [Hintergrundfolie] ( Volkmann, 2008 , p. 14) for music students as well as sport students even before they begin their studies.

In her biographical study of the lifespan development of professional musicians, Manturzewska (2006) describes six phases with typical developmental tasks, the first three of which are particularly relevant in the context of “music studies.” The development of sensory, emotional, and aesthetic sensitivity to music begins from birth to age 5 (phase 1). The intensive development of musical skills on the instrument (phase 2: 6–14 years) is followed by the development of the artist’s personality and self-confidence as an artist (phase 3: 15–25 years). This phase usually includes the decision to study and the choice of subject and study program. Against this background, Nagel (1988) has pointed out that early specialization in one instrument is desirable for technical and artistic proficiency and necessary for becoming “a serious musician” ( Nagel, 1988 , p. 74). However, this early specialization and focus on a career in music could also limit and narrow opportunities to explore non-musical alternatives. In most education systems, the first important phase of musical development ends with the school-leaving certificate at the transition from adolescence to early adulthood and finally leads to the vocational orientation phase ( Spahn, 2015 ).

This transition between school and university or university of music has been examined in some studies from the students’ perspective. Váradi et al. (2024) interviewed students in the final year of a vocational secondary school with music specialization about their career choice and professional motivation. They found that the main subject teacher – the instrument teacher – plays a decisive role and often influences the personal path of the students and the professional career. The immediate family environment, social ties, belonging to the community, and the idealization of the profession also proved to be possible motivations for a career in music. Guan et al. (2022) also investigated the mechanism between the school music context and the music career choice of young people in secondary school. They found that school music context significantly predicted the choice of a career in music. Furthermore, music motivational beliefs (i.e., music value and music interest) served as a mediator during this path and partially explained the psychological process between school music context and music career choice. Rickels et al. (2019) carried out a comparative analysis of influences on choosing a music teaching occupation. Their purpose was to compare motivations and influences of high school music students who express an interest in a career in music and those who do not. They compared three occupation groups using a discriminant analysis of the resulting components and found differences between the groups pursuing music teaching, other music, and other non-music. Four components were identified that could be considered as potential archetypes in future research considering selectors: full immersion musician/leader, full immersion teachers, certain aspirational leader, family, and non-leader. The authors conclude that career choices (to pursue music teaching or other choices) are more multidimensional than accounted for in previous studies ( Rickels et al., 2019 ).

Other studies examined the perspective of music university students. Wang and Wong (2022) investigated a comprehensive cognitive motivation model and were able to prove that intrinsic motivation is an effective determinant of career intentions and decisions. The results show that cognitive factors, motivation, and environmental factors have different degrees of influence on students’ professional intentions and together influence students’ career intentions. Miksza et al. (2021) tested a theoretical model of a network of relationships among perceptions of competitiveness, perfectionism, teacher control, quality of motivation, and intentions to pursue a career in music. They found that the quality of motivation appears to be a good explanation for career endorsement, with intrinsic motivation strongly associated with higher intentions to pursue a music career. Path analyses showed that those with stronger career intentions also have stronger intrinsic motivation orientations. In their study, Von Georgi and Lothwesen (2010) investigated the question of whether music students at educational institutions with an artistic focus have increased competence and motivation to perform compared to students at other universities. Results show that the two scales of motivation and empathy can be interpreted as basic motivational factors for behavior and study. The dimension of motivation to study is formed by a fundamental attitude toward the general importance of music in personal experience, whereby music as a study interest moves strongly into the center of the motivational explanatory approach. Parkes and Jones (2012) investigated motivational constructs influencing undergraduate students’ choices to become classroom music teachers or music performers. Using stepwise multiple regression, the authors documented that attainment value, intrinsic interest value, and expectancy predicted 74% of the variance in whether students intended to choose a career teaching music. They found that expectancy, attainment value, ability perceptions, and intrinsic interest value explained 65% of the variance in whether students intended to choose a career in music performance.

While Parkes and Jones (2012) compare student music teachers with music performers, other studies refer only to the teaching profession with music as a subject. Neuhaus (2007) deals with the career choice process of student education teachers in music and found that music studies were chosen primarily out of an interest in the subject of music and the desire to become a teacher at public school. However, it did not play a role as an opportunity or alternative course of study; rather, the students consciously chose the study program. Weiß and Kiel (2010) also found that prospective music teachers to some extent rely on individual interests, expectations and associated professional demands when they decide to start a study as a teacher of music. Thereby, the subject-motivation of prospective teachers of music as a whole does not differ from that of other student teachers, but Weiß and Kiel (2010) found a reduced importance of the integration of work and family for the students of music. According to Thornton and Bergee’s (2008) study another finding can be noted: 56% of the participants stated that significant others, especially music teachers, who were involved in their lives had an influence on their decision to study music.

2.3 Specifics of music and sport studies

Music and sport are among the degree courses for which an entrance examination is required. As this can influence the motivation to study in the context of the present study, differences between music and sport will be briefly outlined here.

In the field of music, applicants for a bachelor degree (Bachelor of Music – B.Mus.) prepare mainly for an artistic examination in one main instrument, for example, violin, trumpet, or voice. In addition to this artistic focus, they are examined in the compulsory subject of piano as well as in the areas of music theory and ear training. The entrance examination for teaching education with music as a main subject is broader in scope. Beside their main instrument, applicants are tested in piano and singing as well as in music theory and ear training. They are also asked about their motivation and their pedagogical skills for studying to become a secondary school teacher.

In the field of sport, there is usually a joint examination for those interested in either the Sports Science degree program (Bachelor of Science – B.Sc.) or the teacher education program with sport as a teaching subject. Applicants are tested in five different sporting disciplines: athletics, swimming, apparatus gymnastics, games, and gymnastics. In each discipline, two to four sub-areas are tested. For example, basketball, handball, soccer, and volleyball are required in the discipline games . The whole examination lasts a full day.

In a comparison of the two areas of music and sport, it can be stated that the entrance examination in music is more specialized and focuses on musical-artistic performance in one or two main instruments, while in sport, many sub-disciplines must be equally mastered.

Figure 1 outlines the decision-making process and possible pathway for students to study music or sport, based on the literature described above. This graphic illustrates the complex issues surrounding the topic of students’ study motivation, also taking into account the educational biography, the identity formation process of the students and their social background. The following research questions focus on the area marked in red.

Figure 1 . Students’ path to study music and sport.

In summary of the previous literature it becomes clear that music and sport are supposedly special subjects that have received relatively little attention in previous research on study motivation from the university students’ perspective. Although there are comparisons between music and sport in other studies, the samples are quite different, for example in a recent study by Hatfield (2024) on determinants of motivation in world-class musicians and Olympic athletes, which relates to the continuation or termination of a successful career. Nevertheless, striking and contrasting motivational patterns were identified throughout the development of the six artists interviewed, which are also applicable to the question for study motivation in our investigation. It was found that the artists who continued their careers were largely driven by autonomous forms of motivation such as self-initiative, passion, curiosity, and a desire for endless discovery and aspiration. In contrast, controlled coercive forms of motivation drove the artists who gave up their careers.

Other studies refer only superficially to the subjects of music and sport or point to a loose connection between the subjects. Kaub et al. (2016) , for example, included the subject combination of art and music in their study, but subsumed it under the group of humanities scholars and linguists. In contrast, Glutsch et al. (2018) found that the subjects of sport, music, and art could not be assigned to any subject group that can be studied at German universities. The special feature and parallelism of the subjects is that they are probably associated with a “special talent” ( Glutsch et al., 2018 , p. 466). Against this background, Kaub (2015) poses the question of whether the subjects of music and sport are associated with more enthusiasm, interest or professional motivation than other subjects. This question leads to the research gap that this study aims to address.

2.4 Present study: aims and research questions

The aim of the present study is to investigate university students’ motivation for their decision to pursue their course of study, their motivation of enrollment, and their study major choice in music and sport. It also aims to identify similarities and differences between the subjects of music and sport. There are three main research questions:

1. What are students’ study motivations for pursuing music and sport studies?

2. Are there similarities and differences of study motivation between music and sport, and if so, what are they?

3. Are there differences in the students’ motivation to study music and sport compared to other subjects?

3.1 Study design

The study sample consisted of university students studying music at the University of Music Freiburg or sport at the University of Freiburg. Students at the beginning of their studies were asked about their motives and reasons for choosing their study subject or degree program.

The study was performed as an online survey 1 . At the University of Music Freiburg, the survey was distributed and carried out in on-campus lectures. At the end of the lectures, an experimenter explained the study procedure and information on data protection and provided the link to the study on screen. The sports university students were given the link by e-mail via the Head of the Chair of Sports Psychology at the Institute of Sport and Sports Science at the University of Freiburg. The mail also contained information about the study and data protection.

On the first online page, the students had to give their consent to participate in the survey. The ethics committee of the Freiburg University of Music gave ethical approval for the conduct of this study.

3.2 Participants

In this study, a total of 151 university students participated. The sample included 110 music university students and 41 sport university students ( Table 1 ). There were 51% female, 48% male and 1% diverse students without statistical distribution difference between music and sport university students. 70% of the students were in the first year of study and 30% in the second year and higher with no difference in distribution between the study subjects. The mean age of the participants studying music in the first year of study was 19.9 years (SD = 2.0 years, N  = 79). The mean age of first-year university students in sport was 20.9 years (SD = 2.2 years, N  = 26) with significant distribution difference between music and sport ( p  = 0.024). For the study program, 57% were in the Bachelor of Music (B.Mus.) and Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) study programs and 43% studied for secondary school teacher education in music and sport. The mean age when the university students started with instrumental practice or sport training was 6.5 years (SD = 2.7 years) without significant difference between the study subjects.

Table 1 . Sample characteristics.

3.3 Questionnaires

The study contained a custom-made questionnaire on sociodemographic data and two standardized questionnaires.

The questionnaire on socio-demographic data consisted of questions on age and gender, and questions about the study, i.e., the study program, the main instrument or sports area, and the semester of study. In addition, questions about biographical musical or sports background were included. For that, the students were asked at what age they started actively making music or practicing sport (see Table 1 ). They were also asked about their age when the decision for studying music or sport was made.

Furthermore, a question was added that relates to an alternative to the choice of this study. The item “Had you considered an alternative to studying music/sports?” was answered on a four-point scale with 1 (“no”) to 4 (“yes”).

3.3.1 Questionnaire on motivation for enrollment (STUWA)

The STUWA questionnaire used is a multi-factorial inventory to measure motivation for enrollment (STUWA: Ein multifaktorielles Inventar zur Erfassung von Studienwahlmotivation; Janke et al., 2023 ). Five of the scales were selected for the survey: (1) intrinsic, (2) extrinsic-materialistic, (3) extrinsic-social, (4) socially induced study motivation and (5) uncertainty of the study choice (see Table 2 ). Each of these subscales contains three items. The scale ranges from 1 (“not true at all”) to 7 (“completely true”).

Table 2 . Mean values of the STUWA scales by study subject and program.

(1) The intrinsic motivation scale includes items that relate to the content of the subject. University students assess whether they enjoy studying the content of the subject and find it interesting. They also assess whether the subject matches their abilities and talents. (2) The extrinsic-materialistic scale relates to financial aspects. University students assess whether they have chosen their studies in order to earn well, to be financially secure and to have a secure income later on. (3) The extrinsic-social scale focuses on the compatibility of work and family, friends, and hobbies. For example, university students are asked whether they chose their degree course in order to be able to look after their family alongside their career. (4) The socially induced scale refers to relevant other people who encouraged the university students to choose their course of study. The items ask about friends, family and people with whom the students have worked and who think they should choose their study degree program. (5) In addition to more established facets of study motivation, the STUWA also makes it possible to record the degree of uncertainty of the study choice. Students choose their degree course because they are not sure what career they would like to pursue later, they do not know exactly which degree course suits them, or they are generally unsure which degree course is right for them. For each scale, the mean scale values of a general student population taken from Janke et al. (2023) were used for a comparative analysis.

3.3.2 Aspects of importance in the profession

The students were asked to what extent certain aspects of their future profession are important to them. With the question “What is important to you for your future profession?” six aspects had to be rated on a four-point scale from 1 (“not important”) to 4 (“very important”). These aspects were: personal interest, good job prospects, good earning opportunities, career opportunities, social reputation, and the continuation of an already started education. This range of aspects was also used in other student surveys, and the results of some aspects in the general student survey 2022 ( Hinz, 2022 ) were used for comparison.

3.4 Statistics

The analyses were carried out with SPSS 29 (Armonk, NY: IBM Corp). Descriptive statistics include the mean value and the standard deviation (SD) of the mean. Nonparametric comparisons were examined using cross tables reporting Pearson’s χ 2 . T -Tests (single-sided) were used between the mean scale value and the value of the scale in the general student population. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used for the comparative analyses with all STUWA scales between the study subjects and program. On significance, post hoc analysis was performed using Tukey-HSD correction. The level of significance was set to p  = 0.05.

4.1 Motivation for enrollment (STUWA)

The mean values of the STUWA scales by study subject and study program are listed in Table 2 .

The results showed no significant difference among university students in the scale intrinsic motivation to study. However, the music students had significantly higher mean values compared to the mean value of this scale in the general student population.

There was a significant main effect in the mean values among university students for extrinsic-materialistic motivation to study, particularly between students in the bachelor and those in the teacher education program. Bachelor students in both study subjects had significantly lower scores than the teacher education students ( post-hoc , p  < 0.032) and compared to the general student population. The student teachers tended to show similar values to the general scale value.

In the extrinsic-social motivation scale, the significant main effect between the university students was similar to the extrinsic-materialistic scale especially caused by the differences between the bachelor and teacher education students ( post-hoc , p  < 0.033). While the bachelor students had a lower but similar mean value than the general student population, the teacher education students showed significantly higher values.

The mean values in the socially induced scale did not differ among the university students. However, with the exception of the sports students in the Bachelor of Science program, the values were significantly higher than in the general student population.

There was a significant main effect among university students in the scale of uncertain choice of study, which was mainly caused by the low mean value of the music students in the Bachelor of Music program ( post-hoc , p  < 0.015).

4.2 Biographical background and professional importance

The average age at which the decision for studying music or sport was made differed significantly among the university students [ Figure 2 ; F (3,147) = 12.5, p  < 0.001]. The music university students in the Bachelor of Music program were the earliest to make this decision ( post-hoc , p  < 0.013).

Figure 2 . Mean age of deciding to study music or sport by study subject and program (error bars: standard error of the mean. * p  < 0.05; ** p  < 0.02; *** p  < 0.01).

With regard to the question of whether the students had an alternative to study music or sport, there was a significant difference in the distribution of responses ( Figure 3 ; Chi 2  = 18.3, p  = 0.032). The music students in the Bachelor of Music program had less of an alternative in mind than the sport students in the Bachelor of Science program.

Figure 3 . Histogram of the answers to the question if the university students had an alternative to study music or sport.

When asked what is important to the students for their future profession, the students answered rather similarly, regardless of the study subject and study program ( Figure 4 ). Most of all, personal interest was rated highest of all with 78% being very important. Regarding the good earning opportunities, the music and sports students rated this aspect less important, with 14%. The only significant distribution differences in these job aspects between the university students in music and sport were found for career opportunities [Chi 2  = 37.2, p < 0.001] and in continuing an already started education [Chi 2  = 19.5, p  = 0.021]. The music students in the Bachelor of Music program and the sport students in the Bachelor of Science program rated career opportunities as more important (important to very important >60%) than the teacher education students (about 20%). The continuation of an already started education was most important for the music students in the Bachelor of Music program (important to very important 56%) in comparison with the other university students (<30%).

Figure 4 . Distribution of the answers to specific job-related aspects across all students to the question, What is important for the future profession?

5 Discussion

In this project, the study motivation of music and sport students at their beginning of their study at the University of Freiburg and the University of Music Freiburg was examined. The results showed that there are many similarities between music and sport university students, but also differences with regard to the study programs within the subjects.

5.1 Students’ study motivation

Both music and sport university students had a similarly high intrinsic study motivation. The level of intrinsic motivation seems to underline their passion and commitment to their respective field. This result is in line with the findings of Bornhorst et al. (2020) on high study motivation over all university students with a high level of commitment to the subject. It was found in our study that the intrinsic motivation of sports students was similar to that of the general student population whereas that of the music students was higher. Other studies have also shown high levels of intrinsic motivation in sport students ( Fischer and Bisterfeld, 2015 ; Fischer and Golenia, 2021 ), which is particularly pronounced in teacher training students for secondary school ( Retelsdorf and Möller, 2012 ; Streblow and Brandhorst, 2018 ; Grüneberg and Süß, 2023 ) and corresponds therefore partly to the sample in this study. Studies among music university students show that intrinsic motivation is an effective determinant of career intentions and decisions ( Wang and Wong, 2022 ; Hatfield, 2024 ) and is strongly associated with higher intentions to pursue a music career ( Miksza et al., 2021 ), which could explain the higher intrinsic motivation.

In terms of extrinsic-materialistic motivation, a difference is particularly evident between the different study programs. Thus, materialistic goals motivated the teacher training students more than the bachelor students in the artistic-oriented study program. In this case, the student teachers seem to correspond to type 3, according to Bornhorst et al. (2020) , who increasingly cite external study motivations such as a good income and a permanent position. Nevertheless, these teacher training students differ greatly from other groups, such as business students, who choose their studies out of an extrinsic-materialistic motivation to a much greater extent than students of other subjects ( Janke et al., 2023 ). On the other hand, it is interesting to note that a lucrative future played less a role for the bachelor students in music and sport equally. This finding can possibly be explained by the prospects of the two future professions. Despite the different requirements in the subjects of music and sport, the teaching profession is a clearly defined field of activity with a manageable structure, secure career prospects and a regular income. This result presumably reflects the desire of student teachers for financial security. However, the professional field and area of activity following a bachelor degree in music and sport is less clearly defined compared to the teaching profession. It can only be assumed that the students are aware of this uncertainty, have nevertheless decided to study music and sport, and are open to various career prospects. It can be stated that the differentiation of materialistic goals between teacher training students and bachelor students provides important insights into the different priorities and professional expectations within the two subjects.

The difference between study programs was also found for the extrinsic-social scale where the teacher training students answered with higher scores regarding the wish to support a private and a family life with the future profession. This is consistent with the results of Grüneberg and Süß (2023) and Janke et al. (2023) , in which student teachers stated that the compatibility of family and career was important to them and that the teaching profession offered good employment opportunities, flexibility, free time, and compatibility with family life. Weiß and Kiel (2010) found that the integration of work and family was less important for student teachers of music, but this is not reflected in our data as a subject-specific difference between music and sport and students of other subjects. It seems that the teacher students like to see a secure future and regard the teaching profession as such, where the bachelor students did not foresee the upcoming profession and initially the study itself was the main and most important motivational target.

With regard to socially induced study motivation, it was shown that music students and sports teacher training students were more socially induced to study their subject compared to the general student population. This high socially induced study motivation was also reported by student teachers in other studies ( Pohlmann and Möller, 2010 ; Janke et al., 2023 ), which means that these students decided to study because they were encouraged by friends, family, or colleagues. This seems to be an important result, especially for music-related studies, as it is known from other studies that instrumental teachers and the family environment ( Váradi et al., 2024 ), the school music context in secondary school ( Guan et al., 2022 ), or music teachers as relevant others ( Thornton and Bergee, 2008 ) can influence the decision to study music. In addition to the musical and sporting basics and skills that must be learned for the two subjects, these relevant others also seem to be decisive in the biographical path of students and ultimately their choice of study.

In this regard, the scale uncertainty of the study choice showed that the Bachelor of Music students were less uncertain that they wanted to study exactly this subject than the other students of the sample. However, student education teachers in music indicate more uncertainty with regard to their choice of study compared to student teachers of other subjects ( Janke et al., 2023 ). It suggests that this is not a music-specific phenomenon, but could be a special characteristic of the Bachelor of Music degree program. In terms of data, these students choose their degree course because they are sure that they want to make music – highly intrinsically motivated – and want to specialize in their instrument or with their voice, and because they know that this study program suits them and is right for them. Both the differences in extrinsic-social motivation and certainty in course choice, provide insight into how social contexts and prior experiences influence students’ academic decisions.

5.2 Biographical background in music or sport and importance in the profession

Based on the literature, a wide range of biographical experiences ( Volkmann, 2008 ; Lüsebrink et al., 2014 ; Bornhorst et al., 2020 ; Immerz and Tralle, 2022 ) and an early and intensive involvement with music ( Nagel, 1988 ; Manturzewska, 2006 ; Spahn, 2015 ) and sport ( Klinge, 2002 ; Miethling, 2018 ; Wylleman, 2019 ; Wyllemann et al., 2020 ) can be identified as similarities between both areas. These aspects can also be found in the data of our study.

On the one hand, it was shown that both groups – music and sport students – began their activities with instrumental practice or sport training at around the same time, at an average age of 6.5 years. Thus, it can be assumed that these activities are related to the school age in the German school system and that the transition from kindergarten and entry into primary school is therefore framed by extracurricular activities such as instrumental lessons or joining a sports club. On the other hand, there is an interesting difference in terms of age and entry to university or university of music. Music university students in their first year of study are on average 1 year younger than sports university students. However, they were not only younger when they started their studies, but also decided to study music much earlier than the sports students did. What music and sport have in common is that many years of previous experience and intensive preparation are necessary in order to be able to make the decision to study music or sport in order to get a place at university or university of music. The “staircase” in Figure 2 indicates that a high degree of specialization is taking place in music, which is reflected in the early decision to study. This is probably also related to the format of the entrance exam in both subjects. While an enormous range is tested in sport for Bachelor of Science and teacher training, the examination format for a teacher education degree in music focuses on far fewer areas. The specialization on one main instrument becomes very clear in relation to the Bachelor of Music degree course. These findings that music students show less uncertainty in their choice of major and make this decision at a younger age compared to sport students enrich the understanding of the academic cultures of music and sport, but also suggest potential areas for future comparative studies with other study programs and disciplines.

In the question of whether the university students had an alternative to study music or sport, it was found that the music students in the Bachelor of Music had fewer alternatives in mind than the sport students in the Bachelor of Science. Following Nagel’s (1988) argument, an early specialization in one instrument and an early focus on a career in music can also limit non-musical alternatives in the study choice. This is also reflected in this data for Bachelor of Music students in their early decision to study. Based on the data available, it is not possible to answer whether the students have decided on a profession for which they are aiming with their studies or have merely decided to study and are open to alternative career options ( Neuhaus, 2007 ; Parkes and Jones, 2012 ; Rickels et al., 2019 ). When asked about study alternatives, the results for student education teachers in music and sport differ from those in other subjects. For teacher training students of all subjects, nearly 88% said that teacher education is the preferred choice of study ( Grüneberg and Süß, 2023 ) and also in music, students consciously chose music as a teaching subject ( Neuhaus, 2007 ). The data of this study is less homogeneous. While 51% of students in the music teaching degree stated that they had more likely no or even no alternative, for teaching education in sport this figure was 35%. In contrast, there are almost 49% of university students with an alternative in music and as many as 65% of university students with an alternative in sport. One explanation here could also be the much broader focus in sport compared to the focus on one main instrument in music. However, for further statements as to whether these are subject-specific characteristics, further studies would have to be carried out.

Among the students’ answers as to what is important for their future profession, there is no difference concerning the study subject or study program. Most of all, personal interest was rated highest of all with 78% being very important. This was very similar to the answers of other students studying humanities (78%) and cultural sciences (75%) but different to law students (38%) and business science students (35%) ( Hinz, 2022 ). Regarding the good earning opportunities, the music and sports students rated this aspect less important, similar again with the students of cultural (15%) and literature sciences (18%), and in contrast to the law (51%) and engineering/computer science students (48%). This can also be seen in other studies with the STUWA ( Janke et al., 2023 ), in which business students choose their studies out of extrinsic-materialistic motivation with the aim of earning well later on, being financially secure, and having a good income.

5.3 Limitation and future research

The limitations of the study are mainly due to the relatively small sample size. Thus, the results and implications can only be generalized with reserve, especially as this was a group from one University of Music and one University.

There are numerous starting points for further studies. It would be interesting to differentiate more precisely between certain areas such as teaching education and bachelor degrees and possibly the academic and family background of university students in music and sport. The question of whether the subjects of music and sport are associated with more enthusiasm, interest, or professional motivation than other subjects ( Kaub, 2015 ) cannot be answered conclusively on the basis of the present data. However, there are indications that this is the case for music, especially for students on artistic degree courses. In this regard, an in-depth investigation of the study motivation of traditional and non-traditional students ( Brändle, 2014 ) in music-related degree programs could also be interesting.

Within the subject of music, future research on students’ motivation to study in relation to different musical specialties would certainly offer potential. This is particularly interesting in light of the changing musical landscape, the emergence of new professional fields and the increase in musicians’ portfolio careers. A comparison with other subjects would also be desirable. For this purpose, the STUWA questionnaire ( Janke et al., 2023 ), as inventory to measure study motivation, should also be used in other subjects and study programs in order to obtain comparative material. In addition to the university students who have decided to study music or sport, there are many teenagers and young adults who are intensively involved in music or sport and are very interested in these areas, but do not decide to study these subjects. It would be interesting to include this group in further studies in order to understand the reasons why young people choose another subject of study over music or sport.

6 Conclusion

In the present study, students’ motivation to study music and sport was examined and for the first time compared between the subjects and of different study programs within the subjects. The engagement with the subject content – learning an instrument or training in a sports club – begins early in childhood for students in both subjects. Another similarity is that music and sports students are equally or more intrinsically motivated than students in other subjects. What is particularly interesting, however, is that there are differences in the subjects depending on the study program, as the bachelor students in music (Bachelor of Music) and sport (Bachelor of Science) differ from the teacher education students in music and sport. Thus, extrinsic-materialistic and extrinsic-social motivation is higher among teacher training students than bachelor students. There is a subject-specific difference in the younger age of first-year-students in music, the earlier decision to study music and the fewer study alternatives of bachelor of music students. In addition to other studies on students’ motivation for study choice decision, their motivation of enrollment and their study major choice, the focus on the subjects of music and sport and the comparison provides interesting insights into these subject cultures.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The study has received a positive vote from the ethics committee of the University of Music Freiburg. Consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants.

Author contributions

AI: Conceptualization, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MN: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Project administration, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. JH: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. CS: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Supervision.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. We acknowledge support by the Open Access Publication Fund of the University of Freiburg.

Acknowledgments

We thank Prof. Dr. Jana Strahler, Head of the Chair of Sports Psychology at the Institute of Sport and Sports Science at the University of Freiburg, for her support in this study and Charlotte Eckler for proofreading the manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Heublein, U., and Schmelzer, R. (2018). “Die Entwicklung der Studienabbruchquoten an den deutschen Hochschulen” in Statistische Berechnungen auf der Basis des Absolventenjahrgangs 2016 (Hannover: DZHW-Projektbericht).

Hillebrecht, L. (2019). Studienerfolg von berufsbegleitend Studierenden. Entwicklung und Validierung eines Erklärungsmodells . Berlin: Springer.

Hinz, J.-R. (2022). EY Studierendenstudie 2022. Studentinnen und Studenten in Deutschland: Werte, Ziele und Perspektiven. Ernst and Young GmbH Wirtschaftsprüfungsgesellschaft. Available at: https://www.ey.com/de_de/news/2022-pressemitteilungen/08/den-krisen-zum-trotz-deutschlands-studierende-blicken-positiv-in-ihre-berufliche-zukunft (Accessed February 22, 2024).

Immerz, A., and Tralle, E.-M. (2022). Das Biographon. Ein Instrument zur künstlerischen Reflexion der musikalischen Biographie. DiMawe – Die Materialwerkstatt 4, 8–15. doi: 10.11576/dimawe-4898

Janke, S. (2020). Prospective effects of motivation for enrollment on well-being and motivation at university. Stud. High. Educ. 45, 2413–2425. doi: 10.1080/03075079.2019.1612353

Janke, S., Messerer, L. A., Merkle, B., and Krille, C. (2023). STUWA: Ein multifaktorielles Inventar zur Erfassung von Studienwahlmotivation. [STUWA: a multi-factorial inventory to measure motivation for enrollment]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie 37, 215–231. doi: 10.1024/1010-0652/a000298

Kaub, K. (2015). Person-Job Fit im Bereich der Lehrerbildung. Eine Analyse von Interessen- und Anforderungsprofilen. PhD dissertation, Universität des Saarlandes Saarbrücken

Kaub, K., Karbach, J., Biermann, A., Friedrich, A., Bedersdorfer, H.-W., Spinath, F. M., et al. (2012). Berufliche Interessensorientierungen und kognitive Leistungsprofile von Lehramtsstudierenden mit unterschiedlichen Fachkombinationen. Zeitschrift Pädagog. Psychol. 26, 233–249. doi: 10.1024/1010-0652/a000074

Kaub, K., Karbach, J., Spinath, F. M., and Brünken, R. (2016). Person-job fit in the field of teacher education – an analysis of vocational interests and requirements among novice and professional science and language teachers. Teach. Teach. Educ. 55, 217–227. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2016.01.010

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Künsting, J., and Lipowsky, F. (2011). Studienwahlmotivation und Persönlichkeitseigenschaften als Prädiktoren für Zufriedenheit und Strategienutzung im Lehramtsstudium. Zeitschrift Pädagog. Psychol. 25, 105–114. doi: 10.1024/1010-0652/a000038

Leichner, N., Prestele, E., Matheis, S., Weis, S., Schmitt, M., and Lischetzke, T. (2022). Lehramt-Studienwahlmotivation sagt Zielorientierungen vorher, pädagogisches Wissen und selbst eingeschätzte Kompetenz aber nur teilweise. Zeitschrift Pädagog. Psychol. 36, 1–16. doi: 10.1024/1010-0652/a000348

Lüsebrink, I., Messmer, R., and Volkmann, V. (2014). Zur Bedeutung von Biografie, Erfahrung und Narration für die Fallarbeit in der Sportlehrer/innenausbildung. Zeitschrift Sportpädagogische Forschung 2, 21–40. doi: 10.5771/2196-5218-2014-1-21

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Keywords: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, motivation for enrollment, university students, music, sport

Citation: Immerz A, Nusseck M, Hohagen J and Spahn C (2024) Student motivation to study music and sport – a comparison between study subjects and study programs on intrinsic and extrinsic motivational aspects. Front. Psychol . 15:1393339. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393339

Received: 28 February 2024; Accepted: 18 July 2024; Published: 13 August 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Immerz, Nusseck, Hohagen and Spahn. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Anna Immerz, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Perhaps you're looking to break into healthcare or supplement your psychology studies with information beyond the curriculum. These resources will acquaint students with how to read and comprehend journal articles, write and format papers using APA style, and learn about prominent figures and theories of psychology.

You'll also find insights that will help guide a career in healthcare. Learn which psychology career is right for you or see how you can apply your psychology studies to other fields of work.

Frequently Asked Questions

Learning how to read this type of writing is mostly a matter of experience, but a few simple tactics can make this process much easier.

• Understand the Structure of a Journal Article.
• Skim Through the Article.
• Take Notes on Each Section and Ask Questions.
• Identify Key Information.
• Note the Sources Cited.

Encyclopedias, online reference sites, lecture notes, supplementary course readings, or your own class textbooks are all reliable sources of information. If you're taking your search online, databases such as PsycINFO, PsycNET, and EBSCOhost are helpful for finding journal articles on your topic.

Having a good understanding of the human mind and behavior can help you excel in a wide variety of career paths, not just those pertaining to psychology. Some include advertising or marketing, social work, career counseling, and writing.

Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. It encompasses the biological influences, social pressures, and environmental factors that affect how people think, act, and feel.

The APA format is a set of citation and formatting guidelines developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). These guidelines provide writers with a consistent formula for acknowledging the works of others, notes on how to order, structure, and format a paper, as well as practical writing and grammar tips. APA format is used by students and professionals in a variety of disciplines, including business, economics, nursing, and, of course, psychology. 

A variable is something that can be changed or altered, such as a characteristic or value. Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing result in changes to another.

A correlation coefficient, often expressed as  r , indicates a measure of the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables.

Correlational studies are quite common in psychology, particularly because some things are impossible to recreate or research in a lab setting. Instead of performing an experiment, researchers may collect data to look at possible relationships between variables.

The abstract is the second page of a lab report or APA-format paper and should immediately follow the title page. Think of an abstract as a highly condensed summary of your entire paper. The purpose of your abstract is to provide a brief yet thorough overview of your paper.

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30 Books Every Psychology Student Should Read

Reviewed by David Krug David Krug is a seasoned expert with 20 years in educational technology (EdTech). His career spans the pivotal years of technology integration in education, where he has played a key role in advancing student-centric learning solutions. David's expertise lies in marrying technological innovation with pedagogical effectiveness, making him a valuable asset in transforming educational experiences. As an advisor for enrollment startups, David provides strategic guidance, helping these companies navigate the complexities of the education sector. His insights are crucial in developing impactful and sustainable enrollment strategies.

Updated: May 30, 2024 , Reading time: 9 minutes

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Data Points:

• Some 25% of Psychology baccalaureates attend graduate school * , while 18% pursue more education in fields other than Psychology. About 57% are workforce graduates.
• In 2021, 92% of Psychology students majors focused ** on General Psychology concentration. Others are Counseling Psychology (3%), Miscellaneous Psychology (2%), Clinical Psychology (1%), Educational Psychology (1%), and Other (1%).
• I n 2022, 2.84M Psychology graduates entered the workforce *** . This number shows a growth rate of 3.12% from the 2.75M employed Psychology majors in 2021.

Psychology students often go through numerous books to expand their understanding beyond classroom education. To help in selecting the best readings, we’ve compiled some of the best books offering comprehensive insights into Psychology. 

From timeless classics to science-based research, these reads will help in discovering new perspectives and ideas that enrich this dynamic field. Moreover, reading improves your analytical skills, reasoning, memory, and empathy. 

How Reading Shapes Psychological Understanding

Reading is crucial for Psychology students since it serves as a gateway to gaining more understanding of complexities of the human mind and behavior. Beyond the college curriculum, books are excellent tools for success in graduate study !

Psychology books offer different theories and case studies that will allow you to gain insights from psychologists, explore research findings, and be on top of breakthrough developments in the field .

30 Essential Reads for Psychology Students

The psychology book.

Authored by DK, this book offers a comprehensive overview of psychology in a visually engaging format. Its use of illustrations, diagrams, and clear explanations makes complex concepts easy to understand. It also touches on the evolution of psychology and the key contributors that helped in shaping the field. 

Thinking, Fast and Slow

This book is essential for psychology students, providing a foundational understanding of human cognition by knowing the differences between the two cognitive systems. Authored by Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman, the book offers important insights on decision-making and cognitive biases, fostering critical thinking and cognitive awareness among students.

Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion

This book provides a deeper understanding on the effects of influence, bridging theoretical understanding with practical applications in fields like marketing and sales. Delving into ethical dimensions, the book also reflects on the responsible application of psychological principles in various contexts, fostering ethical awareness.

The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat

Written by Oliver Sacks, this essential read offers real-life patient stories that show psychological theory in practice. The book centers on patient-centric empathy and challenging conventional perceptions, offering a better understanding of the human psyche and promoting values.

The Interpretation of Dreams

Establishing the foundation of psychoanalysis, this book is a must-read for those interested in the concepts of the unconscious mind and introspection. Through Sigmund Freud’s method of dream analysis, the book also highlights the importance of self-awareness and critical inquiry while discussing the evolution of psychological thought.

Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me)

Its authors, Carol Travis and Elliot Aronson, explore topics on cognitive dissonance, self-justification, and how they affect the human behavior. Sure to stimulate critical thinking, the book relates psychological topics in politics and personal development.  

The Social Animal

Diving through social psychology and its relevance every day, the Social Animal by Elliot Aronson is an essential read for psychology students. The book equips students with a better understanding of the human social behavior in fields such as Counseling, Social Work, And Organizational Psychology.

Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

Bridging theory to real-life practices, Angela Duckworth’s book tackles the psychological foundation of motivation, passion, and determination. The book offers practical guidance for personal and professional growth, equipping you with essential tools for success.

The Psychopath Tests

The Psychopath Test by Jon Ronson teaches us a lot about psychopathy and the tricky parts of diagnosing mental disorders . The book will help you reflect on how people are diagnosed, the ethical standard of diagnosing personality disorders, and real-life clinical practices.

Phantoms in the Brain

This book will take you on a fascinating journey through the mysteries of the mind, using patient stories and tests to show how your brain shapes your perception. Through the words of Blakeslee and Ramachandran, the book allows you to rethink consciousness and self-awareness while exploring how brain injuries affect the human experience.

The Tell-Tale Brain

V.S. Ramachandran’s engaging storytelling and case studies encourage psychology students to explore the areas of neuroscience and cognitive psychology. The book fosters critical thinking and challenges established psychological beliefs while offering practical insights applicable to clinical practice, perfect for aspiring clinicians and researchers.

The Power of Habit

The book by Charles Duhigg explains how habits form and influence our lives with practical insights applicable across various psychology domains. Through real-life examples, the author shows how understanding and changing habits can make a big difference and improve critical thinking.

Stumbling on Happiness

Authored by Daniel Gilbert, this book is an essential guide for psychology scholars exploring the psychology behind happiness and decision-making. Going beyond academic study, the book serves as a guide to understand the true source of happiness and how this helps in knowing yourself more.

The Psychopathology of Everyday Life

This book is a classic psychology text that explores the unfamiliar aspects of human behavior and revealing hidden psychological factors behind our actions and thoughts. Sigmund Freud’s examination of the Freudian slip provides deep insights into the unconscious mind, offering a foundational understanding on psychodynamic analysis and analytical thinking.

Emotions Revealed

With this crucial read, Paul Ekman explores the universal nature of emotions and how they influence behavior through facial expressions and micro expressions. The author’s expertise also helps students with practical tools for assessing emotions, enhancing therapeutic skills and fostering empathy.

The Blank Slate

Emphasizing the role of evolution and genetics in shaping human behavior, this book challenges the idea that humans are born as blank slates shaped solely by their environment. Steven Pinker’s accessible writing style and thought-provoking arguments make it a valuable resource for psychology students, sparking discussions on the relationship between biology and environment in shaping human nature.

A moving exploration of human resilience, this book chronicles the experiences of patients trapped in unresponsive states. Its writer, Oliver Sacks, skillfully links medical insights with compassionate storytelling while highlighting the power of hope and human connection in overcoming challenges.

David Brooks offers a captivating read, exploring human behavior through the fictional lives of Harold and Erica. With engaging storytelling and real-life scenarios, the book reveals the complexities of human behavior while providing readers with fresh insights into the social and psychological forces that shape lives. 

The Paradox of Choice

The book examines the impact of excessive choice on our lives, arguing that while more options may seem liberating, they often lead to anxiety and decision paralysis. Barry Schwartz offers practical strategies for navigating this paradox, encouraging readers to prioritize quality over quantity and simplifying decision-making for greater fulfillment in an overwhelming world.

The Brain That Changes Itself

The book explores neuroplasticity, revealing the brain’s remarkable ability to adapt and recover from disorders through engaging case studies. Norman Doidge introduces pioneering figures like Paul Bach-y-Rita and Michael Merzenich, offering insights that challenge conventional views on learning and rehabilitation.

The Happiness Hypothesis

Exploring the timeless concepts of happiness through engaging storytelling and humor, Jonathan Haidt’s book offers insights into human emotions and well-being. This book allows you to explore the meaning of life and contentment through its interdisciplinary approach combining psychology, philosophy, and scientific research.

Quiet… Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking

This books by Susan Cain explores the challenges introverts face in an extroverted society, highlighting their value and contributions. Whether introverted or extroverted, the author offers guidance in navigating today’s fast-paced world through narratives and academic insights.

The Age of Insight

Eric Kandel explores the captivating intersection between science, art, and the brain, revealing how creativity and emotions shape your understanding of the world. Through interdisciplinary insights, you’ll gain a deeper understanding of how the brain processes aesthetics and the fascinating connections between psychology, neuroscience, and art.

The Lucifer Effect

This book explores Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment and real-world events to reveal the psychological factors behind ordinary individuals committing crimes. The book also sheds light on moral disengagement and the influence of societal circumstances on human behavior, providing valuable insights on morality and ethics.

The Power of Now

Drawing from various spiritual beliefs, this book teaches readers to focus on the present moment for inner peace and fulfillment. Eckhart Tolle offers practical solutions for overcoming worries and ego identification, leading to self-discovery and a greater sense of satisfaction in life.

The Wisdom of Crowds

Through real-life examples, James Surowiecki’s fascinating book explores how groups can make remarkably accurate decisions, often outperforming individual experts. The book also shows how decentralized decision-making processes lead to precise outcomes, proving the power of collective intelligence.

Neuropsychological Assessment

This book serves as a key resource material for neuropsychology practitioners and psychology students. Through its authors, Muriel Deutsch Lezak, Diane B. Howieson, Erin D. Bigler, and Daniel Tranel, the book covers the assessment tools and techniques used in the accurate diagnosis and treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Descartes’ Error

Offering a fresh perspective on consciousness, Antonio Damasio challenges the idea of the mind-body split and argues that emotions play a crucial role in shaping rational thought. Through compelling case studies and neurological evidence, the book explains the interconnectedness of mind and body.

Pioneers of Psychology

The book offers an engaging exploration of the lives and contributions of key figures in psychology, blending historical context with personal stories. Through the vivid narratives of Raymond E. Fancher and Alexandra Rutherford, the book offers a glimpse into the evolution of psychological ideas and the advancement of the field.

How to Think Straight About Psychology

Keith E. Stanovich’s book offers a helpful guide for understanding psychological science, presenting clear explanations and debunking myths. The book’s engaging style makes it accessible to students and anyone interested in learning more about the workings of the human brain.

By choosing the books that suit your interest, including reading in your study routine, and doing supplementary readings, you’ll discover fresh insights that keep you on top of the trends in the Psychology field!

Aside from these books, you may supplement your reading by exploring nteractive Psychology apps and online tools . It is equally important to enroll in lifelong courses that keep you on top of the field !

Complementary instruction may include the use of apps. Check these out: Great Apps for Psychology Students

Additional Resources:

• Best Online Master of Psychology Graduate Schools
• Best Online Doctorate in Organizational Psychology Grad School Programs
• Best Online Doctor of Educational Psychology Degree Programs

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We’re certain of one thing—your search for more information on picking the best graduate degree or school landed you here. Let our experts help guide your through the decision making process with thoughtful content written by experts.

Joao Guassi Moreira – Information for Prospective Graduate Students

Dr. Joao Guassi Moreira – Information for Prospective Graduate Students

Website: https://psych.wisc.edu/staff/guassi-moreira-joao/

Current research : Dr. Guassi Moreira’s Computational Developmental Neuroscience Laboratory (CDNLab) studies the neurodevelopment of affective and social phenomena between late childhood and emerging adulthood. Currently, CDNLab is particularly interested in the development of emotion regulation and decision-making, and the nexus between the two. Some of the research questions we ask questions are ‘how does the brain change to help improve emotion regulation skills with development?’, ‘why are some emotion regulation strategies better or worse at promoting adaptive outcomes?’, ‘why do some individuals make risky decisions more than others when they become teenagers?’, ‘how do our mental models of specific others change with experience, and how does this impact how we spend our time with them?’. Research in the lab will combines traditional psychological methods with emergent neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI) and computational techniques, and will also support original quantitative methods research in service of answering core substantive research questions.

Communication Prior to Applying : I highly suggest prospective students who are planning to apply to my lab contact me via email ( [email protected] ) with their CV and brief description of the research they hope to pursue as a doctoral student. I am also happy to answer questions about my lab’s research via email. If the questions are not easily answered via email, then I may suggest a video call. I don’t privilege or prioritize applications from prospective students who have contacted me prior to applying or who have had a video call with me.  Instead, these calls are really for the prospective student to ask questions that impact whether they plan on applying.  I’d note that if you have questions about completing/submitting the UW Madison Psychology Department application itself, the best person to contact is our graduate coordinator, [email protected]

Areas I’m Willing to Advise Students in : Developmental, Social, Cognition and Cognitive Neuroscience

How I Evaluate Applicants : Like all faculty members in the Psychology Department, I evaluate prospective graduate students in a holistic manner. I therefore consider all the possible ways in which students’ applications materials can demonstrate excellence and a strong likelihood to thrive in the graduate program and in my lab.  As such, the information below should be treated as general rules of thumb rather than a highly proscriptive “checklist” of attributes that candidates must have in order to be considered for admittance to my lab.

• Academic & Research Preparation : Successful applicants to my lab will likely have an academic and research record of excellence and intellectual curiosity. I do not use strict cutoffs based on academic and research history but I do holistically evaluate the extent to which prospective students have shown previous academic excellence in the classroom and the lab (GPA, letters of recommendation, prior research experience, etc.). My lab uses tools/takes inspiration from a host of disciplines across, and outside of, psychology (e.g., computer science, statistics, biology, anthropology, sociology, economics), so I look for applicants who have coursework and research experience from other disciplines while acknowledging that students are not going to be experts in any one area. Finally, applicants will be best served if they have some kind of meaningful experience with programming and/or statistics. Students who do not have such experience are not necessarily at a disadvantage if they can demonstrate intellectual fearlessness, curiosity, and a strong work ethic to learn such skills in graduate school
• Research preparation : Previous research experience is strongly encouraged (e.g., as an undergraduate research assistant or post-bac staff member of a psychology or neuroscience lab). Applicants with more extensive experience (e.g., independent research project) will be prioritized.

Personal statement : Your personal statement should touch upon two keys points. (i) First , what kind of research program do you hope to pursue in graduate school? The purpose of a PhD program in experimental psychology is to train scientists on how to grow and develop an independent program of research as a lead investigator – i.e., become an expert in a topic by conducting research at the cutting edge of said topic. This is true regardless of whether the trainee wishes to pursue a career at a research institution, a teaching institution, industry, government, etc. The act of growing and refining this program of research endows one with expertise in various skills to succeed in any of these career paths (albeit by relying on different subsets of skills depending on the path). An applicant doesn’t need to have a precise and accurate roadmap of how they want to build a research program during graduate school, but they need to be curious enough to have ‘rough draft’ of said road map in place. This will allow me to assess fit with the lab, my mentorship style, and one’s intellectual curiosity and ambition.

(ii) Second , why do you want to pursue this work in my lab. How do the things that motivate you, questions that interest you, etc. align with my lab? Fit between a mentor and a mentee is so important for both mentee success and the health of the mentor’s lab. I want to take students that I am able to help put into a position to succeed. Outlining why you think my lab is an ideal place to kickstart your research program is going to help me evaluate fit and make sure that everyone comes away with a good deal. Beyond these two points, I make every effort to create a tight-knit and supportive lab environment where every lab member feels that they belong, and that their abilities and efforts are respected and nurtured by every other lab member.  As such, insights into your potential to contribute to such a community and to collaborate effectively would be valued in the personal statement.

• Other : I am looking to break into new areas and methods of research that may not be currently obvious from the lab’s publication record. This includes: (i) event segmentation in the context of emotion and emotion regulation, (ii) using Large Language Models (LLMs) and Natural Language Processing (NLP) to understand the mechanisms of human emotion regulation, (iii) naturalistic fMRI, (iv) developing and refining quantitative methods for psychologists and cognitive neuroscientists based around regularized regression, (v) ecological momentary assessment (EMA), and (vi) deep phenotyping, especially with fMRI data. If your research interests intersect with of the areas or methods above and the lab’s current research directions, please consider applying.

In classrooms, communities, and the carceral system, the Initiative for Race Research and Justice looks to disrupt educational inequities

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Aug 14, 2024, 10:43 AM

By Jenna Somers

“I believe Vanderbilt University should be at the forefront of helping our nation solve some of the most complex and pressing problems, including those related to race and racism,” said Rich Milner , Cornelius Vanderbilt Chair of Education at Peabody College of education and human development .

Milner began his career at Vanderbilt in 2001, becoming the first Black faculty member to earn tenure and promotion at Peabody College before accepting a new position in 2013. When Milner was recruited back to Vanderbilt in 2018, he recognized that the university was home to many faculty, students, and staff deeply engaged in studying race inside and outside the field of education. In hopes of building synergy among this community of researchers and practitioners, Milner founded the Initiative for Race Research and Justice (RRJ) that same year.

As a scholar of urban teacher education who studies social contexts, Milner understands how learning ecosystems, policies, and practices intersect with race. This understanding informed his leadership as president of the American Educational Research Association in 2022-2023. Through research, RRJ seeks to improve these ecosystems, policies, and practices and to disseminate resources and tools, in collaboration with community partners, to advance racial justice and disrupt systemic inequities across education landscapes.

To that end, RRJ leads and collaborates on several community-focused research initiatives, including studying STEM educational opportunities for people impacted by the carceral system, developing surveys and related tools to identify and support equity-minded school leaders, studying opportunity gaps in elementary school students’ literacy development, and fostering civil dialogue between and among Nashville high school students.

Assisting in overseeing these and similar initiatives is Dena Lane-Bonds, assistant director and research scientist at RRJ. She engages with campus and community partners to translate RRJ’s scholarship into practice.

“I enjoy working at a place that seeks to advance racial equity and is at the forefront of innovation, where we can see the tangible impact of our research in shaping narratives, advancing practice, and driving policy reform,” said Lane-Bonds. “Every day, I am inspired by our collective determination and contributions to dismantle systemic injustices and to create a more equitable society through cutting-edge research that paves the way for transformative action by addressing pressing local and national challenges in education.”

STEM Opportunities in Prison Se ttings

In the same year that Milner founded RRJ, the Brookings Institution reported that the 37208 ZIP code in North Nashville had the highest incarcerated population in the country at 14 percent, and 42 percent of children there lived in poverty.

Many students from underserved communities like 37208 face “opportunity gaps” in schools, as Milner writes about in his book, Start Where You Are, But Don’t Stay There: Understanding Diversity, Opportunity Gaps, and Teaching in Today’s Classr oom . “Opportunity gaps”—as opposed to what has historically been referred to as “achievement gaps”—are gaps in educational outcomes caused by systemic exclusion from critical classroom learning time.  Milner has found that exclusionary practices of the educational system, which disproportionately affect students of color, create “opportunity gaps.”

These exclusionary practices, known as “ push out ,” include the removal of students from classrooms, schools, and/or districts. Milner and colleagues have written about ways to help educators recognize how these practices may contribute to school-to-prison pipelines and how to build and implement restorative practices.  In an episode of The sySTEM Impacted podcast, produced by STEM Opportunities in Prison Settings (STEM-OPS), Milner also connects “pushout” and “opportunity gaps” in working together to create the school-to-prison pipeline that RRJ seeks to disrupt.

“We know from research that ‘push out’—which can eventually lead to prison—happens often in STEM-related courses in K-12 settings, so we were interested in learning more about STEM experiences in schools of formerly incarcerated people. We are attempting to identify practices and policies that may have contributed to these people’s successes, challenges, and eventual incarceration,” Milner said.

In addition to studying how to disrupt the school-to-prison pipeline, RRJ has been working to learn about higher education in prison STEM-related programs.

STEM-OPS is a five-year, $5.2 million project funded by the National Science Foundation’s Eddie Bernice Johnson INCLUDES National Network that culminated this summer. A co-PI on the grant, RRJ collaborated with organizations across the country, including Princeton University’s Prison Teaching Initiative , From Prison Cells to PhD , Operation Restoration , and the Education Development Center . Together, they sought to make STEM learning commonplace and successful in prisons and to explore ways to offer high-quality, culturally responsive STEM education to people who were previously denied access and impacted by the justice system. Importantly, people who have experienced incarceration were involved in all aspects of the project as valued colleagues and key stakeholders.

Through interviews with, and survey responses from, formerly incarcerated people the research team found numerous ways that higher education prison programs can better support students and impacted communities:

• Recruit and retain justice-impacted people into decision-making and teaching roles
• Offer mental health support in classrooms and communities
• Share the stories of justice-impacted people with P-12 students
• Systematically gather and study the stories of formerly incarcerated people
• Enhance learning technologies in prisons
• Create tools for students and decision makers to offer each other feedback
• Move beyond pre-packaged higher education programs
• Provide sustained support for English emergent/multilingual learners
• Focus on learning and development outside of traditional classroom spaces
• Cultivate and support instructor pedagogical development

Based on their findings, the STEM-OPS collaborative created evidence-based toolkits and resources for institutions interested in establishing STEM education programs in prisons. The team also worked with employers to connect formerly incarcerated job seekers with STEM employment opportunities.

“I had the opportunity to change the trajectory of my life from me being a convict to a scholar. My college career really took off at East Jersey State Prison,” said Dameon Stackhouse , a student in the Princeton University Prison Teaching Initiative.

Leaders for Equity in Educator Development

If “push out” in schools increases students’ chances of going to prison, then how can schools and educator preparation programs take proactive steps to reduce this trend and to create more equitable, engaged, and justice-centered educational environments? To answer that question, RRJ is collaborating with researchers at North Carolina State University and the University of South Florida on We-LEED (Leaders for Equity in Educator Development), a two-year, $908,818 project, funded by the Wallace Foundation.

The team is developing and validating a survey instrument to help school leadership programs assess potential school leaders’ knowledge, beliefs, and mindsets (KBMs) related to race and equity, and to identify areas for professional learning and development to enhance equity KBMs among pre- and in-service educators. The survey draws from literature on race, equity, and school leadership and two other surveys designed by Milner and his colleagues, the Teacher Race Talk Survey and the Opportunity Gaps Survey.

“We know from research that knowledge, beliefs, and mindsets impact educators’ practices. So, we’re trying to identify educators with high-equity knowledge, beliefs, and mindsets to build strong equity-minded principal pipelines and to diversify principal pipelines with more potential candidates of color. We also want to identify equity gaps, those low equity mindsets, that could be addressed through professional learning,” Milner said.

The research team concluded phase one of a pre-pilot and is now in phase two of piloting the survey with schools across the Northeastern and Southeastern U.S. They plan to produce a validated instrument and supplementary curriculum guide to support school districts in selecting school leaders and in offering additional professional learning opportunities.

Reinforcing Education and Learning

It is important to note that while Milner has advanced an opportunity gap framework to describe why some students of color do not succeed in school, Milner and RRJ adopt an asset-based approach to their research. As they expose gaps in opportunity, they simultaneously identity assets among the people and communities they study. Even if districts employ equity-minded school leaders, those leaders also need community and family support to close opportunity gaps and build on their many strengths. Through Project REAL (Reinforcing Education and Learning), funded by the Dollar General Foundation and a Peabody Small Grant, the RRJ team works with Nashville schools, communities, and families to help them identify literacy assets among elementary school students.

Literacy Nights are Project REAL’s signature event, held at Jones Paideia Elementary School in North Nashville, the 37208 ZIP code. An invited book author reads aloud to children, engages with them in literary activities, and discusses their lived experiences and the writing process. Families receive culturally relevant books to read at home, and RRJ offers guidance to parents on how to support their children’s literacy, while building on their assets. Project REAL has hosted four Literacy Nights since 2021, supporting more than 300 students, families, and educators who attended.

“The RRJ Literacy Nights at Jones Paideia are impactful and engaging,” said Myra Taylor, former principal at Jones Paideia. “Our students and parents are able to interact with the team and learn and practice strategies that will transfer over to homework help and reading at home.  We are fortunate to have Vanderbilt’s RRJ Team as community partners who focus on relevant, real, and accessible strategies and initiatives to support our community of families.”

In addition to Literacy Nights, RRJ also partners with the Community Reads program and Watson Grove Church to extend reading opportunities and potentially transformative reading materials across the 37208 ZIP code and other historically under-resourced communities in North Nashville. In addition, RRJ helps curate and donate culturally relevant books to local businesses and community-based organizations, including barbershops, beauty salons, and enrichment programs.

“The Initiative for Race Research and Justice is proud to build service and research partnerships designed to be gamechangers in the lives of youth in Metro Nashville Public Schools and beyond,” Milner said.

Project REAL has also prepared Vanderbilt undergraduate students to mentor MNPS students on strategies for navigating school settings and advocating for themselves inside and outside of schools. Mentorship focuses on literacy development and reducing student office referrals and, consequently, suspensions and expulsions. The RRJ team studies trends in student grades, office referrals, suspensions, and overall schooling experiences.

“The research we do in direct partnership with impacted communities is truly inspiring,” said Ira Murray, associate director and research scientist at RRJ. “Furthermore, our focus on making our work, our space, and ourselves accessible to the university and broader communities strongly aligns with my personal and professional values. As someone whose professional career has been embedded within vulnerable and under-resourced communities, I find the work we do at RRJ encouraging and motivating.”

Cross Community Dialogue Study

While school leaders play an influential role in the culture of educational environments, so, too, do student leaders. That is why in 2021, with support from the Spencer Foundation, RRJ co-created the Cross Community Dialogue Study with 16 Middle Tennessee high school students from diverse communities. In 2023, the Nissan Foundation funded the 2024 CCDS. The series of monthly meetings fosters civil dialogue across racial and cultural groups; cultivates young people’s leadership skills on issues of race, educational justice, and equity; encourages cross-community friendships and civic engagement; and helps students think about ways to collectively pursue racial justice. RRJ also develops toolkits and strategies to help students discuss difficult topics outside of meetings.

“The series brought together a diverse group of Nashville youth, including myself, to discuss critical issues affecting our lives, such as immigration, gentrification, racism, homophobia, mental health, and so much more,” said a CCDS participant. “The experience enhanced my advocacy and communication skills. Because of this, I have been receptive to opposing opinions and beliefs. CCDS taught me the importance of civil discourse and how vital it is that we challenge what we believe in, as that is the only way to evoke change in our community.”

Importantly, students determine discussion topics based on what they identify as important in their lives. CCDS does not intend to solve deep-rooted challenges, but rather, to create space for young people to listen to and talk with each other civilly and to build potentially lasting relationships that improve their lives and their communities. RRJ studies the design and potential impact of the series.

“Thank you so much for allowing our son to participate in CCDS,” the parents of one participant said. “The program allowed him to develop new relationships with other local high school students, share his perspective on a variety of topics relevant to his generation, and expand his perspective based on others’ opinions. He was always energized and excited after a dialogue session, and we know the tools he learned around civil discourse will remain with him. We look forward to seeing how this inaugural cohort will positively impact our world.”

Building the Education-to-Equity Pipeline

RRJ’s manifold approach, from disrupting the school-to-prison pipeline to fostering inclusive dialogue among youth, underscores the indelible power of education to catalyze social change. By championing causes that span the spectrum from early literacy to STEM education for justice-impacted people, RRJ not only tackles the conditions of systemic inequity but also targets its root causes, ensuring that each initiative contributes to a larger vision of societal progress. An admirable blend of research, theory-building, and service, RRJ is an initiative to know about and support. RRJ is not just a research enterprise at Vanderbilt; it is a movement towards a future where education is the cornerstone of equity and justice, and where every person, regardless of race or background, can thrive.

Events that Continue the Dialogue

With a commitment to professional development and learning among educators, students, community organizers, policymakers, and families, RRJ also hosts key events to further racial justice and equity conversations.

The Jumpstart Virtual Conference offers PreK-12 educators; university faculty, staff, and students; and community members across the nation an opportunity to deepen their knowledge about ways to advance racial justice and equity in today’s polarized political climate. RRJ has hosted five Jumpstart Conferences since 2020.

In each semester since 2020, RRJ has also initiated and hosted a Lunch and Learn Speaker Series, where a Vanderbilt scholar discusses their recent book and makes connections and recommendations for racial justice and equity. RRJ hast hosted nine events with Vanderbilt and local Nashville participants with a total of 917 attendees.

Other events include the Early Career Professional Learning Series—to help graduate students and early-career researchers prepare for success in their careers—and the Restorative Practices Training, where attendees are introduced to restorative practices and receive the International Institute for Restorative Practices certification.

“I want my work to make an impact – to improve human conditions. I hope RRJ becomes part of the fabric of Vanderbilt University and will become a powerful force for racial justice and equity forever,” said Milner.

RRJ is on the move. Connect with them and learn more at   https://www.vanderbilt.edu/rrj/ .

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• Rich Milner

Student mental health is in crisis. Campuses are rethinking their approach

Amid massive increases in demand for care, psychologists are helping colleges and universities embrace a broader culture of well-being and better equipping faculty to support students in need

Vol. 53 No. 7 Print version: page 60

• Mental Health

By nearly every metric, student mental health is worsening. During the 2020–2021 school year, more than 60% of college students met the criteria for at least one mental health problem, according to the Healthy Minds Study, which collects data from 373 campuses nationwide ( Lipson, S. K., et al., Journal of Affective Disorders , Vol. 306, 2022 ). In another national survey, almost three quarters of students reported moderate or severe psychological distress ( National College Health Assessment , American College Health Association, 2021).

Even before the pandemic, schools were facing a surge in demand for care that far outpaced capacity, and it has become increasingly clear that the traditional counseling center model is ill-equipped to solve the problem.

“Counseling centers have seen extraordinary increases in demand over the past decade,” said Michael Gerard Mason, PhD, associate dean of African American Affairs at the University of Virginia (UVA) and a longtime college counselor. “[At UVA], our counseling staff has almost tripled in size, but even if we continue hiring, I don’t think we could ever staff our way out of this challenge.”

Some of the reasons for that increase are positive. Compared with past generations, more students on campus today have accessed mental health treatment before college, suggesting that higher education is now an option for a larger segment of society, said Micky Sharma, PsyD, who directs student life’s counseling and consultation service at The Ohio State University (OSU). Stigma around mental health issues also continues to drop, leading more people to seek help instead of suffering in silence.

But college students today are also juggling a dizzying array of challenges, from coursework, relationships, and adjustment to campus life to economic strain, social injustice, mass violence, and various forms of loss related to Covid -19.

As a result, school leaders are starting to think outside the box about how to help. Institutions across the country are embracing approaches such as group therapy, peer counseling, and telehealth. They’re also better equipping faculty and staff to spot—and support—students in distress, and rethinking how to respond when a crisis occurs. And many schools are finding ways to incorporate a broader culture of wellness into their policies, systems, and day-to-day campus life.

“This increase in demand has challenged institutions to think holistically and take a multifaceted approach to supporting students,” said Kevin Shollenberger, the vice provost for student health and well-being at Johns Hopkins University. “It really has to be everyone’s responsibility at the university to create a culture of well-being.”

Higher caseloads, creative solutions

The number of students seeking help at campus counseling centers increased almost 40% between 2009 and 2015 and continued to rise until the pandemic began, according to data from Penn State University’s Center for Collegiate Mental Health (CCMH), a research-practice network of more than 700 college and university counseling centers ( CCMH Annual Report , 2015 ).

That rising demand hasn’t been matched by a corresponding rise in funding, which has led to higher caseloads. Nationwide, the average annual caseload for a typical full-time college counselor is about 120 students, with some centers averaging more than 300 students per counselor ( CCMH Annual Report , 2021 ).

“We find that high-caseload centers tend to provide less care to students experiencing a wide range of problems, including those with safety concerns and critical issues—such as suicidality and trauma—that are often prioritized by institutions,” said psychologist Brett Scofield, PhD, executive director of CCMH.

To minimize students slipping through the cracks, schools are dedicating more resources to rapid access and assessment, where students can walk in for a same-day intake or single counseling session, rather than languishing on a waitlist for weeks or months. Following an evaluation, many schools employ a stepped-care model, where the students who are most in need receive the most intensive care.

Given the wide range of concerns students are facing, experts say this approach makes more sense than offering traditional therapy to everyone.

“Early on, it was just about more, more, more clinicians,” said counseling psychologist Carla McCowan, PhD, director of the counseling center at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. “In the past few years, more centers are thinking creatively about how to meet the demand. Not every student needs individual therapy, but many need opportunities to increase their resilience, build new skills, and connect with one another.”

Students who are struggling with academic demands, for instance, may benefit from workshops on stress, sleep, time management, and goal-setting. Those who are mourning the loss of a typical college experience because of the pandemic—or facing adjustment issues such as loneliness, low self-esteem, or interpersonal conflict—are good candidates for peer counseling. Meanwhile, students with more acute concerns, including disordered eating, trauma following a sexual assault, or depression, can still access one-on-one sessions with professional counselors.

As they move away from a sole reliance on individual therapy, schools are also working to shift the narrative about what mental health care on campus looks like. Scofield said it’s crucial to manage expectations among students and their families, ideally shortly after (or even before) enrollment. For example, most counseling centers won’t be able to offer unlimited weekly sessions throughout a student’s college career—and those who require that level of support will likely be better served with a referral to a community provider.

“We really want to encourage institutions to be transparent about the services they can realistically provide based on the current staffing levels at a counseling center,” Scofield said.

The first line of defense

Faculty may be hired to teach, but schools are also starting to rely on them as “first responders” who can help identify students in distress, said psychologist Hideko Sera, PsyD, director of the Office of Equity, Inclusion, and Belonging at Morehouse College, a historically Black men’s college in Atlanta. During the pandemic, that trend accelerated.

“Throughout the remote learning phase of the pandemic, faculty really became students’ main points of contact with the university,” said Bridgette Hard, PhD, an associate professor and director of undergraduate studies in psychology and neuroscience at Duke University. “It became more important than ever for faculty to be able to detect when a student might be struggling.”

Many felt ill-equipped to do so, though, with some wondering if it was even in their scope of practice to approach students about their mental health without specialized training, Mason said.

Schools are using several approaches to clarify expectations of faculty and give them tools to help. About 900 faculty and staff at the University of North Carolina have received training in Mental Health First Aid , which provides basic skills for supporting people with mental health and substance use issues. Other institutions are offering workshops and materials that teach faculty to “recognize, respond, and refer,” including Penn State’s Red Folder campaign .

Faculty are taught that a sudden change in behavior—including a drop in attendance, failure to submit assignments, or a disheveled appearance—may indicate that a student is struggling. Staff across campus, including athletic coaches and academic advisers, can also monitor students for signs of distress. (At Penn State, eating disorder referrals can even come from staff working in food service, said counseling psychologist Natalie Hernandez DePalma, PhD, senior director of the school’s counseling and psychological services.) Responding can be as simple as reaching out and asking if everything is going OK.

Referral options vary but may include directing a student to a wellness seminar or calling the counseling center to make an appointment, which can help students access services that they may be less likely to seek on their own, Hernandez DePalma said. Many schools also offer reporting systems, such as DukeReach at Duke University , that allow anyone on campus to express concern about a student if they are unsure how to respond. Trained care providers can then follow up with a welfare check or offer other forms of support.

“Faculty aren’t expected to be counselors, just to show a sense of care that they notice something might be going on, and to know where to refer students,” Shollenberger said.

At Johns Hopkins, he and his team have also worked with faculty on ways to discuss difficult world events during class after hearing from students that it felt jarring when major incidents such as George Floyd’s murder or the war in Ukraine went unacknowledged during class.

Many schools also support faculty by embedding counselors within academic units, where they are more visible to students and can develop cultural expertise (the needs of students studying engineering may differ somewhat from those in fine arts, for instance).

When it comes to course policy, even small changes can make a big difference for students, said Diana Brecher, PhD, a clinical psychologist and scholar-in-residence for positive psychology at Toronto Metropolitan University (TMU), formerly Ryerson University. For example, instructors might allow students a 7-day window to submit assignments, giving them agency to coordinate with other coursework and obligations. Setting deadlines in the late afternoon or early evening, as opposed to at midnight, can also help promote student wellness.

At Moraine Valley Community College (MVCC) near Chicago, Shelita Shaw, an assistant professor of communications, devised new class policies and assignments when she noticed students struggling with mental health and motivation. Those included mental health days, mindful journaling, and a trip with family and friends to a Chicago landmark, such as Millennium Park or Navy Pier—where many MVCC students had never been.

Faculty in the psychology department may have a unique opportunity to leverage insights from their own discipline to improve student well-being. Hard, who teaches introductory psychology at Duke, weaves in messages about how students can apply research insights on emotion regulation, learning and memory, and a positive “stress mindset” to their lives ( Crum, A. J., et al., Anxiety, Stress, & Coping , Vol. 30, No. 4, 2017 ).

Along with her colleague Deena Kara Shaffer, PhD, Brecher cocreated TMU’s Thriving in Action curriculum, which is delivered through a 10-week in-person workshop series and via a for-credit elective course. The material is also freely available for students to explore online . The for-credit course includes lectures on gratitude, attention, healthy habits, and other topics informed by psychological research that are intended to set students up for success in studying, relationships, and campus life.

“We try to embed a healthy approach to studying in the way we teach the class,” Brecher said. “For example, we shift activities every 20 minutes or so to help students sustain attention and stamina throughout the lesson.”

Creative approaches to support

Given the crucial role of social connection in maintaining and restoring mental health, many schools have invested in group therapy. Groups can help students work through challenges such as social anxiety, eating disorders, sexual assault, racial trauma, grief and loss, chronic illness, and more—with the support of professional counselors and peers. Some cater to specific populations, including those who tend to engage less with traditional counseling services. At Florida Gulf Coast University (FGCU), for example, the “Bold Eagles” support group welcomes men who are exploring their emotions and gender roles.

The widespread popularity of group therapy highlights the decrease in stigma around mental health services on college campuses, said Jon Brunner, PhD, the senior director of counseling and wellness services at FGCU. At smaller schools, creating peer support groups that feel anonymous may be more challenging, but providing clear guidelines about group participation, including confidentiality, can help put students at ease, Brunner said.

Less formal groups, sometimes called “counselor chats,” meet in public spaces around campus and can be especially helpful for reaching underserved groups—such as international students, first-generation college students, and students of color—who may be less likely to seek services at a counseling center. At Johns Hopkins, a thriving international student support group holds weekly meetings in a café next to the library. Counselors typically facilitate such meetings, often through partnerships with campus centers or groups that support specific populations, such as LGBTQ students or student athletes.

“It’s important for students to see counselors out and about, engaging with the campus community,” McCowan said. “Otherwise, you’re only seeing the students who are comfortable coming in the door.”

Peer counseling is another means of leveraging social connectedness to help students stay well. At UVA, Mason and his colleagues found that about 75% of students reached out to a peer first when they were in distress, while only about 11% contacted faculty, staff, or administrators.

“What we started to understand was that in many ways, the people who had the least capacity to provide a professional level of help were the ones most likely to provide it,” he said.

Project Rise , a peer counseling service created by and for Black students at UVA, was one antidote to this. Mason also helped launch a two-part course, “Hoos Helping Hoos,” (a nod to UVA’s unofficial nickname, the Wahoos) to train students across the university on empathy, mentoring, and active listening skills.

At Washington University in St. Louis, Uncle Joe’s Peer Counseling and Resource Center offers confidential one-on-one sessions, in person and over the phone, to help fellow students manage anxiety, depression, academic stress, and other campus-life issues. Their peer counselors each receive more than 100 hours of training, including everything from basic counseling skills to handling suicidality.

Uncle Joe’s codirectors, Colleen Avila and Ruchika Kamojjala, say the service is popular because it’s run by students and doesn’t require a long-term investment the way traditional psychotherapy does.

“We can form a connection, but it doesn’t have to feel like a commitment,” said Avila, a senior studying studio art and philosophy-neuroscience-psychology. “It’s completely anonymous, one time per issue, and it’s there whenever you feel like you need it.”

As part of the shift toward rapid access, many schools also offer “Let’s Talk” programs , which allow students to drop in for an informal one-on-one session with a counselor. Some also contract with telehealth platforms, such as WellTrack and SilverCloud, to ensure that services are available whenever students need them. A range of additional resources—including sleep seminars, stress management workshops, wellness coaching, and free subscriptions to Calm, Headspace, and other apps—are also becoming increasingly available to students.

Those approaches can address many student concerns, but institutions also need to be prepared to aid students during a mental health crisis, and some are rethinking how best to do so. Penn State offers a crisis line, available anytime, staffed with counselors ready to talk or deploy on an active rescue. Johns Hopkins is piloting a behavioral health crisis support program, similar to one used by the New York City Police Department, that dispatches trained crisis clinicians alongside public safety officers to conduct wellness checks.

A culture of wellness

With mental health resources no longer confined to the counseling center, schools need a way to connect students to a range of available services. At OSU, Sharma was part of a group of students, staff, and administrators who visited Apple Park in Cupertino, California, to develop the Ohio State: Wellness App .

Students can use the app to create their own “wellness plan” and access timely content, such as advice for managing stress during final exams. They can also connect with friends to share articles and set goals—for instance, challenging a friend to attend two yoga classes every week for a month. OSU’s apps had more than 240,000 users last year.

At Johns Hopkins, administrators are exploring how to adapt school policies and procedures to better support student wellness, Shollenberger said. For example, they adapted their leave policy—including how refunds, grades, and health insurance are handled—so that students can take time off with fewer barriers. The university also launched an educational campaign this fall to help international students navigate student health insurance plans after noticing below average use by that group.

Students are a key part of the effort to improve mental health care, including at the systemic level. At Morehouse College, Sera serves as the adviser for Chill , a student-led advocacy and allyship organization that includes members from Spelman College and Clark Atlanta University, two other HBCUs in the area. The group, which received training on federal advocacy from APA’s Advocacy Office earlier this year, aims to lobby public officials—including U.S. Senator Raphael Warnock, a Morehouse College alumnus—to increase mental health resources for students of color.

“This work is very aligned with the spirit of HBCUs, which are often the ones raising voices at the national level to advocate for the betterment of Black and Brown communities,” Sera said.

Despite the creative approaches that students, faculty, staff, and administrators are employing, students continue to struggle, and most of those doing this work agree that more support is still urgently needed.

“The work we do is important, but it can also be exhausting,” said Kamojjala, of Uncle Joe’s peer counseling, which operates on a volunteer basis. “Students just need more support, and this work won’t be sustainable in the long run if that doesn’t arrive.”

Further reading

Overwhelmed: The real campus mental-health crisis and new models for well-being The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2022

Mental health in college populations: A multidisciplinary review of what works, evidence gaps, and paths forward Abelson, S., et al., Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, 2022

Student mental health status report: Struggles, stressors, supports Ezarik, M., Inside Higher Ed, 2022

Before heading to college, make a mental health checklist Caron, C., The New York Times, 2022

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Presentation Master's thesis - Yasmijn Spoelman - Work & Organisational Psychology

Roeterseilandcampus - Building B, Street: Roetersstraat 11, Room: B2.05

The present study adopted a followership approach to explore the role of strategic renewal behavior in the leader-follower relationship. Based on social exchange theory, it is hypothesized that transformational leadership moderated the indirect effect of co-production role orientation on LMX through strategic renewal behavior. Using data from 110 employees, the results showed that the main relationship between strategic renewal behavior and LMX was non-significant. Moreover, the mediation effect of strategic renewal behavior between co-production role orientation and LMX and the moderation of this indirect effect by transformational leadership was also not significant. However, co-production role orientation positively predicted strategic renewal behavior and LMX. With this finding, the study provides a novel insight into followership literature by exploring the role of co-production orientation and strategic renewal behavior on LMX.