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• Original Research Article
• Open access
• Published: 17 August 2020

Wind turbine performance analysis for energy cost minimization

• Yassine Charabi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2054-688X 1 &
• Sabah Abdul-Wahab 2  

Renewables: Wind, Water, and Solar volume  7 , Article number:  5 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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A Correction to this article was published on 17 January 2021

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The use of wind energy worldwide has overgrown in recent years to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Wind power is free, but the installation and maintenance of wind turbines remain very costly. The size of the installation of the wind turbine is not only determined by wind statistics at a given location, but also by turbine infrastructure and maintenance costs. The payback time of the turbine is dependent on turbine energy costs. This study estimates the wind power generation capacity of Northern and Southern Oman and discusses the selection of the most economical, efficient and reliable wind turbines in Oman. HOMER Pro Software was used in this paper to evaluate the wind energy data in the north and south of Oman and to provide well-informed guidance on the most suitable turbines for the power needs of each area. Six different standard wind turbines were measured and compared in terms of the cost of energy and performance. The simulation analysis reveals that the DW54 turbine is the best possible turbine to generate electricity in northern Oman at $0.119/kW. Due to the difference in the wind regime between the north and the south of Oman, the simulation showed that the Hummer H25.0–200 kW turbine is the best option for south Oman with power generation at $0.070/kW. The northern wind turbine plant can efficiently contribute to decarbonization of the energy sector in Oman, with a potential reduction of CO 2 emission approximately 19,000 tons/year in comparison to natural gas and 28,000 tons/year in comparison to diesel. In the Southern Power Plant, carbon emissions are reduced by 18,000 and 12,000 tons/year compared to diesel and natural gas.

Introduction

The rise in global temperature and severe climate change worldwide has increased environmental concerns. Nowadays, more than 90% of the world’s electricity comes from fossil fuels (World-Bank 2015 ), and that energy production plays a vital role in global warming. Any changes in this field can have a significant impact on the environment. Numerous researchers, therefore, have attempted to change or alleviate the negative impacts of global warming, with much of this effort coming from the energy sector (Ghodsi et al. 2019 ; Khare et al. 2016 ; Sahu et al. 2018 ). In comparison to fossil fuels, the impact of renewable energy sources on the environment is negligible. These sources, for example, have no direct CO 2 or NOx emissions. From solar panels to wind turbine generators, a wide range of devices can convert ambient energy into a more useful form, like electricity (Charabi et al. 2019 ). Among these devices, wind turbines are some of the most popular and accessible methods of converting ambient energy to electricity (Yang et al. 2018 ). However, wind energy, like most other sources of renewable energy, has high capital costs, but during the past decade, this trend has changed tremendously. Statics show that the cost of wind production has dropped enormously in recent years, from two million dollars per M.W. to one million in the last decade (Moné 2017 ). This achievement has made it possible to see wind power plants with increasing frequency in both developed and developing countries (Sahu 2018 ).

As a Middle Eastern, oil-dependent country, Oman has started in a new direction on its path of development. The country is trying to change its electricity production industry from one that is entirely oil-based to one that is more reliant on sustainable “greener” energy sources (Abdul-Wahab et al. 2019a ; Al-Suleiman et al. 2019 ). The main two options for this plan are solar and wind energy. Although Oman’s sunny weather provides a unique opportunity for solar energy generation, the country’s wind power potential must not be neglected. As of this article’s writing, Oman has no industrial wind power stations, and the country’s wind turbines are mainly used for research purposes. However, this situation is changing, beginning with developing an understanding of the country’s wind power potential. An incorrect estimation of wind energy needs or the use of low-performance equipment not only reduces the benefits of the project, but also might lead to economic disaster (Dolatabadi et al. 2017 ).

Over the last decade, considerable information on wind resource mapping across Oman has been accumulated to stimulate the deployment of wind power (Al-Yayai and Charabi 2015 ; Al-Yahyai et al. 2012 , 2013 ; Charabi et al. 2011 ; Al Yahyai el al. 2010). Despite the availability of wind mapping information, the deployment of wind energy across Oman is still lagging due to the lack of accurate information on turbine energy cost. Without access to sound information on the cost of wind power technology, it is difficult for decision-makers, if not impossible; to evaluate which wind turbine technologies will most fit their national circumstances. The fast growth and cost reductions in the installed wind energy technologies mean that even data aged one or 2 years will substantially overestimate the cost of power from wind energy technologies. There is also a significant amount of perceived knowledge about the cost and performance of wind power generation technologies that are not accurate or is misleading. Significant knowledge of the cost and performance of wind generation technologies is also viewed that is not right or misleading. This paper fills a significant information gap because there is a lack of precise, comparable, and the latest data on the costs and performance of wind turbines in Oman.

Studies on the viability and economic potential of wind energy have recently spread worldwide.

Kumar and Gaddada ( 2015 ) have explored the outputs of four statistical methods to evaluate Weibull parameters for wind energy applications in four selected sites, located in northern Ethiopia. Gaddada and Kodicherla ( 2016 ) have evaluated wind power capacity and wind energy cost estimates for electricity generation systems in eight selected locations in Tigray (Ethiopia). Kodicherla et al. ( 2017 ) explored the potential of wind energy and developed an economic assessment of the water pumping system in various wind power conversion systems. In three selected Fiji Island stations, Kodicherla et al. ( 2018 ) have investigated the potential of wind power-assisted wind hydrogen production using different types of turbines. The literature also reflects different foci around wind turbines. Many researchers have worked on defining the shape and structure of wind turbines and their effects on aerodynamics (Cai 2019 ; Nema et al. 2009 ; Akpinar and Akpinar 2006 ). Others have tried to improve the performance of current turbines by optimizing placement and hub height (Abdul-Wahab et al. 2019b ; Elkinton et al. 2008 ).

Despite these efforts, the stochastic nature of wind speed makes wind energy generation difficult for some places (Padrón et al. 2019 ). A deep understanding of the specifications of each wind turbine and complete statistical data on wind velocity in any given location can begin to address this problem. These data must be processed and matched to a potential turbine to give a realistic and feasible answer to the suitability of any given piece of wind power equipment. In this paper, HOMER Pro software (HOMER Energy L.L.C., Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A.) was used to analyze wind data for the north and south of Oman and make a well-informed recommendation on the most suitable turbines for each region’s power needs. HOMER Pro software can combine data associated with wind regime, the specifications of wind turbines, and the power demands of consumers to estimate the cost of producing energy using different generators.

In this study, the researchers tried to estimate the potential for wind energy production in Oman’s north and south and suggest the feasibility of using wind turbines in the country. To this end, the performance of six different popular wind turbines was calculated and compared. By considering the performance and cost of energy (C.O.E.), suggestions on the best possible turbines for the north and south of Oman are provided.

Study areas

As has been mentioned previously, two locations were selected for the wind power plants. The northern site was located in Al Batinah North Governorate (24° 42′ 23″ N 56° 28′ 48″ E). The southern site was Mirbat, Dhofar Governorate (16° 58′ 22″ N 54° 42′ 56″ E) (Fig.  1 ). Both plants are located in rural areas with low populations and, therefore, low power demands. Population, power consumption per capita and power consumption patterns change power demands in an area. Demand also changes daily, hourly, and even in the summer and winter. The last reported data from Oman show that each Omani annually consumes around 6550 kWh on average (S.A.O.C 2017 ). Based on this information and the population of the area, the size of the wind power plant is considered at 10 MW. This size can cover current electricity consumption and any possible future growth. Even with a highly accurate prediction, real conditions can have unexpected variations. In order to consider this variation, the monthly 2% day-to-day random variability and 2% time-to-time step of random variability was considered. Figure  2 shows the power consumption patterns in Oman’s households. As can be seen in the figure, April to October is Oman’s summer season and has high electricity demand, while in wintertime, November to March, the power demand decreases significantly. The high demand for energy by cooling systems in the long summer of Oman is the main reason for this trend.

The location of the wind farms in north and south of Oman

Monthly average of power demand (MW)

HOMER software

Wind turbine performance analysis.

A realistic estimation of power production requires accurate statistical data on wind velocity for an extended period, like a year or more, if possible. The accuracy of the output results entirely depends on the accuracy of this information. Wind velocity is usually measured on an hourly basis. Due to the high number of measurements in a calendar year, however, further processing for such an extended period would be time-consuming and difficult. Therefore, when making calculations based on such large data sets, the average wind velocity is usually used to reduce the processing load. Although using the monthly average seems practical, such a simple average can be misleading. For instance, by using a wind velocity of 0 m/s for 50% of the time and using a velocity of 6 m/s for the rest of the time, the simple average of the wind velocity would be 3 m/s.

Considering a wind turbine with a maximum output power of 3 m/s, the output performance would be wrongly calculated at 100% all day long. Such a system would have 100% output at 50% of the time at best. In order to address such miscalculations, in this research, the two-parameter Weibull distribution was used (Wang et al. 2018 ). In this method, both wind velocity and its probability over time are considered, and the distribution of the wind velocity is used for the following calculations (Moein et al. 2018 ). The probability density (f) and cumulative distribution (F) of the wind based on Weibull distribution are:

where c is the Weibull scale (m/s), and k is the Weibull shape factor.

The different wind turbines on the market have very different specifications. Considering and analyzing all of these turbines in this paper is not possible. Six of the most popular turbines on the market were selected and analyzed in order to make the article descriptive, rational, and practical. In some countries, other brands and models of turbines might be more popular, but the present approach can be used in those countries, too. In making this comparison, the C.O.E. production for each turbine must be calculated and compared carefully. Moreover, the whole system of a wind power plant consisting of one or more turbines must be able to handle the load demand of consumers with no or limited access to the main power line, for such a scenario where there is no access to the power grid, the power generation system has to be equipped with a sufficiently sized battery bank or a fossil fuel generator to cover non-windy hours or days. In order to simplify the problem and eliminate the calculation of fossil fuel generators, the system under consideration was conceptualized as having up to a 10% deficiency in a limited number of days. In real conditions, this amount of energy can be obtained from the main power lines (if accessible) or local generators. However, in this article, further calculations based on these generators were not considered.

Wind speed calculations represent the first phase of the HOMER Pro simulation. The wind velocity was measured and recorded every hour for 1 year. The system measured wind speed at a 10-m height above the sea level, which is the standard height for the measurement. Table  1 shows a sample of the measurements from the northern site for 1 week. For the calculation of the velocity at a different height (based on the height of each wind turbine), the measured values must be modified as in Eq. ( 3 ):

where \(V_{\text{Turbine}}\) and \(V\) show the wind velocity at the turbine and standard anemometer height, \(Z_{\text{Turbine}}\) and \(Z_{\text{anm}}\) are the height of the turbine and the anemometer (m) and \(Z_{0}\) is the surface roughness (m). Surface roughness characterizes the roughness of the field around the turbine. In this project, based on the local properties of the site location, \(Z_{0}\) was considered 0.03 m, which indicates a smooth field with some crops and no trees or buildings in the surrounding area (Homer-Energy 2016 ).

By combining the Weibull equation and Eq. ( 3 ), the average wind velocity can be written as:

And the output power in a wind turbine can be written in the form:

where \(\tau\) is the time, \(C_{p}\) is the turbine’s nominal capacity, and \(f_{v}\) is the wind velocity distribution.

The producers also provide the power curve of each turbine by testing different wind velocities. The power curve shows the real output power of the system in different ranges of wind velocity. Figure  3 shows the power curves of the six selected turbines with data extracted from the producers’ datasheet for the following turbine models:

The power curves of the selected turbines

GE 1.5 SLE (GE Power, Schenectady, New York, USA).

Enercon E44 (Enercon, Aurich, Germany).

Enercon E53 (Enercon, Aurich, Germany).

FD21-100 (Enercon, Aurich, Germany).

EWT DW54 (Emergya Wind Turbines Pvt. Ltd., Amersfoort, The Netherlands);

Hummer H25.0–200 kW (Anhui Hummer Dynamo Co., Ltd., Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China).

Economic analysis

In project planning, economic analysis is the most critical factor in decision-making. In this study, an economic analysis was the only indicator considered to show the feasibility of wind projects. Economic feasibility incorporates long-term performance, pointing to the best possible option among the wind turbines. In order to make an accurate estimation of economic feasibility, the total cost of the project must be calculated, including the capital cost (initial cost of the construction and devices), replacement cost as necessary, and maintenance costs. Operation costs should also be considered for the whole project. However, due to the low cost of operation in wind turbines, the operation cost can be considered part of maintenance costs. By accurately estimating these costs, the price of power generation per kW can be estimated. This price is a suitable indicator for choosing the best possible turbine for a wind power plant. In this research, the cost of energy (C.O.E.) per kW was the distinguishing feature considered among the turbines studied. HOMER sensitivity and optimization algorithms were used to select the best wind turbine (Pahlavan et al. 2018 ; Vahdatpour et al. 2017 ). The equations of the method of optimal system measuring, which has a minimum amount of total net present cost (N.P.C.), are as follows:

where C ann,total , C.R.F. i and R proj are the total annual cost, cost recovery factor, real interest rate and lifetime of the project, respectively.

All costs and incomes are evaluated at a constant interest rate over the year. The actual interest rate resulting from inflation is calculated and the effect of the change in interest rate on final N.P.C. is applied to purpose of influencing inflation in calculations. The cost recovery factor (C.R.F.), which indicates the cost recovery over the N  years, is calculated as follows:

Software is able to calculate the annual interest rate through the following equation:

Also, the cost of per kW of energy during the lifetime of the project is obtained by software from the following equation:

In the above equation, E Load served is the real electric load in the hybrid system by unit kW/year.

Table  2 shows all costs associated with the selected turbines and which include:

The Capital cost is the initial purchase price,

The Replacement cost is the cost of replacing the generator at the end of its lifetime, the O&M cost is the annual cost of operating and maintaining the generator.

No energy battery storage system storage was taken into consideration for the current simulation focusing on the selection of the best wind turbine, and an annual interest rate of 6% was taken into account.

Results and discussion

Comparison between the proposed wind turbines.

Implementing big data associated with turbine measurements and specifications is difficult. HOMER Pro helps analyze this data and simulate plans for 20 years. The results of the simulation for each turbine are presented in Table  3 .

The main findings from the turbines simulation were as follows:

G.E. Energy 1.5 SLE This turbine is designed and manufactured by G.E. Power, a subsidiary of the General Electric Energy Company, and is a 1500-kW-rated power producer. This model has the highest power output among the selected turbines. It has a three-blade rotor with a 77-m diameter and 85-m hub height. The cut-in wind velocity for this model is 3 m/s, and the cut-off speed is 25 m/s. Cut-in and cut-off velocities can have a significant impact on the performance of the turbine. A turbine with a lower cut-off speed has the advantage of generating power in lower wind speed locations, like the north of Oman. The results of the simulation show that the C.O.E. for this turbine is USD$0.171 for each kW of energy in the north and USD$0.089 in the south. This cost contains the USD$1.75 million dollar maintenance cost for 20 years of operation and a capital cost of USD$3.38 million.

Enercon E44 This turbine, produced in Germany, has the second-highest power output of those considered, with a 900-kW-rated generator, 55-m hub height, and 44-m blade size. This Enercon production has a minimum cut-off wind velocity of 3 m/s, and a 28 m/s maximum cut-off. The HOMER Pro results showed that, by considering the capital cost of USD$2.34m and a maintenance cost of around USD$1 million, the C.O.E. would be USD$0.303 for each kW of energy in the north and USD$0.135/kW in the south.

Enercon E53 This turbine has a 53-m rotor diameter and 800 kW power production potential. Due to the lower power output, this model has lower capital and maintenance costs. Considering all of the costs of the turbine, the system would be able to generate power at USD$0.163/kW and USD$0.088/kW in the north and south, respectively.

FD21 - 100 This Enercon model uses GHREPOWER production with 100-kW output power. The lower output power makes it suitable for smaller wind power plants. FD21-100 has a 3–25 m/s range of working speed, and its highest possible hub height is 42 m. The HOMER Pro software simulation for this turbine showed that the C.O.E. would reach up to USD$0.290 per kW in the north and USD$0.144 kW in the south. In comparison to other turbines, this model has the highest cost of power generation for both locations.

DW54 This turbine is a 500-kW generator designed and produced by Energy Wind Technology (E.W.T.) in Amersfoort, The Netherlands. It has a 54-m rotor diameter and a working velocity between 3 and 10 m/s. With a USD$1.2 million capital cost and USD$750,000 maintenance cost over 20 years, the power generation cost would be USD$0.119/kW. This cost is the lowest possible for generating power in the north of Oman. However, the simulation showed that, due to differences in the wind regime in the north and south, this model is not the best possible option for the south. Each kW of energy produced in the south would cost USD$0.071. However, with its C.O.E., this model is the second best possible turbine for Oman’s north.

Hummer H25.0 – 200   K.W. This model is a 200-kW-rated wind turbine produced by the Anhui Hummer Dynamo Company of Hefei, China. In comparison to other analyzed turbines, this model has a lower cut-in wind velocity by 2.5 m/s and a smaller blade size (12 m). The simulation showed that while the capital cost of the turbine could be as low as USD$300,000, this model’s C.O.E. is not the best for all situations. In the north, power production would cost USD$0.132/kW. While this price is not the best possible option for the north, the results for the south are different. The simulation showed that the turbine would have the best possible results in the south among the selected models, generating power at USD$0.070/kW.

Considering the above-mentioned findings, the DW54 turbine is the best possible turbine for the north of Oman. On the other hand, the Hummer H25.0–200 KW turbine is the best option for Oman’s south. These models can generate electricity at the lowest possible cost. Figure  4 shows the graph of energy production cost for each turbine in the northern and southern sites.

Cost of electricity for different turbines

Advantages of provided wind turbines over natural gas and diesel generators

The current power plants in Oman mostly use natural gas for electricity production. On the other hand, for off-grid consumers (some rural regions), the diesel generators are the primary source of electricity. It is clear that fossil fuel generators emit pollutant gases into the atmosphere and have negative impacts on the environment. In short, the diesel generator’s gas emission is calculated using the same energy production as the best wind turbines. For comparison, the unmet electrical load of wind turbines is considered (Fig.  5 ). Table  4 shows the emitted pollutant gases over one year of use. As it can be seen in Table  3 , the wind turbine power plant in the north can stop the CO 2 emission approximately 19,000 ton/year in comparison to natural gas and 28,000 ton/year in comparison to diesel. In the southern power plant, the reduced gas emission in comparison to diesel and natural gas are 18,000 and 12,000 ton/year, respectively.

Unmet electrical loads for different turbines

In this study, the feasibility of using wind energy as a source of power production was calculated by collecting and analyzing hourly data on wind regimes over a 1-year period. HOMER Pro software was used to calculate the C.O.E. production of six different wind turbines, in order to select the most suitable wind turbine for two distinct locations in the north and south of Oman. The study’s main findings can be summarized as follows:

DW54 turbine produced by Energy Wind Technology in Amersfoort, The Netherlands, would have the best performance for Oman’s northern regions and can generate the cheapest possible energy from wind at $0.119/kW.

H25.0–200 kW turbine manufactured by the Anhui Hummer Dynamo Company of Hefeit, China, gives the best C.O.E. production for the southern regions of Oman and the lowest possible wind energy can be produced at $0.70/KW.

The difference of the wind regime between the northern and southern parts of Oman and the power curves of the turbines are the main reasons for the selection of two different wind turbines form different manufacturers.

The northern wind turbine plant is estimated to decrease CO 2 emissions by around 19,000 tons per year, compared to natural gas, while diesel emissions by around by 28,000 tons per year.

The southern wind turbines have a potential carbon emission reduction of about 18,000 and 12,000 tons per year compared to diesel and natural gas.

The application of the turbine selection using the HOMER Model described in this paper determined that the H25.0–200 kW turbine selected for the southern parts of Oman has a C.O.E. that is 58.8% lower than the DW54 turbine that was selected for the northern parts of the country. The application of the method followed in this research by developers during the planning stage could significantly improve the financial performance of their investment. Similarly, such techniques could be added to tools such as WAsP to improve decision-making during the initial planning stage.

Availability of data and materials

Data are openly available with HOMER software. HOMER uses the monthly average wind speeds, plus four parameters (Weibull k, 1-h autocorrelation factor, Diurnal pattern strength and Hour of peak wind speed) to synthesize wind data for simulation.

Change history

17 january 2021.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via the original article.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their insightful suggestions and careful reading of the manuscript.

The authors received no specific funding for this work.

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Yassine Charabi

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman

Sabah Abdul-Wahab

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The first and the second author contributed to the design and implementation of the research, to the analysis of the results and to the writing of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Yassine Charabi .

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Metallic coatings in offshore wind sector—a mini review

• Berenika Syrek-Gerstenkorn   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6906-6671 1 &
• Shiladitya Paul   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8423-313X 2 , 3  

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• Wind energy

Offshore wind energy is pivotal for achieving global renewable energy targets. As of 2022, 12% of global electricity is derived from wind and solar power, with an imperative to reach 90% renewable energy by 2050. The offshore wind industry, constituting 7.1% of global wind power, plays a central role in meeting these goals. The Global Wind Energy Alliance envisions reaching 380 GW by 2030 and 2000 GW by 2050. This paper addresses corrosion challenges in the offshore environment, emphasising sacrificial coatings as an effective mitigation strategy. By critically evaluating the latest revisions of widely used international standards such as Norsok M-501, ISO 12944, and VGBE-S-021, the study focuses on zinc- and aluminium-rich coatings that form a galvanic couple with steel, providing cathodic protection. Liquid coatings, thermally sprayed coatings, and hot-dip galvanised coatings are examined for their applicability with discussion on the advantages and limitations of these systems. Considerations of cost, environmental impact, and testing methods are crucial in selecting corrosion mitigation strategies. The review alludes to these requirements and highlights the significance of durable solutions, such as sacrificial coatings, in ensuring the long-term integrity of offshore wind structures amid the sector’s rapid expansion. Further collaborative research, involving industry and academia, is recommended to refine testing regimes and explore innovative coating solutions.

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Introduction.

Investing in renewable energy whilst decreasing energy production from fossil fuels is a key action to tackle the problem of climate change contributed by anthropogenic CO 2 emissions. In 2022, solar and wind power accounted for 12% of global electricity generation 1 . It is predicted that to keep the temperature rise target below 1.5 °C, the efforts should be taken to reach 90% of global electricity generation from renewable energy sources with wind and solar accounting for nearly 70% 1 . Energy generated from the offshore wind sector plays an important role in meeting the set targets. At the end of 2022, a total of 64.3 GW of wind capacity was in operation worldwide, which accounted for 7.1% of global wind power installation 2 . This was the second-best year for the global offshore industry, despite the obstacles, such as high inflation or supply chain constrains, associated with the global energy crisis triggered by war in Europe and aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. Undoubtedly, offshore wind will continue to play a key role in supplying the energy demand. The Global Offshore Wind Alliance (GOWA) created in 2022, set a plan to achieve a global offshore wind capacity of at least 380 GW by 2030 and 2000 GW by 2050, with 35 GW being deployed on average each year through the 2020 s and a minimum of 70 GW annually from 2030 2 .

The shift towards offshore wind is driven by the need for larger capacities, favourable wind conditions, and reduced visual impact compared to onshore wind farms. However, the harsh offshore environment is very corrosive to the structural components of the offshore wind turbines and therefore suitable corrosion mitigation methods must be implemented. Structural steel (typically EN 10025 S355) is a material of choice for the offshore wind structures due to its strength, toughness, cost, and weldability 3 . However, this type of steel is prone to corrosion attack when exposed to salty water.

Environment surrounding the offshore structure can be divided into 4 main zones (atmospheric, splash/tidal, immersed and buried), which determine the suitability of application of different corrosion mitigation strategies. Figure 1 shows the 4 zones as described and categorised in ISO 12944-2 4 and ISO 12944-9 5 as well as 4 stress zones in accordance with VGBE-S-021-01 6 standard.

Schematic of offshore wind turbine showing classification of operating zones and corrosivity categories applicable to offshore wind structures in accordance with ISO 12944-2, 12944-9 and corrosion stress zones in accordance with VGB 021. Schematic reproduced from VGB 021-1.

Parts operating in atmospheric zone are usually protected by protective coatings (e.g., epoxies finished with a layer of polyurethane). Parts constantly immersed in seawater are protected by cathodic protection (CP) very often in combination with organic coatings. Splash zone is the most challenging environment with the highest corrosion rates, and it usually requires combination of CP, coatings and corrosion allowance. Selection of the appropriate corrosion mitigation strategy is not straightforward, and all the above methods have their pros and cons, which are shown in Fig. 2 .

Advantages and limitations of different corrosion mitigation strategies. ICCP impressed current cathodic protection; CP cathodic protection.

Since offshore wind sector is constantly growing and larger turbines are needed to be deployed in deeper seas, the necessity for robust corrosion mitigation strategies requiring minimum maintenance is of a paramount importance. Offshore repairs are not only very costly but also dangerous and challenging to perform. Therefore, the deployed corrosion mitigation strategies need to be able to provide protection for at least 30 years.

This paper focuses on corrosion mitigation properties provided by sacrificial coatings with a particular focus on the latest revisions of the three main standards commonly used to design coating systems in the offshore wind sector, namely: Norsok M-501 (ed.7: 2022) 7 , ISO 12944 (mainly part 5 8 and 9 5 ) and VGBE-S-021 (ed.2023) 6 , 9 , 10 .

Classification of sacrificial coatings

Sacrificial coatings refer to a group of coatings capable of providing protection to the steel substrate via preferential dissolution triggered by the difference in electrochemical potential. Those coatings are either made of, or contain, high levels of zinc or aluminium. The principle of the corrosion protection provided by the coatings is the same as galvanic anodes. When two dissimilar metals are connected to each other in the presence of a conductive electrolyte a galvanic couple is established. The metal which is less noble (is located lower in the Galvanic series) becomes an anode (Zn or Al) whereas the other metal (in this case steel) becomes a cathode. This mechanism of protection is also called cathodic protection (since the structure to be protected becomes a cathode in the electrochemical circuit).

Those metal-containing, sacrificial coatings can be divided into three main groups, namely: liquid coatings (paints), thermally sprayed (TS) coatings and hot-dip galvanised (HDG) coatings, as shown in Fig. 3 and the main differences are depicted in Fig. 4 .

Classification of sacrificial coatings in offshore wind sector.

Schematic representation of different Zn coatings.

Liquid coatings

Zn-rich liquid coatings can be categories based on the type of the binder used to produce the coating: inorganic or organic. Inorganic Zn-rich coatings usually consist of silicate type binders whereas organic Zn-rich coatings can consist of variety of polymeric materials, such as epoxies, polyurethanes, alkyds among others. For the liquid coating to be able to provide cathodic protection, the Zn particles must be present in a sufficiently high concentration (typically above 80–90% 11 ) to ensure electrical conductivity in the dry film. However, excessively high zinc content could lead to issues with weak adhesion, poor mechanical properties and difficulties in application 11 , 12 . Therefore, research efforts have been made to improve cathodic protection properties of Zn-rich coatings by incorporating electrically conductive materials such as: Al nanoparticles 13 , zinc fibres 14 , conductive polymers 14 , 15 , conductive pigments 16 , stainless steel flakes 17 or carbon-based materials 18 , 19 .

Nevertheless, the corrosion protection mechanism of zinc-rich coatings does not rely solely on cathodic protection properties. When the zinc particles oxidise, zinc corrosion products such as zinc carbonates, zinc sulphates and zinc hydroxides are formed. These particles fill the pores and provide barrier properties for a certain period, as schematically shown in Fig. 5 .

Mechanism of corrosion protection provided by Zn-rich paints. Schematic inspired by ref. 59 .

Thermally sprayed coatings

The two most widely used methods for the deposition of metallic coatings via thermal spraying for corrosion mitigation purposes are electric arc and flame spraying. Both methods rely on melting of the feedstock material (in the form of wire or powder) and projecting the molten droplets towards the substrate as schematically shown in Fig. 6 . The molten droplets rapidly solidify upon impact and a uniform metallic coating is deposited on the substrate. The primary bonding mechanism for thermally sprayed coatings is mechanical interlocking and therefore, the quality of the substrate surface preparation is crucial for the application.

Schematic of thermal spray process for deposition of sacrificial coatings.

In the offshore sector, the most common coatings applied via thermal spraying methods are thermally sprayed aluminium (TSA) – pure or alloyed with 5% Mg; thermally sprayed zinc (TSZ) and thermally sprayed zinc-aluminium (85–15%, TSZA). Recommended thicknesses for TS coatings with life to first maintenance greater than 20 years are shown in Tables 1 and 2 . Only the values for zones applicable to offshore wind sector were extracted from the ISO 2063-1 20 standard.

The main benefits of using thermally deposited coatings, in comparison to liquid coatings, is the lack of curing time, higher resistance to mechanical damage, and a more effective cathodic protection due to the lack of binder material.

Hot dip galvanised (HDG) coatings

Hot dip galvanised (HDG) coatings are obtained by immersing steel components into a bath of molten zinc (approximately 450 °C). During this process, metallurgical interactions occur between the surface of steel and molten zinc to create a coating that consist of layers of zinc-iron alloys 21 . Hot dip galvanising process comprises several steps including surface preparation (degreasing, picking, fluxing), dipping in molten zinc, and optional post treatment.

HDG coatings are a proven technology for corrosion mitigation of steel. However, it should be borne in mind that this technology also has some limitations. One of the limitations with this process is the coating thickness. When the coating is too thick, the stresses developed within the coating during the cooling period can lead to flaking of the coating. Furthermore, if the thickness of the component to be coated is very small, the component can exhibit distortion upon dipping in the hot zinc bath. This technology is also restricted to coating relatively small components, such as handrails, bolts, or gratings. Whereas liquid coatings or thermal spray can be used to coat very large structures, such as offshore wind towers.

Metallic coatings on offshore wind turbines

Coatings for atmospheric zone.

Unlike splash zone, atmospheric zone is not directly exposed to splashing seawater, but the parts located in this zone suffer from marine aerosols containing salts. Maximum corrosion attack that can be expected in the external (CX) and internal (C4/C5) parts of the offshore structure are provided by ISO 9224 22 and are shown in Table 3 . It should be noted that the latest revision of VGB-021 specifies C3 corrosivity category when the area is air-conditioned, and the relative humidity (RH) is maintained below 60%. However, in authors opinion, even if the conditions are maintained during the operational time of the structure (except for upset conditions), much more severe conditions will be present during both transportation and installation periods. Therefore, this corrosion category is not included in this review.

The most common corrosion mitigation method in the atmospheric zone is the use of coatings. Table 4 summarises coatings for this zone applicable to offshore wind structures according to three main standards, namely: ISO 12944 5 , 8 , Norsok M-501 7 and VGB-021 6 , 9 , 10 . The durability of the coating systems refers to the time until the first major maintenance. Due to the need for long-lasting coating solutions, only very high (VH) durability (i.e., greater than 25 years - as specified in ISO 12944-1) coatings were selected from ISO 12944-5 8 standard. It should be noted that both Norsok M-501 7 and ISO 12944-9 5 provide solutions for high durability (H) (i.e., 15-25 years - as specified in ISO 12944-1) coatings, whereas the latest edition of VGB-021 6 , 9 , 10 describes solutions for VH durability.

It can be noticed that all three standards recommend systems containing sacrificial layers, either in the form of Zn-rich primers, HDG or TS coatings. The benefit of using Zn-rich primers was demonstrated in various studies 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 . It was also observed that, the presence of Zn-rich layer is beneficial for minimising corrosion creep.

Various long-term studies of thermally sprayed coatings were conducted over the years to test their corrosion performance in marine atmosphere (e.g., 19-year test conducted by the American Welding Society 27 , 18-year Japanese test 28 ) which showed that both Zn and Al-based coatings can provide long term protection to steel. However, the mechanism and level of protection are not the same. Aluminium is a very reactive metal, which passivates quickly in air. This passive layer is amphoteric in nature and acts as an electrical insulator, which explains the very low dissolution rate of aluminium in aqueous media in the pH range 5–8. For the sacrificial protection to be activated, aluminium needs a favourable environment containing ions capable of breaking the passive film, such as chlorides (Cl − ) in seawater. Therefore, in the atmospheric zone, TSA provides mainly barrier type protection to the underlying steel.

Zinc, on the other hand, does not form a continuous insulating layer. Upon exposure to the atmosphere, a layer of mainly zinc hydroxide is initially formed, which is then transformed into other corrosion products containing carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides. Since zinc coatings dissolve with a steady rate, the coating thickness loss can be accurately predicted. It has been reported, that thermally sprayed coating made of ZnAl (85–15%) are the most effective in protecting of steel in marine atmosphere due to combined benefits of the two metals 29 . The microstructure of the coating consists of Zn-rich and Al-rich phases which corrode at a different rate. Not only the addition of aluminium gives rise to a slower corrosion rate, but also the corrosion products which are produced are much denser and provide protection to the underlying metal.

Coatings for Splash/Tidal Zone

Splash and tidal zones are the most challenging from the corrosion protection point of view for several reasons. Corrosion rates detected in those zones are the highest (between 0.4 and 1.2 mm/year for carbon steel 30 ), due to the combined effect of alternating drying and wetting of the surfaces, high level of salts, UV radiation and highly oxygenated electrolyte. According to DNV-RP-0416 31 , minimum values that should be considered during the design of primary structural parts located in the splash zone should be 0.3 mm/year for external parts and 0.1 mm/year for internal parts of the structure when temperature of seawater does not exceed 12 °C. For subtropical and tropical climate, the values are higher: 0.4 mm/year (external surfaces) and 0.2 mm/year (internal surfaces).

Moreover, parts located below the mean water line (MWL) can benefit from CP systems. Therefore, the coating system design for the splash zone must be resilient to cathodic disbondment but also must perform well under atmospheric conditions. Furthermore, coating systems protecting the surfaces in the splash/tidal zone should be resilient to mechanical damages and collisions with objects e.g., drifting ice, floating debris etc.

Table 5 shows coating systems recommended by ISO 12944 5 , Norsok M-501 7 ed.7 and VGB-021 6 , 9 , 10 ed.2023 for splash zone applications. It can be noticed that coatings with sacrificial capabilities include Zn-rich primers and TSA. However, it should be mentioned that ISO 24656:2022 32 does not recommend Zn-rich primers for use in the immersed, tidal and splash zones. Additionally, it should be mentioned that Norsok M-501 recommnends TSA for areas exposed to high temperatures (> +80 °C to +595 °C). Nontheless, this standard also states that this system may also be used at lower temperatures (below 80 °C).

Several field tests showed that TSA can be an effective long-term corrosion mitigation solution for splash/tidal zone 27 , 28 , 33 . It can be noticed that Norsok M-501 7 recommends the use of sealer for TSA coatings. It has been reported that excessive overcoating of aluminium with organic coatings can lead to development of blisters and therefore, only a thin layer of sealant (less than 40 µm) is recommended to seal the pores within the coating and to decrease the corrosion rate of the aluminium layer 34 . Ideally, the sealant should reside within the roughness “troughs” of the coating or penetrate the surface-connected pores to give no or minimal measurable thickness. The sealer might also be used when a required colour is needed, for example transition piece should be coated in “traffic yellow” RAL 1023 colour. However, it should be pointed out that, even though the application of thick organic coating can be detrimental to the performance of the TSA, ISO 2063-1 still provides recommendations regarding coating thicknesses when TSA is to be applied as a system comprising of TSA, sealer and organic coating (Table 1 ).

Coatings for submerged zone

According to DNV-RP-0416 31 , external surfaces of the structure exposed to submerged zone must be cathodically protected and the use of coatings is optional for this zone. Coatings can be used to reduce the CP demand. For the internal part, however, either CP or corrosion allowance is specified with or without coatings.

Table 6 shows coating systems recommended by ISO 12944 5 , Norsok M-501 7 ed.7 and VGB-021 6 , 9 , 10 ed.2023 for submerged zone applications. TSA is specified by Norsok M-501 7 for protection of components exposed to high temperatures during service conditions. However, as mentioned previously, this standard also allows the use of TSA with two-component epoxy sealer for operating temperatures below 80 °C. Moreover, ISO 2063 20 specifies not only TSA (with or without sealer) for immersed conditions (Table 1 ) but it also allows the use of TSZ and TSZA as a duplex system (with sealer and organic top coat) (Table 2 ). The mechanism of protection provided by TSA coatings under full seawater immersion was studied by several researchers 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 and it is fairly well understood. When the coating is intact, it provides mainly barrier type protection to the underlying steel. This effective long-term protection is achieved due to formation of corrosion products and calcareous deposits on the surface as well as within the pores of the coating. The formation of the deposits leads to blocking of the pathways for corrosive species to penetrate the pore network and reach the steel substrate and provides an additional protective barrier to TSA.

When there is a damage in the coating, a galvanic couple is established between the aluminium coating and the steel substrate (due to potential difference between the two metals). Since the potential of aluminium is more active than steel, TSA becomes an anode and steel a cathode which triggers dissolution of Al:

and cathodic reactions are:

The production of OH - ions leads to local increase of pH which in turn triggers the precipitation of calcareous deposits rich in Mg (Mg(OH) 2 ) and Ca (CaCO 3 ):

Depending on the conditions, such as temperature, and consequently morphology of formed films, those deposits could provide barrier properties to the exposed steel and decrease the CP demand from the anodic coating 34 . Recent research focusing on the damage tolerance of TSA coatings showed very encouraging results 41 . It was estimated that even in the presence of a large defect (~18%) or several smaller defects, the corrosion rate of TSA after 3 months of immersion in artificial seawater (ASTM D1141) at 25 °C was below 0.01 mm/year which was further extrapolated to a long-term corrosion rate values below 0.005 mm/year. These low values of corrosion rates are likely linked to the formation of protective corrosion products and calcareous deposits.

Another work focusing on damages in TSA coatings revealed a very important feature of the coating 42 . It was shown that TSA is not only capable of providing cathodic protection when a damage occurs before the coating is exposed to the seawater, but it is also able to activate its surface after the damage occurs when immersed and when the coating is already covered with corrosion products and other deposits. This indicates that TSA should be able to protect the surface of steel regardless if the damage in the coating appeared during transportation, installation or at the operational stage. However, it should be noted that both the above-mentioned studies were conducted in controlled laboratory conditions at relatively warm temperatures in stagnant artificial seawater. More research is needed to understand the mechanisms under more representative offshore service conditions, taking into account parameters such as temperature of the seawater, flow rate etc.

Several studies have been conducted to investigate the performance of TSA in subsea mud. Tests performed on silicone sealed TSA in environment typical to Gulf of Mexico revealed that 0.01 inch (254 µm) coating with a damage up to 5% area could provide protection for longer than 25 years 43 . Two other studies focused on TSA in combination with CP 44 , 45 . It was found that when the polarisation was not excessive (−1.1 V vs Ag/AgCl) the corrosion rate of TSA was below 10 µm/year after 230-day exposure at 10 °C and likely to decrease with time. It was suggested that a typical TSA coating of 200–400 µm should operate for longer than 20 years even at elevated temperatures (60 and 95 °C).

All the discussed standards provide guidance regarding coating selection based on their corrosion and mechanical performance. However, cost is also a very important factor that should be taken into account when selecting the corrosion mitigation strategy. It is estimated that operations and maintenance (O&M) costs of an offshore wind farm can account for 23% 46 –30% 30 of the total investment costs. To reduce O&M costs, durable corrosion mitigation must be applied. In 2013, Goodwin 47 conducted a Life Cycle Cost estimation of two corrosion protection systems applied on a tower of an offshore wind turbine (3.6 MW).

The first system consisted of a duplex system consisting of TSZ coating and the second one was a paint-only system. Assuming a 20-year operating time, the average equivalent annual cost (AEAC) was calculated as $97,000 for the duplex system and $337,000 for the paint only systems. Those cost estimates are probably not precise today. Nevertheless, they give a good indication that the use of metallic coatings, despite the increased initial costs, can also significantly reduce the overall costs especially taking into account the current 30-year operating time requirement.

Recently the use of TSA was specified as a stand-alone corrosion protection method for monopiles in the Baltic Sea 34 , 48 . Since no galvanic anodes or thick organic coatings were needed, this probably also had an influence on overall costs. However, no information was found regarding cost estimates of this technology in comparison to the conventional solutions.

Since more and more wind turbines will be deployed in the seas, considerations regarding potential pollutions from the corrosion protection systems started to surface in the recent years 48 , 49 , 50 . Galvanic anodes are a common corrosion mitigation method for offshore structures. The most common anodes are Al-based with small addition of other metals, such as Zn and In, to avoid formation of the passive layer. Some level of impurities can also be present (such as Cd, Mn, Fe, Si, Pb, Cu) 48 . To reduce the dissolution of the metallic anodes, organic coatings are often applied to the underwater zone of the structure. However, there are some concerns regarding pollution with microplastic 51 , 52 and bisphenol A 53 .

The use of TSA coatings is suggested as a good alternative to sacrificial anodes and organic coatings. Not only the dissolution rate of pure aluminium is slower, due to lack of Zn and In, but also the need of a thick organic coat is eliminated. To predict durability and corrosion performance of coatings, accelerated tests are often used. Tables 7 – 9 show the pre-qualification test included in Norsok M-501 7 , ISO 12944 (mainly part 9 5 , but also part 6 54 was included for the atmospheric zone) and VGB-S-021 9 . It can be noticed that for the atmospheric zone cycling ageing tests of at least 4200 h is specified by all the three standards. Moreover, continuous salt spray test and condensation test is included in the ISO 12944-5 8 (for zones C2-C5) and in VGB-S-021-02 9 .

The usefulness of continuous salt spray test for testing of coatings has been questioned for some time now in the scientific community. The main reason for this is due to the lack of good correlation between results from the accelerated tests and field tests 24 , 55 , 56 . Recent research focusing on comparing results from cycling ageing testing with field test data to assess rust creep growth around a scribe also did not show a satisfactory outcome 24 , 57 . The accelerated test failed to predict the filiform-like mechanism observed in the field test. Moreover, it was observed that the accelerated test generates significantly harsher conditions, which potentially leads to incorrect prediction of the degradation mechanism 57 . Additionally, in the study conducted by ref. 24 it was observed that the cycling ageing test fails to show a difference between corrosion creep performance of systems with and without Zn-rich primers.

A test performed by ref. 58 however, showed no correlation between the cycling aging test and the stationary field test, but some correlation was found with samples exposed on top of a moving ship. A question should be asked why the standards rely on testing in 5% NaCl, especially when testing systems containing Zn-rich primers. Natural seawater not only contains Na + and Cl − , but also mixture of different constituents such as for example Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ and SO 4 2− . Those ions play an important role during cathodic protection provided by Zn-rich layers, as they participate in formation of calcareous deposits (Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ ) and corrosion products.

For coating systems operating in splash and tidal zones, additional testing is required. Norsok M-501 7 and VGB-S-021-02 9 specify the assessment of the coating performance via impact test. Cathodic disbonding test is also required by all the three standards whereas water vapour diffusion test is only specified by VGB-S-021-02 9 . The most demanding testing regime for coating systems for submerged zone is provided by the VGB-S-021-02 9 standard, where either immersion testing or salt spray testing is required as well as cathodic disbond testing and water vapour diffusion testing. Norsok M-501, on the other hand, only asks for the cathodic disbonding test.

The primary function of the sacrificial metallic coatings used in offshore wind sectors is to provide cathodic protection to the underlying steel. However, when selecting a coating system, one should also consider other aspects such as mechanical performance, durability, ease of application and repairs, achievable coating thickness etc. Significant research efforts have been dedicated to optimising the performance of Zn-rich paints due to concerns related to environmental pollution, inadequate mechanical properties of high zinc-loaded paints, application difficulties, limited cathodic protection capabilities and high zinc price. Various modifications, such as addition of conductive or non-conductive pigments and polymers have been tested to improve the performance of the coatings. However, it should be noted that coating durability is also strongly dependent on the surface preparation and the quality of application of the product. In fact, a great number of coating failures occur due to insufficient/incorrect surface preparation, incorrect environmental control, or incorrect specification for given operating zone or application.

It is clear that sacrificial coatings will continue to play an important role in corrosion mitigation strategies for offshore wind structures. Since the renewable energy sources are predicted to account for over 90% of global electricity capacity over the next decade, the offshore wind sector will play an important role in delivering green energy demand. More and more wind farms will be built in deeper seas and durable and reliable corrosion mitigation methods will play a key role. This review showed that thermally sprayed metallic coatings, Zn-rich primers as well as HDG have a potential to provide long-term protection for steel structures operating in harsh marine conditions. However, it seems the cycling aging test specified by the main standards might not be the best approach for predicting the performance of the coating under service conditions. Further research is required to find a suitable testing regime for coatings. Academia and industry should work together to ensure that innovative coatings solutions can be successfully tested in accelerated tests without inadvertently altering the corrosion mechanism.

Data availability

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Syrek-Gerstenkorn, B., Paul, S. Metallic coatings in offshore wind sector—a mini review. npj Mater Degrad 8 , 86 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41529-024-00480-8

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The Three New Wind Energy Reports Highlight Industry Development, Expansion, and the Policies and Incentives Driving Wind Energy Forward

WASHINGTON, D.C.  — Over the past year, the U.S. wind energy sector showcased its resilience and potential, as detailed in the 2024 editions of the annual market reports released today by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The reports find that the passage of the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) has led to significant increases in near-term wind deployment forecasts and has motivated billions of dollars of investment in the domestic wind supply chain, despite ongoing challenges that the industry is navigating. Under President Biden and Vice President Harris’ leadership last year, wind power provided more than 10% of U.S. electricity and accounted for 12% of new electricity capacity, representing $10.8 billion in capital investment and supporting more than 125,000 American jobs. As one of the most cost-effective sources of electricity in America, wind energy is well-positioned for future growth. 

“The United States is committed to investing in technologies to accelerate the deployment of wind energy and bring more renewable electricity onto the grid,” said Eric Lantz, director, Wind Energy Technologies Office “DOE will continue collaborating with partners and stakeholders nationwide to advance the industry and propel our nation toward a cleaner, more secure and resilient energy future for all Americans.”

Near-term forecasts for wind energy have increased by over 30% in the wake of the IRA’s passage, with growth expected to ramp up to more than 15 gigawatts (GW) per year by 2026 and to nearly 20 GW per year by the end of the decade. The IRA is also fueling supply chain expansion with 15 new, re-opened, or expanded land-based wind manufacturing facilities announced since its passage.

The reports also find significant offshore wind growth expected in the next few years, with a U.S. project pipeline that has grown by 53% from the previous year. There are projects totaling almost 6 GW of offshore wind capacity under construction, 3 GW of additional projects approved by the U.S. Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) that have offtake agreements and are preparing to begin construction, and more than 45 GW in state commitments.

The  Land-Based Wind Market Report , prepared by DOE’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, details the nearly 6,500 megawatts (MW) of new utility-scale, land-based wind capacity added in 2023, bringing the total cumulative installed wind capacity to nearly 150,500 MW—the equivalent of powering around 45 million American homes. Key findings from the report include:

• Wind energy provided 10% of total electricity nationwide, more than 59% of electricity in Iowa, more than 55% of electricity in South Dakota, and more than 40% of electricity in Kansas and Oklahoma.
• At the end of 2023, utility-scale, land-based wind was installed in a total of 42 states, with 17 states installing new utility-scale, land-based wind turbines in 2023. Texas installed the most capacity, with 1,323 MW. Other leading states included Illinois and Kansas, with each adding more than 800 MW of capacity in 2023. 
• For the second time, non-utility buyers, such as corporations, are purchasing more wind than utilities. Direct retail purchasers of wind—including corporate commitments—buy electricity from at least 48% of the new wind capacity installed in 2023.
• Wind turbines continue to grow in size and power, contributing to competitive costs and prices. The average capacity of newly installed wind turbines has grown by 23% since 2020, to 3.4 MW, while the rotor diameter—the width of the circle swept by the rotating turbine blades—has increased 7% since 2020, to 438 feet. Larger wind turbines can create more electricity by capturing more wind with their longer blades, and they benefit from the better wind resources higher above the ground. 
• Wind provides public health and climate benefits by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide. The health and climate benefits of wind are larger than its grid-system value, and the combination of all three is more than three times the average levelized cost of energy for wind.

The  Offshore Wind Market Report , prepared by DOE’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory, shows that despite recent macroeconomic conditions and supply chain constraints, the U.S. offshore wind industry is set up to scale. The U.S. offshore wind energy project pipeline grew by 53% from the previous year to a total of 80,523 MW—enough to power more than 26 million homes if fully developed. This includes three fully operational projects totaling 174 MW, including South Fork Wind Farm, which is providing power to New York and is the United States’ first fully operational commercial-scale wind farm, and several projects under construction. Forecasts estimate that the United States could have 40 GW of offshore wind capacity installed by 2035. Other key findings from the report include:

• DOE estimates that $10 billion has been announced or invested in the U.S. offshore wind supply chain since the beginning of 2021. This figure includes $2.1 billion invested in 2023 alone.
• Eight states have procurement mandates that total more than 45 GW of offshore wind capacity by 2040. 
• Floating offshore wind is becoming a larger part of the U.S. offshore wind energy pipeline and future. California now has more than 6,000 MW of estimated pipeline capacity in the site control stage from five floating offshore wind projects, and the Gulf of Maine now has an estimated pipeline total of more than 15,000 MW (if fully developed) from eight new proposed lease areas.
• As of May 2024, the U.S. offshore wind energy pipeline has 38 projects in permitting or under site control, totaling more than 42 GW, with an additional 30 GW of capacity in the planning stage of the pipeline.
• Rising interest rates, supply chain constraints, and higher commodity prices during 2021–2023 have led to higher offshore wind energy costs, but against a backdrop of longer-term reductions. Even including recent cost increases, offshore wind costs have decreased by more than 50% since 2013. 

The  Distributed Wind Market Report , prepared by DOE’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, notes that 1,999  distributed wind turbines were added across 16 states in 2023. Distributed wind turbines, which serve on-site energy demand or support operation of local electricity distribution networks, added a total 10.5 MW of new capacity in 2023, representing $37 million in new investment. Key findings from the report include:

• Cumulative U.S. distributed wind capacity stands at 1,110 MW from more than 92,000 wind turbines across all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Guam. 
• Ohio, Illinois, and Alaska led the United States in distributed wind capacity additions in 2023, with three projects collectively representing 78% of capacity installed.
• Distributed wind is poised for deployment growth in part due to IRA funding opportunities and collaboration between DOE and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). In 2024, DOE and USDA launched the Rural Agricultural Income & Savings from Renewable Energy (RAISE) initiative to help farmers cut costs and increase income through distributed generation projects, including distributed wind. RAISE has an initial goal of helping 400 farmers deploy smaller-scale wind projects to help cut costs and increase income. To support this goal, DOE has made a $4 million initial investment and USDA is leveraging a $303 million fund for underutilized technologies (including distributed wind) and technical assistance through its Rural Energy for America Program (REAP).
• In 2023, a total of 40 wind energy projects received $3.4 million in USDA REAP grants, the largest total in more than a decade.

These reports aren’t just for experts—they’re for everyone curious about wind energy. Explore the new reports now and discover the opportunities in the wind on the DOE website at energy.gov/windreport . 

To stay informed about the latest wind energy news, events, funding opportunities, and updates,  subscribe to WETO's e-newsletter, Catch the Wind . Learn more about the Wind Energy Technologies Office in DOE’s  Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy .

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A novel hybrid method for multi-step short-term 70 m wind speed prediction based on modal reconstruction and stl-vmd-bilstm, 1. introduction, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. materials, 2.2. methods, 2.2.3. bilstm, 2.2.4. performance evaluation criteria, 3.1. experimental data description, 3.2. parameter selection, 3.3. analysis of proposed models, 3.3.1. decomposed results for stl, 3.3.2. decomposed results for vmd, 3.3.3. prediction results with different time series decomposition schemes, 3.3.4. prediction results with different models, 4. conclusions, 5. limitations and future research directions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Da, X.; Ye, D.; Shen, Y.; Cheng, P.; Yao, J.; Wang, D. A Novel Hybrid Method for Multi-Step Short-Term 70 m Wind Speed Prediction Based on Modal Reconstruction and STL-VMD-BiLSTM. Atmosphere 2024 , 15 , 1014. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15081014

Da X, Ye D, Shen Y, Cheng P, Yao J, Wang D. A Novel Hybrid Method for Multi-Step Short-Term 70 m Wind Speed Prediction Based on Modal Reconstruction and STL-VMD-BiLSTM. Atmosphere . 2024; 15(8):1014. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15081014

Da, Xuanfang, Dong Ye, Yanbo Shen, Peng Cheng, Jinfeng Yao, and Dan Wang. 2024. "A Novel Hybrid Method for Multi-Step Short-Term 70 m Wind Speed Prediction Based on Modal Reconstruction and STL-VMD-BiLSTM" Atmosphere 15, no. 8: 1014. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15081014

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