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The Center for the Study of World Religions is an academic community for interdisciplinary, international, and interreligious exchange, learning, research, and dialogue. Through conferences, symposia, film series, public lectures, and faculty research projects, it brings the rich intellectual resources of faculty and students across the schools and departments of Harvard University to bear on the forms and issues of the world's religions in today's complex, global, and changing world.

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The RLS, conducted in 2007 and 2014, surveys more than 35,000 Americans from all 50 states about their religious affiliations, beliefs and practices, and social and political views. User guide | Report about demographics | Report about beliefs and attitudes

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About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

World Religions: General Research Guide: General Religion Sources

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• Atla Religion Database (Atla) This link opens in a new window Coverage begins in 1908 for complete articles and reviews from major religion and theology journals.

Provides extensive coverage of world religions, major denominations, biblical studies, religious history, epistemology, political philosophy, philosophy of language, moral philosophy and the history of philosophy.

• ARDA Association of Religion Data Archives, provides national and global maps, charts, national & regional reports, and surveys on the religious beliefs and behaviors of Americans.
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• Atla Websites on Religion Websites reviewed by librarians. Check the starred, top-rated sites.
• Religious Studies Web Guide From the University of Calgary an excellent and very usable collection of web sites for the academic study of religion.
• Wabash Center Internet Guide A comprehensive directory related to the Wabash Center for Teaching and Learning in the the Study of Religion.

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Reference books are a great place to learn the basics about world faiths.  The experts who write on each topic refer you to other reliable sources. Use the Indexes to help you refine your research to specific terms.

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Course: big history project   >   unit 7.

• WATCH: Where and Why Did the First Cities and States Appear?
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READ: The Origin of World Religions

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The Origin of World Religions

Why religions became global.

In subsequent centuries, urban dwellers, and particularly poor, marginal persons, found that authoritative religious guidance, shared faith, and mutual support among congregations of believers could substitute for the tight-knit custom of village existence (within which the rural majority continued to live) and give meaning and value to ordinary lives, despite daily contact with uncaring strangers. Such religious congregations, in turn, helped to stabilize urban society by making its inherent inequality and insecurity more tolerable. (61)

A closer look at Hinduism and Buddhism

The untouchables, the lowest members of society, dealt with human waste and the dead. This group did the jobs no one else wanted to do. They were regarded by the other groups as ritually impure and therefore outside the hierarchy of groups altogether. The Sudras had service jobs, and the Vaisya were herders, farmers, artisans, and merchants. The Ksatriyas, the second highest caste, were the warriors and rulers. At the top were the Brahmans, who were priests, scholars, and teachers. Because priests were part of this caste, the early religion is known as Brahmanism. Brahmanism evolved into the larger Hindu tradition.

The Hindus revered many gods. They believed that people had many lives (reincarnation). Also, they believed in karma. This meant that whatever a person did in this life would determine what he or she would be in the next life. Thus, reincarnation creates a cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth. The cycle ends only when a person realizes that his or her soul and God’s soul are one. To help achieve this goal, the Hindus had several spiritual practices, some of which are done in the western world today, including meditation and yoga.

1. dharma: living a virtuous life

2. kama: pleasure of the senses

3. artha: achieving wealth and success lawfully

4. moksha: release from reincarnation

Life is filled with suffering (dukkha).

The root of this suffering comes from a person’s material desires (to want what you do not have).

In order to stop suffering, you must get rid of desire or greed.

If you follow the Eight-Fold Path then you can eliminate your material desires, and therefore, your suffering.

Right View: Understand that there is suffering in the world and that the Four Noble Truths can break this pattern of suffering.

Right Intention: Avoid harmful thoughts, care for others, and think about more than yourself.

Right Speech: Speak kindly and avoid lying or gossip.

Right Action: Be faithful and do the right thing; do not kill, steal, or lie.

Right Living: Make sure that your livelihood does not harm others. Do not promote slavery or the selling of weapons or poisons.

Right Effort: Work hard and avoid negative situations.

Right Awareness: Exercise control over your mind and increase your wisdom.

Right Concentration: Increase your peacefulness and calmness, in particular through meditation.

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The 10 Largest Religions in the World

After millennia of passing down knowledge through rich oral and written traditions, each of the world’s major religions has carried ambitious philosophies through countless eras. Woven throughout these mystical theologies are the epic sagas of humanity’s ancestors, who fought every day to uncover their purpose in life, just the same as us. Different approaches often utilize the same foundational myths, such as Eastern religions and the concept of the Dao, or the Abrahamic faith’s shared understanding of monotheism. Worth remembering is that humankind has been infatuated with religion for at least as long as people have pursued agriculture, approximately 10 thousand years. By studying these 10 ongoing faiths, one glimpses into an ancient history involving forefathers who gambled their souls on what they believed.

Christianity

At well over 30% of the global population, Christianity is a religion that resonates with over 2 billion believers. The core of the belief, despite the glaring differences between Protestants, Catholics, and Orthodox, revolves around the 1st-century figure that is Jesus of Nazareth. As an Abrahamic religion, Christians claim a belief in a singular god, who represents himself through three identities: Jesus, the Holy Spirit, and God the Father.

Another essential aspect is the death and resurrection of Jesus, in which humanity is allowed to repent of all misdeeds, and eventually spend the afterlife with their beloved deity. The philosophical values and codes of Christianity have been influential enough to form the backbone of Western institutions, despite a growing acceptance of secularism.

Most active towards the end of the 6th century, the Prophet Muhammed is celebrated by Muslims today for founding the religion of Islam. Roughly 1.8 billion followers populate the world, the majority of which are spread between northern Africa , west Asia , and Indonesia . The prophet desired to repair the Abrahamic religions , which he believed to be corrupted.

Islam is marked by its adherence to discipline, in which abstinence from worldly behaviors as well as observance of daily rites is rigorously demanded. Notable historic discoveries have come from Islamic institutions, in fields such as algebra, surgery, architecture, and even coffee. The two main branches of Islam that cohabitate the Muslim world are Sunni and Shia , which are said to have been divided 14 hundred years ago over an issue of succession.

The origin of Hinduism, a religion with 1.1 billion followers, is difficult to pin down because it began as an amalgamation of different beliefs. Officially formed between 2300 B.C. and 1500 B.C., the Indus Valley near modern-day Pakistan is the location in which it first blossomed. Typically thought of as the 'religion with 33 million gods,’ the majority of Hindus worship one god alone, albeit they accept the existence of other gods.

Core values are ones such as Karma and Samsara. Karma dictates that the moral sum of the deeds we produce will be returned to us eventually, through consequence or reward. Samsara is a model for the cyclical nature of life, a symptom of which is reincarnation. Historical contributions to the world include mathematics as well as astronomy and yoga.

A prince who renounced his wealth to pursue wisdom, the Buddha is an eclectic figure from the 5th century B.C. who brought together many different beliefs in order to develop a revolutionary philosophy on human identity and purpose. The goal is to achieve an enlightenment called Nirvana, through meditation, kindness, and hard work. Values revolve around the absence of an ‘essential self,’ impermanence, and the reality that life is suffering. Therefore, a primary aim for mankind is the elimination of suffering in all its forms.

The orange tunic, that the monks famously adorn, represents a fire that burns away impurities. Two different sects exist, the Theravada Buddhists and the East Asian Buddhists, which differ in their selection of texts. At 500 million followers, Buddhism has been lauded for its effective use of an egalitarian philosophy that has worked to dismantle caste systems worldwide.

Shinto, the ever-nebulous religion of Japan , has no settled doctrine or origin story. At its simplest, Shinto beliefs gravitate towards a fluid idea of kami. Kami are the personified concepts of wind, rivers, trees, and other natural elements. Due to the influence of Christianity, the concept of an afterlife was introduced, and some followers believe humans become kami after death.

The religion became more concrete in the events surrounding WWII , wherein the Japanese government instituted it as a state religion that aimed to venerate the emperor as a living, human, kami. Otherwise, Shinto beliefs have developed since the 6th century as a nature-focused series of scattered beliefs, that merged and then split with Buddhism as well as Confucianism. With 104 million followers and a focus on ancestry and nature, the belief can be understood through indulging in Japanese storytelling; wherein, the horror of 20th-century industry threatens the magic of the world around us.

In 1469, the first Guru of Sikhism was born. Guru Nanak, a northeast Pakistan native, migrated to India and began to record and teach his revelations during journeys around the Islamic and Hindu world throughout the early 1500s. These revelations are few but substantial: Share with others, earn an honest living, meditate on God’s name and resist negative behaviors.

Currently, the 25 million followers organize to promote universal egalitarian principles and believe that all faiths ultimately worship a singular divine being. A well-known example of this mindset is the tendency for Sikh temples to have a community kitchen dedicated to serving meals to anyone, for free. Sadly, Sikh history is marked by political difficulty and deadly rebellion against intolerant regimes. Several of the original Gurus, leaders that carry on Nanak’s spiritual empowerment, were executed by the state authority of their time.

The original Abrahamic faith, Judaism has been practiced for over 3500 years. Archaeological evidence confirms the existence of two adjacent Jewish kingdoms between 900 and 700 B.C., and the religious texts assume a confederacy of 12 tribes united in faith before that. Each tribe, and subsequent kingdom, claim descent from Abraham.

The faith is monotheistic, in contrast to the ancient Levant’s polytheistic history. The devotion to their god, “Yahweh,” comes from his commitment to them as a chosen people, while constantly being urged by him to return to pious behaviors. Unlike Christianity and Islam, there is no detailed assumption of the afterlife other than a deep sleep called “Sheol.” Roughly 14 million Jews continue to practice the faith today, despite extreme persecution during World War II.

A ‘one-size-fits-all’ belief, Taoism is a series of principles and axioms that attempts to guide followers towards balance. Two ‘persons’ sit at the heart of Taoism; the Tao itself, and Laozi, a 6th-century contemporary of Confucius. Laozi and his school decreed that the Tao is undefinable, and only engaged through lived experience. It is a powerful force that runs throughout the universe and encourages “De,” which is adherence to the Tao.

The Tao is the natural order of the universe and is not worshipped as a god, and it is believed that humans merge with the Tao upon death. By adhering to the lifestyle of De, the 12 million followers of Taoism trust that they will experience less suffering. Inaction and a passive effort to synchronize with this balance is the key differentiation from the more intentional Confucianism.

Confucianism

Despite dancing around spirituality, leading many to consider Confucianism as a philosophy only, the religion establishes a theological understanding of the Universe, albeit an impersonal one. In it, the priority of humankind is to strive to synchronize with the order of the universe in order to achieve oneness with heaven for the tranquility of community and self. This order is defined by “Tiān,” a non-speaking ‘God of Heaven’ which can be best translated as “the way things are.”

Moreover, Confucianism argues that the way humankind should act is a way that conforms to the most evident morals: charity, obedience to mentors, humility, and compassion. All people are inherently good and must work to realign themselves with that nature. Since its establishment by Confucius and his writings in 500 B.C., the faith currently hosts over 6 million followers.

A melting pot of many of the world’s largest faiths, Caodaism is a recent creation originating in 1921 when a vision came to an assembled group of mediums located in Vietnam . Nearly 4.4 million believers align themselves with the core tenets that teach harmony, unity with a monotheistic deity, reincarnation, and anti-materialism.  Besides the association with Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, Caodaism asserts the existence of several creator spirits as well as devils led by a being resemblant of Satan; this is a dynamic similar to Abrahamic faiths.

Naturally, to achieve heaven, a soul must evolve its spirit through good behavior during successive reincarnations. The belief was influential in Vietnam during the 1930s, not only because of its quick spread, but also due to the anti-colonialist sentiment that it cultivated against the French occupation. In 1997, after being banned for 22 years, the practice of the religion was permitted in Vietnam once again.

The shocking reality about each faith, side to side, is that they tend to possess more similarities than differences. For instance, students of each belief spend years honing their self-control and ability to grow through introspection. Countless tales can be heard of disciples who swear by the fact that these faiths transformed them into proud and more joyful members of society. Furthermore, the scholars of each belief are happy to borrow from each other when the opportunity presents itself. For example, famed Christian theologian C.S. Lewis cleverly integrated the concept of Tao into his own writings. After examining the history and core values of each faith, it is evident that the secret to how they might morph and evolve further is buried in the future.

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88722d666dda333b4ab34c05d4e279fa, the body in yoruba religion.

The following "Researcher Reflection" from Dr. Ayodeji Ogunnaike is part of an ongoing series where we spotlight CSWR scholars and their research.

In part as a result of discussions with others affiliated with the Center for the Study of World Religions, over the past several years I have become increasingly interested in not only the way the body is engaged in Yoruba religious practice but specifically the way Yoruba traditions can change and divinize the body. Traditional Yoruba religious and philosophical thought is inseparable from both ritual and deep engagement with the human body, even in Ifá divination, arguably the most widely practiced and celebrated indigenous African intellectual system. This is in large part because Yoruba tradition categorically resists the Cartesian dualism between body and mind or the Gnostic separation of matter and spirit that is found in many other traditions, particularly in the modern world. The best example of the integrated nature of the transcendent and imminent in traditional Yoruba thought and practice is the concept of orí which literally means “head” but also refers to a type of destiny, spirit double, or celestial self or companion. Orí is understood to exist on two planes: the orí inú (“inner” or “transcendent” head), which is chosen in heaven before entrance into the world, and the orí òde (“outer” or “imminent” head which one can see and touch). While this might seem to reinforce some type of body/spirit dichotomy, the two are ontologically linked, and consequently rituals performed on the orí òde have an effect on the orí inú. In fact, for many practitioners, several body parts are òrìṣà—or divinities—themselves and can receive prayers and ritual offerings to affect material changes in our lives. For some, the shadow is another type of soul, one’s big toe can be an òrìṣà, and even breath (ẹ̀mí) comes directly from God and is immortal.*

The rituals associated with the numerous òrìṣà traditions in the Yoruba cosmology all do more than merely help practitioners understand something about themselves or the cosmos, although they certainly do that. Rather they allow practitioners to experience the àṣẹ (agential power, energy, nature, or authority) of the òrìṣà which over time has a strong and formative effect on every dimension of the person’s being. For example, the tradition of the òrìṣà Ṣàngó is famous for its rich drumming and dancing—including and especially in the Atlantic religious diaspora, and its particular drums, rhythms, and body movements all produce, channel, and evoke a type of rapid and boisterous energy linked with Ṣàngó’s nature as thunder and lightning. The tradition of Ṣàngó’s wife Ọya—òrìṣà of tornadoes and storm winds—similarly carries and transmits the àṣẹ of swirling winds and unpredictable change. The foods associated with each òrìṣà also carrying a particular type of àṣẹ to the practitioner or the intended recipient of an offering, such as the cool liquid that comes out of a snail shell and the snail’s slow, deliberate movement all contain the àṣẹ of Òrìṣàńlá, the oldest and calmest of the òrìṣà. Even the color of clothes has its own àṣẹ which can have useful ritual purposes of invoking fear or danger as is often the case with red cloth in ààlè (a type of charm used to ward off thieves and intruders) or peace and serenity in white cloth which is again associated with Òrìṣàńlá and a number of other “cool” òrìṣà. As a result, practitioners often wear or avoid certain colors as a way of interacting with the appropriate type of àṣẹ.

Initiation can often be understood as the apex of all ritual processes because of its intensity and complexity, and during such ceremonies initiate’s bodies are acted upon in all the subtle methods mentioned above and even some that are much more direct. For example, it is quite common to have special “medicine” composed of àṣẹ-charged material literally inserted into a person’s orí/head to “seat” the òrìṣà there and cement that àṣẹ as a part of her destiny going forward. Initiate’s bodies are also frequently modified in any number of other ways from being painted, hair being shaved, or put through some form of a trial. However, one could make a case for another type of ritual representing the apex of the practice of many—but not all—òrìṣà traditions: spirit manifestation or “posession”. While conceptual accounts of precisely how this process works vary a bit amongst practitioners, all are in agreement that an òrìṣà literally becomes embodied in the practitioner, creating a type of temporary ontological unification that becomes more seamless and smooth over the course of the practitioner’s lifetime.

Observing the many ritual processes and speaking to practitioners has led me to realize that much like how married couples frequently start to look like each other, expert practitioners come to embody their òrìṣà in every sense of the word. This process of theosis and how it is actualized will be the topic of my upcoming talk at CSWR on February 20, 2024.  

_____________________________________________________________

*I have a brief, public-facing introduction to traditional Yoruba conceptions of the “self” that can be found here .

—by Dr. Ayodeji Ogunnaike, Visiting Scholar, Center for the Study of World Religions

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David French

The Line Between Good and Evil Cuts Through Evangelical America

By David French

Opinion Columnist

I’m afraid that an exit poll question has confused America.

Every four years, voters are asked, “Are you a white evangelical or born-again Christian?” And every time, voters from a broad range of Protestant Christian traditions say yes, compressing a diverse religious community into a single, unified mass.

It’s not that the question is misleading. People who answer yes do represent a coherent political movement. Not only do they vote overwhelmingly for Republicans; they’re also quite distinct from other American political groups in their views on a host of issues, including on disputes regarding race, immigration and the Covid vaccines.

But in other ways, this exit poll identity misleads us about the nature and character of American evangelicalism as a whole. It’s far more diverse and divided than the exit poll results imply. There are the rather crucial facts that not all evangelicals are white and evangelicals of color vote substantially differently from their white brothers and sisters. Evangelicals of color are far more likely to vote Democratic, and their positions on many issues are more closely aligned with the American political mainstream. But the differences go well beyond race.

In reality, American evangelicalism is best understood as a combination of three religious traditions: fundamentalism, evangelicalism and Pentecostalism. These different traditions have different beliefs, different cultures and different effects on our nation.

The distinction between fundamentalism and evangelicalism can be the hardest to parse, especially since we now use the term “evangelical” to describe both branches of the movement. The conflict between evangelicalism and fundamentalism emerged most sharply in the years following World War II, when so-called neo-evangelicals arose as a biblically conservative response to traditional fundamentalism’s separatism and fighting spirit. I say “biblically conservative” because neo-evangelicals had the same high view of Scripture as the inerrant word of God that fundamentalists did, but their temperament and approach were quite different.

The difference between fundamentalism and neo-evangelicalism can be summed up in two men, Bob Jones and Billy Graham. In a 2011 piece about the relationship between Jones and Graham, the Gospel Coalition’s Justin Taylor called them the “exemplars of fundamentalism and neo-evangelicalism.” Jones was the founder of the university that bears his name in Greenville, S.C., one of the most influential fundamentalist colleges in America.

Bob Jones University barred Black students from attending until 1971, then banned interracial dating until 2000 . The racism that plagued Southern American fundamentalism is a key reason for the segregation of American religious life. It’s also one reason the historically Black Protestant church is distinct from the evangelical tradition, despite its similar views of the authority of Scripture.

Graham attended Bob Jones University for a semester, but soon left and took a different path. He went on to become known as “America’s pastor,” the man who ministered to presidents of both parties and led gigantic evangelistic crusades in stadiums across the nation and the world. While Jones segregated his school, Graham removed the red segregation rope dividing white and Black attendees at his crusades in the South — before Brown v. Board of Education — and shared a stage with Martin Luther King Jr. at Madison Square Garden in 1957.

But since that keen Jones/Graham divide, the lines between evangelicalism and fundamentalism have blurred. Now the two camps often go to the same churches, attend the same colleges, listen to the same Christian musicians and read the same books. To compound the confusion, they’re both quite likely to call themselves evangelical. While the theological differences between fundamentalists and evangelicals can be difficult to describe, the temperamental differences are not.

“Fundamentalism,” Richard Land, the former head of the Southern Baptist Convention’s Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission, once told me, “is far more a psychology than a theology.” That psychology is defined by an extreme sense of certainty, along with extreme ferocity.

Roughly speaking, fundamentalists are intolerant of dissent. Evangelicals are much more accepting of theological differences. Fundamentalists place a greater emphasis on confrontation and domination. Evangelicals are more interested in pluralism and persuasion. Fundamentalists focus more on God’s law. Evangelicals tend to emphasize God’s grace. While many evangelicals are certainly enthusiastic Trump supporters, they are more likely to be reluctant (and even embarrassed) Trump voters, or Never Trumpers, or Democrats. Fundamentalists tend to march much more in lock step with the MAGA movement. Donald Trump’s combative psychology in many ways merges with their own.

A Christian politics dominated by fundamentalism is going to look very different from a Christian politics dominated by evangelicalism. Think of the difference between Trump and George W. Bush. Bush is conservative. He’s anti-abortion. He’s committed to religious liberty. These are all values that millions of MAGA Republicans would claim to uphold, but there’s a yawning character gap between the two presidents, and their cultural influence is profoundly different.

While the difference between evangelicalism and fundamentalism can be difficult to discern, Pentecostalism is something else entirely. American evangelicals can trace their roots to the Reformation; the Pentecostal movement began a little over 100 years ago, during the Azusa Street revival in Los Angeles in 1906. The movement was started by a Black pastor named William Seymour, and it is far more supernatural in its focus than, say, the Southern Baptist or Presbyterian church down the street.

At its heart, Pentecostalism believes that all of the gifts and miracles you read about in the Bible can and do happen today. That means prophecy, speaking in tongues and gifts of healing. Pentecostalism is more working class than the rest of the evangelical world, and Pentecostal churches are often more diverse — far more diverse — than older American denominations. Hispanics in particular have embraced the Pentecostal faith, both in the United States and in Latin America, and Pentecostalism has exploded in the global south .

When I lived in Manhattan, my wife and I attended Times Square Church, a Pentecostal congregation in the heart of the city, and every Sunday felt like a scene from the book of Revelation , with people “from every nation, tribe, people and language” gathered together to worship with great joy.

Pentecostalism is arguably the most promising and the most perilous religious movement in America. At its best, the sheer exuberance and radical love of a good Pentecostal church is transformative. At its worst, the quest for miraculous experience can lead to a kind of frenzied superstition, where carnival barker pastors and faux apostles con their congregations with false prophecies and fake miracles, milking them for donations and then wielding their abundant wealth as proof of God’s favor.

The Pentecostal church, for example, is the primary home of one of the most toxic and dangerous Christian nationalist ideas in America — the Seven Mountain Mandate , which holds that God has ordained Christians to dominate the seven “mountains” of cultural influence: the family, the church, education, media, arts, the economy and government. This is an extreme form of Christian supremacy, one that would relegate all other Americans to second-class status.

Pentecostalism is also the primary source for the surge in prophecies about Trump that I’ve described before . It’s mostly Pentecostal pastors and leaders who have told their flocks that God has ordained Trump to rule — and to rule again. Combine the Seven Mountain Mandate with Trump prophecies, and you can see the potential for a kind of fervent radicalism that is immune to rational argument. After all, how can you argue a person out of the idea that God told him to vote for Trump? Or that God told him that Christians are destined to reign over the United States?

When I look at the divisions in American evangelicalism, I’m reminded of the Homer Simpson toast : “To alcohol! The cause of, and solution to, all of life’s problems.” The American church has been the cause of much heartache and division. It is also the source of tremendous healing and love. We saw both the love and the division most vividly in the civil rights movement, when Black Christians and their allies faced the dogs and hoses all too often unleashed by members of the white Southern church. We saw this on Jan. 6, when violent Christians attacked the Capitol, only to see their plans foiled by an evangelical vice president who broke with Trump at long last to uphold his constitutional oath and spare the nation a far worse catastrophe.

I’ve lived and worshiped in every major branch of American evangelicalism. I was raised in a more fundamentalist church, left it for evangelicalism and spent a decade of my life worshiping in Pentecostal churches. Now I attend a multiethnic church that is rooted in both evangelicalism and the Black church tradition. I’ve seen great good , and I’ve seen terrible evil .

That long experience has taught me that the future of our nation isn’t just decided in the halls of secular power; it’s also decided in the pulpits and sanctuaries of American churches. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn wrote that the line between good and evil “cuts through the heart of every human being.” That same line also cuts through the heart of the church.

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David French is an Opinion columnist, writing about law, culture, religion and armed conflict. He is a veteran of Operation Iraqi Freedom and a former constitutional litigator. His most recent book is “Divided We Fall: America’s Secession Threat and How to Restore Our Nation .” You can follow him on Threads ( @davidfrenchjag ).