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5.9: Case Study- Oscillator Phase Noise Analysis

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In this section the oscillator shown in Figure 5.8.3 is modeled and simulated in the time-domain [25, 26, 36]. The circuit includes three nonlinear devices, two identical BJTs and one varactor, which must be modeled. The process of developing a device model involves fitting the coefficients of a physically based model to measured characteristics. The development of models of the noise sources also requires fitting some noise parameters to measurements.

Device Modeling

The physical model used with each of the BJTs is shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) along with thermal, shot, and flicker noise sources. The Gummel-Poon BJT model was used with parameters provided by the manufacturer. The thermal noise sources, \(i_{t,rb}\), \(i_{t,rc}\), and \(i_{t,re}\), are associated with the parasitic resistors at the collector, base, and emitter, respectively. The thermal noise current source models are

\[\label{eq:1}i_{t,rc}=\sqrt{\frac{2kT}{R_{c}}}\xi_{c},\quad i_{t,rb}=\sqrt{\frac{2kT}{R_{bb}}}\xi_{b}\quad\text{and}\quad i_{t,re}=\sqrt{\frac{2kT}{R_{e}}}\xi_{e} \]

where \(\xi_{c},\:\xi_{b},\) and \(\xi_{e}\) are sequences of white noise generated by the logistic map of Equation (5.8.12) with \(\lambda = 4\). The \(\xi_{c}\)s have values between \(0\) and \(1\). In this case the model is based on physical mechanisms and fitting of the noise model to measurements is not required.

Based on the development in [55] and [56], when the transistor is in the forward active region, minority carriers diffuse and drift across the base into the base-collector region. Since there is an electric field, the charges undergo acceleration when they enter the collector-base depletion region and are swept to the collector. This is a random process and is the source of shot noise in the collector. Recombination effects in the base-emitter region and carrier injection from the base into the emitter are also random processes contributing to shot noise in the base and emitter, respectively. Thus there are three shot noise current sources, \(i_{s,ce}\), \(i_{s,be}\), and \(i_{s,bc}\), which are proportional to the instantaneous collector-emitter, base-emitter, and base-collector currents, respectively. They are modeled as follows:

\[\label{eq:2}i_{s,ce}=\sqrt{e|i_{ce}|}\xi_{ce},\quad i_{s,be}=\sqrt{e|i_{be}|}\xi_{be},\quad\text{and}\quad i_{s,bc}=\sqrt{e|i_{bc}|}\xi_{bc} \]

where \(\xi_{ce},\:\xi_{be}\), and \(\xi_{bc}\) are white noise sequences between \(0\) and \(1\) and generated by the logistics map with \(\lambda = 4\), and \(e\) is the elementary charge.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): The Gummel-Poon BJT model, along with noise sources.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): The p-n junction diode model with noise source.

Although there is more than one known source of flicker noise in a BJT [57], it has been shown that the dominant source of flicker noise can be modeled as a single noise current between the base and emitter terminals. It is a function of the instantaneous base-emitter recombination current [58] and so the flicker noise source is

\[\label{eq:3}i_{f,be}=k_{f}\sqrt{|i_{be}|^{\alpha}}\xi_{f} \]

Here \(\xi_{f}\) is between \(0\) and \(1\) and is a sequence generated by the logarithmic map in Equation (5.8.15) and \(\alpha\) controls the dependence of the flicker noise component on the non-ideal base current; here \(\alpha\) is set to \(2\). The logarithmic map sequence, \(\xi_{f}\), is parameterized by \(\beta\), which was fit to noise measurements yielding \(\beta = 0.000005\). The other parameter, \(k_{f}\), sets the amplitude of the flicker noise and fitting to noise data yielded \(k_{f} = 0.001\). The same flicker noise parameters were used with both BJTs. All of the noise sources were uncorrelated and this was achieved by randomly choosing initial seeds of each sequence, the \(\xi\)s.

The diode model is shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). The noisy model of the diode includes a thermal current source for the parasitic resistance, a shot noise current source, and a flicker noise current source that is dependent on the current flowing through the diode [56]. The diode’s thermal, shot, and flicker noise current sources are

\[\label{eq:4}i_{t,rs}=\sqrt{\frac{2kT}{R}}\xi_{t},\quad i_{s,d}=\sqrt{ei_{d}}\xi_{s},\quad\text{and}\quad i_{f,d}=k_{fd}\sqrt{i_{d}^{\alpha}}\xi_{f} \]

respectively. Here the parameter \(k_{fd}\) is the scaling coefficient for the diode flicker noise and \(\alpha\) controls the dependence of the flicker noise component on the current in the diode. As with the BJT, \(\alpha = 2\) in the simulations reported here. The parameter \(\beta\) controls the slope of the autocorrelation characteristic. As before, the random variables \(\xi_{t}\) and \(\xi_{s}\), describing the thermal and shot noise processes, were generated using the logistic map, and \(\xi_{f}\), describing the flicker noise process, was generated using the logarithmic map. The amplitude of the flicker noise source was fit to measurements and the same \(\beta = 0.00005\) parameter was used as was determined for the BJT model.

The noise model of the oscillator is completed by modeling the thermal noise current of each resistor as in Equation \(\eqref{eq:1}\).

Oscillator Simulation

The VCO circuit of Figure 5.8.3 was simulated in the time domain using the transient simulator described in [25] and [26]. In the circuit model there are a total of three flicker noise parameters fit to measurements, \(k_{f}\) for the BJTs, \(k_{fd}\)

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Phase noise comparison between data and experiment with bias voltage at \(0\text{ V}\).

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Phase noise comparison between data and experiment with bias voltage at \(6\text{ V}\).

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): Phase noise comparison between data and experiment with bias voltage at \(12\text{ V}\).

for the diode, and the same value of \(\beta\) was used for the BJTs and the diode. Thus there are three noise parameters to be set in the VCO circuit. These were unchanged in simulations of the VCO with different varactor bias voltages. These are the only noise parameters that are not fixed by the device currents and parasitic resistance values. The phase noise output following simulation was Fourier analyzed yielding the phase noise results shown in Figures \(\PageIndex{3}\) to \(\PageIndex{5}\). These measured results were also presented in Figures 5.8.4 and 5.8.5, where the phase noise slopes were identified as \(f^{0},\: f^{−1},\) \(f^{−2}\), and \(f^{−3}\). So the simulated phase noise results in Figures \(\PageIndex{3}\) to \(\PageIndex{5}\) correctly calculate the various phase noise slopes and crossover frequencies for diverse varactor tuning conditions.

Strategies and Implications of Noise Pollution Monitoring, Modelling, and Mitigation in Urban Cities

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• First Online: 07 February 2023
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• S. K. Tiwari 6 ,
• L. A. Kumaraswamidhas 6 &
• N. Garg 7  

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The present chapter provides an exhaustive review on the noise monitoring studies, comparison of the prediction models including physical propagation model, and applications of the artificial intelligence techniques, noise mapping, and noise pollution monitoring in mining sector carried out by various researchers. Most of the noise pollution studies deal with the assessment of traffic noise and some were focused exclusively on noise monitoring for the residential, educational, industrial, and commercial sites noise. The study reveals that early models were based on mathematical prediction models, later machine learning and deep learning methods were generally used for prediction and forecasting of noise levels. A retrospective view on noise mapping and control is presented in the chapter. Also, the noise pollution control and abatement measures are highlighted that shall be indispensable for reducing the ambient noise levels in metropolitan cities of the country.

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Acknowledgments

Authors also express their gratitude toward Director, CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, India, for his constant encouragement and support. Authors also express their sincere thanks to Dr. Sanjay Yadav, Head, Physico-Mechanical Standards and Professor Ravinder Aggarwal, Professor, Thapar University, Patiala for their constant encouragement and support for this chapter. The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of author’s own and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any agency of the Government of India. The content of the papers is solely to present a retrospective and prospective view of noise levels and may not be used or considered for disputes redressal in legal framework.

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Dinesh K. Aswal

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Sanjay Yadav

National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industria, Ibaraki, Japan

Toshiyuki Takatsuji

National Institute of Standards and Tech, GAITHERSBURG, MD, USA

Prem Rachakonda

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Tiwari, S.K., Kumaraswamidhas, L.A., Garg, N. (2023). Strategies and Implications of Noise Pollution Monitoring, Modelling, and Mitigation in Urban Cities. In: Aswal, D.K., Yadav, S., Takatsuji, T., Rachakonda, P., Kumar, H. (eds) Handbook of Metrology and Applications. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1550-5_86-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1550-5_86-1

Received : 10 July 2022

Accepted : 27 August 2022

Published : 07 February 2023

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Soundscape approach integrating noise mapping techniques: a case study in Brighton, UK

• Francesco Aletta and Jian Kang

In the guidelines about the management of areas of good environmental noise quality recently published by the European Environment Agency (EEA) it is suggested to combine different methodologies, like noise mapping, sound level measurements and the soundscape approach. Such a recommendation has started to be recognised by a number of local authorities in Europe that are gradually integrating a holistic concept into their environmental noise policies. This research aimed to explore and demonstrate the possibility to integrate conventional noise mapping methods and soundscape methods in an actual urban redevelopment project. A case study was made using the Valley Gardens project in Brighton & Hove (UK). Different scenarios of sound-pressure level distributionswere simulated for both traffic sound sources (i.e. noise maps) and natural sound sources (i.e. sound maps). Additionally, individual responses about the sound environment of the place collected during an on-site question survey were used to implement soundscape maps.

The overall picture revealed that the road traffic noise should be reduced, but also it is feasible that preferred sounds likewater features or birdsong could be introduced to make the sound environment more appropriate for the place. Generally, within the framework of this research, noise maps, sound maps and soundscape maps were used together to "triangulate" different layers of information related to the acoustic environment and the way it is perceived, providing a possible working procedure to consider for planners and policy-makers in the future.

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©2015 F. Aletta and J. Kang

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.

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EPA Transcriptomic Assessment Product (ETAP) and Value of Information (VOI) Case Study

EPA’s Safer Chemicals Research  aims to address the challenge of needing more chemical information to make informed, risk-based decisions. Less  than a quarter of the tens of thousands of chemicals in commerce--as well as those found in the environment, various waste streams, and the human body--have traditional toxicity or epidemiological data that can inform human health risk assessments. To address the challenge,  researchers developed the EPA Transcriptomic Assessment Product (ETAP). ETAP is a novel human health assessment approach targeting chemicals lacking traditional toxicity testing data. To accompany the ETAP, EPA also conducted a Value of Information (VOI) analysis to weigh the public health and economic trade-offs associated with the timeliness, uncertainty, and costs of the ETAP compared to traditional toxicity tests. 

EPA Transcriptomic Assessment Product (ETAP)

Value of information (voi) analysis.

• Expected Results

A human health assessment or science assessment is typically the hazard identification and dose-response analysis that produces a reference value for the chemical. This, along with exposure information, is foundational for a risk assessment . 

One reason for the limited number of human health assessments, and subsequent risk assessments, is traditional toxicity testing and human health assessments for a chemical are time and resource intensive--often taking eight or more years to complete. State agencies, the public, and various stakeholder organizations are in need of toxicity values for data poor chemicals in a shorter timeframe in order to take an informed action to protect human health.

The draft EPA Transcriptomic Assessment Product (ETAP) aims to help address chemicals lacking traditional toxicity testing data in a more timely way. The primary driver for this new assessment product is the lack of human health toxicity values for most chemicals under the EPA regulatory purview. The ETAP transcriptomic-based reference values can be developed and reported in a 6–9-month timeframe, providing key data to the Agency that may facilitate more timely regulatory decision-making. ETAP is currently undergoing a Board of Scientific Counselors (BOSC) and public comment review. 

" Transcriptomics " is the study of messenger RNA molecules expressed in a cell or tissue, and it takes advantage of technology from the human genome project   tha t allows for a comprehensive evaluation of changes in gene activity. Previous studies have demonstrated that doses of chemicals causing disruption of gene activity are highly correlated with doses causing toxicological responses in traditional animal toxicity tests. Costs associated with the RNA sequencing technology have fallen significantly, making it more accessible and enabling broad application to environmental issues.

Read the draft reports: 

• Standard Methods for Development of ETAPs (pdf) (3.1 MB)
• Scientific Studies Supporting Development of Transcriptomic Points of Departure for EPA Transcriptomic Assessment Products (ETAPs) (pdf) (2.3 MB)

EPA developed a Value of Information (VOI) decision frameworks to evaluate the ETAP compared to toxicity testing in traditional human health assessments. VOI analysis was listed as a recommendation in the 2009 NAS report Science and Decisions  to provide EPA a more objective decision framework in assessing the trade-offs of time, uncertainty, and cost for a variety of chemical exposure scenarios and decision contexts.

This socio-economic analysis compares the public health (i.e., societal health benefits) and economic trade-offs associated with the ETAP as compared to traditional toxicity testing and human health assessment.

The VOI results suggest a more timely new assessment product, like the ETAP, has significant public health and economic benefits compared with the traditional toxicity testing and human health assessment process.

Read the draft report:

• VOI Case Study Report (pdf) (3.1 MB)
• VOI Case Study Supplemental Material (pdf) (1.4 MB)

Results and Future Directions

The goal of the draft ETAP is to develop and operationalize a new process for timely human health assessment for chemicals that lack human health toxicity data. Once the chemical of interest is in the lab, an ETAP can be completed in less than a year. In the reports developed by the EPA for scientific peer review, a literature review and transcriptomic dose response analysis studies showed high concordance between transcriptomic and apical benchmark dose (BMD) values in traditional animal toxicity studies. The concordance was robust across species, sex, route of exposure, physical chemical properties, toxicokinetic half-life, and technology platform. The error associated with the concordance between the transcriptomic and apical BMD values was demonstrated to be approximately equivalent to the combined inter-study variability associated with the transcriptomic study and the two-year rodent bioassay. 

In July 2023,  EPA solicited public comment and held two separate ad hoc Board of Scientific Counselors (BOSC) panels met to review the ETAP and VOI materials. After these reviews, EPA will respond to comments, finalize and publish these reports. 

• Board of Scientific Counselors (BOSC)  EPA Transcriptomic Assessment Products (ETAP) Panel
• Board of Scientific Counselors (BOSC) Value of Information (VOI) Panel
• Standard Methods
• Value of Information Case Study
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Pune Porsche crash case: How DNA analysis of ‘secret’ sample helped cops nail sample swap

The investigation also unearthed financial transactions with the doctors, police said..

In yet another dramatic turn in the Porsche crash in Pune, the City Police on Monday arrested two doctors and a staffer of the state-run Sassoon General Hospital for changing the blood sample of the minor driver, which was collected close to eight hours after the accident and replacing it with another.

A DNA analysis done at a state-run forensics facility following a ‘secret’ blood sample taken because of intelligence inputs helped police unearth a criminal conspiracy involving the senior doctors and the father of the minor driver, further prompting them to probe the involvement of more people. The investigation also unearthed financial transactions with the doctors, police said.

On Monday, the police arrested two Sassoon doctors Dr Ajay Taware, Dr Shrihari Halnor and a Sassoon staffer Atul Ghatkamble on the charges of destruction of evidence by changing the sample collected from the minor. A senior officer said that the probe in this context was launched on Sunday after police received a report from the forensics facility on the DNA analysis of three samples including one taken — as police commissioner Amitesh Kumar said — “secretly”.

Explaining how the blood sample’s destruction came to light, a senior officer said, “The first blood sample of the minor was taken around 11 am at Sassoon General Hospital on May 19. Because of certain inputs about possible tampering, we pressed for another sample collection at 6 pm which was taken at District Hospital in Aundh. The next day, on May 20, the swabs from these two samples were sent to a state run forensics facility for DNA analysis. On May 21, after the father of the minor was arrested, we sent his (the father’s) sample for DNA analysis. The reports of the DNA analysis of these three samples were received on May 26. Reports suggested that the father of the minor was unrelated to the Sassoon swab. The swab from Aundh hospital matched him. This also suggests that the doctors at Sassoon Hospital changed the sample between May 19 and the time we took the swab on the 20th. During initial questioning, the doctors said they had discarded the sample in a dustbin and that it was picked up along with other biomedical waste. The chances of its recovery are not there. Ghatkamble’s primary role was the exchange of money.”

When asked why the second sample was taken and whether there was any intelligence inputs about tampering with the sample, Amitesh Kumar told the media, “After looking at the report of the physical examination around 11 am and with some intelligence reports we were receiving, we realised that we can not rule out the possibility of tampering. That is why a second sample was taken secretly to be tested at a different hospital.”

Late on Monday afternoon, Dr Taware, Dr Halnor and Ghatkamble were produced before court. In his remand application to the court, the investigation officer, Assistant Commissioner of Police Sunil Tambe told the court, “A probe has revealed that financial transactions amounted to bribes taken by the accused in the case to change the sample. For that we will be searching their homes. Police custody of the accused is required for the recovery of the money.”

“The minor’s father has been named as an accused in the charges of changing the sample. Technical evidence suggests that the father was in direct contact with Dr Taware,” Kumar told reporters earlier on Monday.

When asked whether the role of any other person other than the father or any other functionaries from Sassoon General Hospital were being investigated, Kumar said, “I want to reiterate that we are probing this case with utmost diligence. All possible angles are being investigated. We are also looking into the CCTV footage from the Sassoon Hospital. All possible angles are being probed.”

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• Pune Porsche crash

Panchayat's third season maintains its authentic and relatable tone, focusing on character development and exploring larger themes. The show avoids unnecessary theatrics and showcases the growth and aspirations of its characters in a realistic manner. With a talented cast, Panchayat continues to charm viewers with its understated yet captivating portrayal of rural life.

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