how world war 2 started essay

The Causes of WWII

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The origins of the Second World War (1939-45) may be traced back to the harsh peace settlement of the First World War (1914-18) and the economic crisis of the 1930s, while more immediate causes were the aggressive invasions of their neighbours by Germany, Italy , and Japan . A weak and divided Europe , an isolationist USA, and an opportunistic USSR were all intent on peace, but the policy of appeasement only delivered what everyone most feared: another long and terrible world war.

The main causes of WWII were:

• The harsh Treaty of Versailles
• The economic crisis of the 1930s
• The rise of fascism
• Germany's rearmament
• The cult of Adolf Hitler
• The policy of appeasement by Western powers
• Treaties of mutual interest between Axis Powers
• Lack of treaties between the Allies
• The territorial expansion of Germany, Italy, and Japan
• The Nazi-Soviet Pact
• The invasion of Poland in September 1939
• The Japanese attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbour

Treaty of Versailles

Germany was defeated in the First World War, and the victors established harsh terms to ensure that some of the costs of the war were recuperated and to prevent Germany from becoming a future threat. With European economies and populations greatly damaged by the war, the victors were in no mood to be lenient since Germany had almost won and its industry was still intact. Germany remained a dangerous state. However, Britain and France did not want a totally punitive settlement, as this might lead to lasting resentment and make Germany unable to become a valuable market for exports.

The peace terms were set out in the Treaty of Versailles, signed by all parties except the USSR on 28 June 1919. The Rhineland must be demilitarised to act as a buffer zone between Germany and France. All colonies and the Saar, a coal-rich area of western Germany, were removed from German authority. Poland was given the industrial area of Upper Silesia and a corridor to the sea, which included Danzig (Gdánsk) and cut off East Prussia from the rest of Germany. France regained the regions of Alsace and Lorraine. Germany had to pay war reparations to France and Belgium. Germany had limits on its armed forces and could not build tanks, aircraft, submarines, or battleships. Finally, Germany was to accept complete responsibility, that is the guilt, for starting the war. Many Germans viewed the peace terms as highly dishonourable.

The settlement established nine new countries in Eastern Europe, a recipe for instability since all of them disputed their borders, and many contained large minority groups who claimed to be part of another country. Germany, Italy, and Russia, once powerful again after the heavy costs of WWI, looked upon these fledgling states with imperialist envy.

In the 1920s, Germany signed two important treaties. The Locarno Treaty of 1925 guaranteed Germany's western borders but allowed some scope for change in the east. The 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact was signed by 56 countries. All the major powers promised not to conduct foreign policy using military means. In 1929, Germany's reparations as stipulated by the Treaty of Versailles were reduced from £6.6 million to £2 million. In 1932, the reparations were cancelled altogether. This was all very promising, but through the 1930s, the complex web of European diplomacy began to quickly unravel in a climate of economic decline.

Economic Crisis

The Great Depression, sparked off by the Wall Street stock-market crash of 1929, resulted in a crisis in many economies through the 1930s. There was a collapse in world trade , prices, and employment. In Germany in 1923, there was hyperinflation, which made savings worthless, a blow many of the German middle class never forgot. The regular loans from the United States (the Dawes Plan), upon which the German economy depended, stopped. There was a hostile attitude amongst many states as international trade collapsed. The USA, the world's most important money lender, pursued an isolationist strategy. Britain and France looked only to their empires. Protectionism and trade tariffs became the norm.

Germany became determined to reach self-sufficiency and not rely on world trade partners, a policy that required the acquisition of natural resources through military occupation. Germany saw the route out of the financial mess as one of massive rearmament which would create jobs in factories and the armed forces. The policy involved not only stockpiling weapons but also creating an economy geared towards total war, where the armaments industry was given priority in terms of resources, energy, factories, and skilled workers.

Hitler & the Nazi Party

Nationalist fascist parties were doing well across Europe. From 1922, Italy was ruled by Benito Mussolini (l. 1883-1945), leader of the fascist party there. By 1939, Spain had a fascist ruler in General Franco (l. 1892-1975). In Germany, Adolf Hitler (l. 1889-1945) was the leader of the fascist National Socialist Party (Nazi Party), the largest party after the July and November elections of 1932. There were even fascist parties in democracies like Britain. Charismatic leaders were turning popular nationalist feelings into a much more sinister way of thinking: fascism. Fascist parties, although not exactly the same in different countries, did have some key goals in common. Fascist leaders wanted absolute power and to achieve this new order they emphasised "conformism, hostility to outsiders, routine violence, contempt for the weak, and extreme hatred of dissident opinions" (Dear, 274). Fascist parties initially gained popularity as opponents to communism, seen as a threat by many ever since the Russian Revolution of 1917. Indeed, in Western countries, a deep suspicion of communism prevented a powerful political and military alliance from being formed with the USSR, which might ultimately have avoided war.

Hitler promised the humiliation of Versailles would be revenged and that Germany would be made great again. Many Germans believed they had been betrayed by the high command of the army in WWI and were tired of the endless round of ineffective coalition governments since the war. Hitler, with no connections to the established elite, offered a new beginning, and most of all, he promised jobs and bread in a period when unemployment and poverty were at extremely high levels. The Nazi party promised a dynamic economy which would power German expansion, seen as a glorious endeavour, with the virtues of war championed. Nazism called for Lebensraum (living space) for the German people – new lands where they could prosper. Nazism identified its principal internal enemies as Jews, Slavs , Communists and trade unionists, all people who were holding Germany back from realising its full potential the Nazis claimed. Nazism called for an international struggle where Germans could achieve their destiny and prove themselves the master race. Such ideas, none of which were radically new, meant war was inevitable. The argument that totalitarian regimes require wars and liberal democracies require peace to prosper may be simplistic but has some validity. Hitler promised the new Third Reich would last for 1,000 years and, using propaganda, show, and brutal repression of alternative ideas, many believed him as he expertly tapped into long-held views in Germany and Austria. As F. McDonough states, "Hitler was the drummer of an old tune accompanied by modern instruments" (93).

In January 1933, the German President Paul von Hindenburg (l. 1847-1934), having run out of all other options, invited Hitler to become Chancellor. After systematically crushing any opposition, Hitler began to put his domestic policies into practice and establish a totalitarian regime, everything he had written in his book Mein Kampf ( My Struggle ) back in 1924. When Hindenburg died in August 1934, Hitler effectively merged the positions of President and Chancellor and declared himself Germany's leader or Führer. Hitler had become the state, and all that was now needed for him to achieve his impossible dream was a rearmed Germany.

Germany's Rearmament

Hitler was determined to rebuild the nation's armed forces. Rearmament rocketed despite the restrictions of Versailles, which Hitler formally repudiated in March 1935. The army was already four times bigger than permitted. Eventually, Western powers were obliged to take a damage-limitation approach. In June 1935, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement was signed, which capped the German navy's strength to 35% of the Royal Navy and allowed Hitler to build giant new ships like the battleship Bismarck .

In another instance of the cult of Adolf Hitler, all armed forces personnel had to swear allegiance to Hitler personally. Thanks to rearmament, Germany had achieved near-full employment by 1938. Hitler had fulfilled his promises to the German people. Germany's new war machine came at a cost. Rearming necessitated huge imports of raw materials, and these could not be bought for much longer as Germany's balance of payments went into tilt from 1939. Occupying territories where these resources could be found seemed a simple solution to the problem. Crucially, Germany had an arms advantage over its enemies, but this situation would not last long. For Hitler, the time to strike was now.

Appeasement

Allowing Germany to rearm was part of the policy of appeasement: giving reasonable concessions to avoid the total disaster of war. Appeasement, which was pursued by Britain, France, and the United States, did not mean peace at any price, but the problem with the policy was that it did give, step by step, aggressive powers the impression that their continued aggression might not necessarily lead to a wider war. To review these steps, we must look at global politics in the early 1930s.

The League of Nations (forerunner of today's United Nations) was established after WWI to ensure international disputes were settled and world peace was maintained. Although US President Woodrow Wilson (in office 1913-21) was instrumental in forming the League, crucially, the United States never joined it, seriously weakening the organisation. Germany joined in 1926 but left in 1933; Japan left the same year. The League proved to be utterly incapable of achieving its aims, as was shown most starkly by its failure to prevent Japan's invasion of Manchuria in September 1931 and Italy's invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in October 1935. Hitler no doubt watched these events and the League's total lack of a military response with particular interest as, with his own armed forces rejuvenated, he prepared to expand Germany's borders.

From 1933 to 1935, Hitler had pursued an ambiguous foreign policy, sometimes promising he had peaceful intentions. He caused confusion with such diplomatic conjuring tricks as a peace treaty with Poland in January 1934 and a statement later the same year that he had no intention of merging Austria into the Reich. Then, from 1935, his plans became ever clearer, even if some historians maintain the Führer actually had no plans at all but was merely seizing opportunities as his enemies presented them. Some historians claim Hitler was not entirely free to act as he would wish, due to constraints within the rather chaotic and factional Nazi party. In March 1935, the Saar was reunified with Germany following a plebiscite. The same year, conscription was announced. In March 1936, Germany occupied the Rhineland. In October, Germany and Italy became formal allies with the Rome -Berlin Axis. In November 1936, Italy and Germany (and later Japan) signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, a treaty of mutual cooperation in empire -building and a united front against communism. In March 1938, Hitler achieved the Anschluss, the formal unification of Germany and Austria. Encouraged by the League of Nations' lack of a strong response, Hitler then occupied the Sudetenland, the industrial area of Czechoslovakia which shared a border with Germany, the excuse being a German minority there was being repressed. Again, the Western powers made no military reaction despite France and the USSR having signed a treaty of assistance with the Czechs. The Munich Agreement of September 1938 was signed between Germany, France, Italy, and Britain, which accepted Germany's new, expanded borders. The USSR was not invited, a lost and last opportunity to present a united front against fascism – perhaps here was the real price of pursuing a policy of appeasement to the exclusion of any other possible strategies. The British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain (served 1937-40), fluttering before journalists a piece of paper Hitler had signed, confidently declared that he had achieved "peace with honour" (Dear, 597) and that we now had "peace in our time" (McDonough, 121). Chamberlain was nominated for that year's Nobel Peace Prize.

Appeasement was an attractive policy to Western leaders since the horrors of the last war were still fresh in everyone's minds. France, in particular, was politically weak in this period, experiencing 16 coalition governments through the 1930s. Britain feared losing its empire if weakened by another great war. Public opinion was overwhelmingly against war and rearmament in Britain, France, and the United States. Further, it was by no means certain that Hitler would continue to expand Germany's borders; certainly, he had promised he had no additional ambitions beyond restoring Germany to its previous territories before WWI. Finally, appeasement, even if not actually believed to be a policy with any chance of success, did gain crucial time for Western powers to follow Germany's lead and rearm. In Britain and France, there were, too, strong lobbies which considered rearmament a waste of resources in economically turbulent times and pointed out that Germany was Britain's fifth largest customer for its exports. Hindsight has shown that appeasement was folly since Hitler was intent on occupying as much of Europe as he possibly could, and his track record of breaking treaties proved negotiation was pointless. Keeping the Czech heavy industry out of German hands was probably a better point to go to war over than the subsequent invasion of Poland, but Britain, France, and the USSR were simply not then equipped for war. Not until 1939 did these countries seriously begin to establish economies geared to war.

Invasion of Poland

In 1939, there was further significant activity by Germany and Italy in their quest to occupy more and more of Europe. In March 1939, Germany absorbed the rest of Czechoslovakia and Memel (part of Lithuania) into the Third Reich. Increasingly appalled by the Nazis' attacks on German Jews, Western powers now began to question if negotiating with such a regime could ever be justified on moral grounds. Appeasement was finally dead.

On 31 March, Britain and France promised to guarantee Poland's borders, and in April, this was extended to Romania. Turkey and Greece also began talks of mutual protection with Britain and France. It had finally dawned on leaders in Britain and France that the fascists were intent on territorial expansion at any cost. There was already a localised war going on, the Spanish Civil War of 1936-39, which directly involved German and Italian military hardware on the one side and Soviet aid on the other. In April, Italy occupied Albania. At the end of the same month, Hitler repudiated the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. In May 1939, Italy and Germany signed a military alliance, the ‘Pact of Steel'.

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In August 1939, Germany agreed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (Nazi-Soviet Pact), named after the foreign ministers of each state. The Soviet leader Joseph Stalin (l. 1878-1953) was increasingly aware that Britain and France seemed perfectly willing to appease Hitler as long as he moved eastwards in his direction. The possibility of 'collective security' (Britain, France, and the USSR working together) was not realised because of a lack of trust between the parties. The Nazi-Soviet Pact, in contrast, allowed Stalin to grab eastern Poland and keep the USSR out of a war for a while, gaining precious time for rearmament. Perhaps, too, the possibility for Germany to wage war only in the West against Britain and France – Stalin's 'blank cheque' for Hitler – would sufficiently weaken all three so that they could no longer threaten the USSR.

Europe was a tinder box awaiting a single spark that would explode it into war. The spark came soon enough with Germany's invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. The next day Chamberlain warned Hitler war would follow if Germany did not withdraw. Hitler ignored the ultimatum. On 3 September, Britain and France, in order to protect free and independent nations, declared war on Germany. Italy, waiting in the wings to see what might happen to its advantage, remained neutral for the time being. The world, too, awaited with bated breath to see what would happen next. The unexpected answer was nothing at all.

The 'phoney war', when the Allies and Axis powers did not directly confront each other, lasted until April 1940 when Germany invaded Norway. In May, Germany invaded the Low Countries and France. Germany proved unstoppable, and by the end of June, France had fallen. In October, Italy invaded Greece. In 1941, Germany occupied Yugoslavia. Britain was left alone to fight for its survival until Hitler invaded the USSR in June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa).

The war became a global conflict when Japan attacked the US naval fleet at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, on 7 December 1941. Japan had already invaded Eastern China over concern at the rise in Chinese nationalism and then occupied most of South East Asia in search of imperial glory and natural resources, especially oil, whose import was restricted by a US embargo. Japan perhaps hoped events in Europe would prevent any direct reaction against them, but the United States did finally join the conflict. Peace would not be achieved until the world had suffered four more long and bitter years of war.

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Bibliography

• Dear, I. C. B. & Foot, M. R. D. The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford University Press, 1995.
• Dülffer. Nazi Germany, 1933-1945 - Faith & Annihilation by Dülffer, Jost [Paperback ]. Blomsbury USA, Paperback(2009), 2009.
• Holmes, Richard. The World at War. Ebury Press, 2007.
• Liddell Hart, B. History of the Second World War. Caxton, 1989
• McDonough, Frank. The Origins of the First and Second World Wars . Cambridge University Press, 1997.
• Speer, Albert. Inside the Third Reich. Simon & Schuster, 1997.
• Taylor, A.J.P. The Origins of The Second World War. Simon & Schuster, 1996.

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World War II

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 7, 2024 | Original: October 29, 2009

World War II, the largest and deadliest conflict in human history, involved more than 50 nations and was fought on land, sea and air in nearly every part of the world. Also known as the Second World War, it was caused in part by the economic crisis of the Great Depression and by political tensions left unresolved following the end of World War I.

The war began when Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939 and raged across the globe until 1945, when Japan surrendered to the United States after atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. By the end of World War II, an estimated 60 to 80 million people had died, including up to 55 million civilians, and numerous cities in Europe and Asia were reduced to rubble.

Among the people killed were 6 million Jews murdered in Nazi concentration camps as part of Hitler’s diabolical “Final Solution,” now known as the Holocaust. The legacy of the war included the creation of the United Nations as a peacekeeping force and geopolitical rivalries that resulted in the Cold War.

Leading up to World War II

The devastation of the Great War (as World War I was known at the time) had greatly destabilized Europe, and in many respects World War II grew out of issues left unresolved by that earlier conflict. In particular, political and economic instability in Germany, and lingering resentment over the harsh terms imposed by the Versailles Treaty, fueled the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and National Socialist German Workers’ Party, abbreviated as NSDAP in German and the Nazi Party in English..

Did you know? As early as 1923, in his memoir and propaganda tract "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle), Adolf Hitler had predicted a general European war that would result in "the extermination of the Jewish race in Germany."

After becoming Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hitler swiftly consolidated power, anointing himself Führer (supreme leader) in 1934. Obsessed with the idea of the superiority of the “pure” German race, which he called “Aryan,” Hitler believed that war was the only way to gain the necessary “Lebensraum,” or living space, for the German race to expand. In the mid-1930s, he secretly began the rearmament of Germany, a violation of the Versailles Treaty. After signing alliances with Italy and Japan against the Soviet Union , Hitler sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 and the following year annexed Czechoslovakia. Hitler’s open aggression went unchecked, as the United States and Soviet Union were concentrated on internal politics at the time, and neither France nor Britain (the two other nations most devastated by the Great War) were eager for confrontation.

Outbreak of World War II (1939)

In late August 1939, Hitler and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin signed the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact , which incited a frenzy of worry in London and Paris. Hitler had long planned an invasion of Poland, a nation to which Great Britain and France had guaranteed military support if it were attacked by Germany. The pact with Stalin meant that Hitler would not face a war on two fronts once he invaded Poland, and would have Soviet assistance in conquering and dividing the nation itself. On September 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland from the west; two days later, France and Britain declared war on Germany, beginning World War II.

On September 17, Soviet troops invaded Poland from the east. Under attack from both sides, Poland fell quickly, and by early 1940 Germany and the Soviet Union had divided control over the nation, according to a secret protocol appended to the Nonaggression Pact. Stalin’s forces then moved to occupy the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and defeated a resistant Finland in the Russo-Finnish War. During the six months following the invasion of Poland, the lack of action on the part of Germany and the Allies in the west led to talk in the news media of a “phony war.” At sea, however, the British and German navies faced off in heated battle, and lethal German U-boat submarines struck at merchant shipping bound for Britain, sinking more than 100 vessels in the first four months of World War II.

World War II in the West (1940-41)

On April 9, 1940, Germany simultaneously invaded Norway and occupied Denmark, and the war began in earnest. On May 10, German forces swept through Belgium and the Netherlands in what became known as “blitzkrieg,” or lightning war. Three days later, Hitler’s troops crossed the Meuse River and struck French forces at Sedan, located at the northern end of the Maginot Line , an elaborate chain of fortifications constructed after World War I and considered an impenetrable defensive barrier. In fact, the Germans broke through the line with their tanks and planes and continued to the rear, rendering it useless. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by sea from Dunkirk in late May, while in the south French forces mounted a doomed resistance. With France on the verge of collapse, Italy’s fascist dictator Benito Mussolini formed an alliance with Hitler, the Pact of Steel, and Italy declared war against France and Britain on June 10.

On June 14, German forces entered Paris; a new government formed by Marshal Philippe Petain (France’s hero of World War I) requested an armistice two nights later. France was subsequently divided into two zones, one under German military occupation and the other under Petain’s government, installed at Vichy France. Hitler now turned his attention to Britain, which had the defensive advantage of being separated from the Continent by the English Channel.

To pave the way for an amphibious invasion (dubbed Operation Sea Lion), German planes bombed Britain extensively beginning in September 1940 until May 1941, known as the Blitz , including night raids on London and other industrial centers that caused heavy civilian casualties and damage. The Royal Air Force (RAF) eventually defeated the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) in the Battle of Britain , and Hitler postponed his plans to invade. With Britain’s defensive resources pushed to the limit, Prime Minister Winston Churchill began receiving crucial aid from the U.S. under the Lend-Lease Act , passed by Congress in early 1941.

Black Americans Who Served in WWII Faced Segregation Abroad and at Home

Some 1.2 million Black men served in the U.S. military during the war, but they were often treated as second‑class citizens.

World War II Battles: Timeline

Adolf Hitler’s invasion of Poland in September 1939 drove Great Britain and France to declare war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II. Over the next six years, the conflict took more lives and destroyed more land and property around the globe than any previous war.

How the Neutral Countries in World War II Weren’t So Neutral

Neutrality was often more complex than simply avoiding choosing sides.

Hitler vs. Stalin: Operation Barbarossa (1941-42)

By early 1941, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and German troops overran Yugoslavia and Greece that April. Hitler’s conquest of the Balkans was a precursor for his real objective: an invasion of the Soviet Union, whose vast territory would give the German master race the “Lebensraum” it needed. The other half of Hitler’s strategy was the extermination of the Jews from throughout German-occupied Europe. Plans for the “Final Solution” were introduced around the time of the Soviet offensive, and over the next three years more than 4 million Jews would perish in the death camps established in occupied Poland.

On June 22, 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed Operation Barbarossa . Though Soviet tanks and aircraft greatly outnumbered the Germans’, Russian aviation technology was largely obsolete, and the impact of the surprise invasion helped Germans get within 200 miles of Moscow by mid-July. Arguments between Hitler and his commanders delayed the next German advance until October, when it was stalled by a Soviet counteroffensive and the onset of harsh winter weather.

World War II in the Pacific (1941-43)

With Britain facing Germany in Europe, the United States was the only nation capable of combating Japanese aggression, which by late 1941 included an expansion of its ongoing war with China and the seizure of European colonial holdings in the Far East. On December 7, 1941, 360 Japanese aircraft attacked the major U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , taking the Americans completely by surprise and claiming the lives of more than 2,300 troops. The attack on Pearl Harbor served to unify American public opinion in favor of entering World War II, and on December 8 Congress declared war on Japan with only one dissenting vote. Germany and the other Axis Powers promptly declared war on the United States.

After a long string of Japanese victories, the U.S. Pacific Fleet won the Battle of Midway in June 1942, which proved to be a turning point in the war. On Guadalcanal, one of the southern Solomon Islands, the Allies also had success against Japanese forces in a series of battles from August 1942 to February 1943, helping turn the tide further in the Pacific. In mid-1943, Allied naval forces began an aggressive counterattack against Japan, involving a series of amphibious assaults on key Japanese-held islands in the Pacific. This “island-hopping” strategy proved successful, and Allied forces moved closer to their ultimate goal of invading the mainland Japan.

Toward Allied Victory in World War II (1943-45)

In North Africa , British and American forces had defeated the Italians and Germans by 1943. An Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy followed, and Mussolini’s government fell in July 1943, though Allied fighting against the Germans in Italy would continue until 1945.

On the Eastern Front, a Soviet counteroffensive launched in November 1942 ended the bloody Battle of Stalingrad , which had seen some of the fiercest combat of World War II. The approach of winter, along with dwindling food and medical supplies, spelled the end for German troops there, and the last of them surrendered on January 31, 1943.

On June 6, 1944–celebrated as “D-Day” –the Allies began a massive invasion of Europe, landing 156,000 British, Canadian and American soldiers on the beaches of Normandy, France. In response, Hitler poured all the remaining strength of his army into Western Europe, ensuring Germany’s defeat in the east. Soviet troops soon advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania, while Hitler gathered his forces to drive the Americans and British back from Germany in the Battle of the Bulge (December 1944-January 1945), the last major German offensive of the war.

An intensive aerial bombardment in February 1945 preceded the Allied land invasion of Germany, and by the time Germany formally surrendered on May 8, Soviet forces had occupied much of the country. Hitler was already dead, having died by suicide on April 30 in his Berlin bunker.

World War II Ends (1945)

At the Potsdam Conference of July-August 1945, U.S. President Harry S. Truman (who had taken office after Roosevelt’s death in April), Churchill and Stalin discussed the ongoing war with Japan as well as the peace settlement with Germany. Post-war Germany would be divided into four occupation zones, to be controlled by the Soviet Union, Britain, the United States and France. On the divisive matter of Eastern Europe’s future, Churchill and Truman acquiesced to Stalin, as they needed Soviet cooperation in the war against Japan.

Heavy casualties sustained in the campaigns at Iwo Jima (February 1945) and Okinawa (April-June 1945), and fears of the even costlier land invasion of Japan led Truman to authorize the use of a new and devastating weapon. Developed during a top secret operation code-named The Manhattan Project, the atomic bomb was unleashed on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. On August 15, the Japanese government issued a statement declaring they would accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, and on September 2, U.S. General Douglas MacArthur accepted Japan’s formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

African American Servicemen Fight Two Wars

World War II exposed a glaring paradox within the United States Armed Forces. Although more than 1 million African Americans served in the war to defeat Nazism and fascism, they did so in segregated units. The same discriminatory Jim Crow policies that were rampant in American society were reinforced by the U.S. military. Black servicemen rarely saw combat and were largely relegated to labor and supply units that were commanded by white officers.

There were several African American units that proved essential in helping to win World War II, with the Tuskegee Airmen being among the most celebrated. But the Red Ball Express, the truck convoy of mostly Black drivers were responsible for delivering essential goods to General George S. Patton ’s troops on the front lines in France. The all-Black 761st Tank Battalion fought in the Battle of the Bulge, and the 92 Infantry Division, fought in fierce ground battles in Italy. Yet, despite their role in defeating fascism, the fight for equality continued for African American soldiers after the World War II ended. They remained in segregated units and lower-ranking positions, well into the Korean War , a few years after President Truman signed an executive order to desegregate the U.S. military in 1948.

World War II Casualties and Legacy

World War II proved to be the deadliest international conflict in history, taking the lives of 60 to 80 million people, including 6 million Jews who died at the hands of the Nazis during the Holocaust . Civilians made up an estimated 50-55 million deaths from the war, while military comprised 21 to 25 million of those lost during the war. Millions more were injured, and still more lost their homes and property. 

The legacy of the war would include the spread of communism from the Soviet Union into eastern Europe as well as its eventual triumph in China, and the global shift in power from Europe to two rival superpowers–the United States and the Soviet Union–that would soon face off against each other in the Cold War .

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Why Did World War II Happen?

In this free resource on World War II, understand the causes of World War II and why these issues drove countries back to battle just two decades after World War I.

Troops in a landing craft approaching "Omaha" Beach on "D-Day" on June 6, 1944.

Source: U.S. National Archives via Naval History and Heritage Command

When World War I ended in 1918, the last thing people wanted was an even greater conflict. So why did the world return to combat just two decades later to fight World War II ?

Granted, Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939 triggered declarations of war from France and the United Kingdom, formally starting World War II. But that event was only the final straw in a series of events. Various other economic and political challenges had been building up tension for years.

This resource examines the era between World Wars I and II—also known as the interwar period—breaking down those issues that set the stage for the world’s second and far deadlier global conflict . 

The Treaty of Versailles

In 1919, representatives from more than two dozen countries gathered in France to draft peace treaties that would set the terms for the end of World War I. However, in a break with tradition, those on the losing end of the conflict were excluded from the conference. This particularly stirred resentment in Germany, the largest and most powerful defeated country.

Without German input, the victors—led by the United States, France, and the United Kingdom—decided what peace would look like after the conflict.

U.S. President Woodrow Wilson wanted to structure peace according to his framework for preventing future global conflicts. This framework, known as the Fourteen Points, advocated for the establishment of an international organization called the League of Nations. This multilateral governing body would be staked on the idea of collective security, meaning the invasion of one country would be treated like a threat to the entire group. Wilson’s Fourteen Points also called for arms reductions as well as free trade . Wilson further helped lay the groundwork for the principle of self-determination —the concept that groups of people united by common characteristics should be able to determine their political future.

Meanwhile, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, fearing a resurgent Germany on France’s border, prioritized a more punitive approach over peace.

Negotiations dragged on for months, but in the end, the Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to accept blame for the conflict, give up its overseas colonies and 13 percent of its European territory, limit the size of its army and navy, and pay reparations (financial damages) to the war’s winners.

Back home, Germans were incensed and staged protests over what they saw as harsh and humiliating terms. Nazi leader Adolf Hitler said the treaty was designed “to bring twenty million Germans to their deaths and to ruin the German nation.” One of the central tenets of the Nazi party was to undo the deal. This kind of  campaign promise helped the Nazi Party gain followers prior to World War II. 

The exact role of the peace agreement in dooming the world to another war is still hotly contested. But some observers at the time had doubts it would ensure an end to hostilities. Economist John Maynard Keynes quit his post with the British delegation to Versailles over the treaty. Keynes argued it was too punitive and would lead to catastrophe in Europe. And one French military leader predicted with alarming accuracy that the treaty did not represent peace but rather an “ armistice for twenty years.”

The aftermath of World War I revealed that the way leaders make peace can be used as kindling for the future fires of war.

The Failed League of Nations

The League of Nations  emerged from the Treaty of Versailles with thirty-two member countries. The League included most of the victors of World War I, and eventually expanded to include Germany and the other defeated nations. (Despite President Wilson’s ardent campaigning, the U.S. Senate rejected membership.) Under the organization’s founding agreement, these countries promised not to resort to war again.

The League was premised on the idea that security threats to one member demanded responses from all members. But when it came time to respond to those threats, the organization largely failed.

The League’s department for settling international disputes required unanimous agreement before taking action, which severely limited its ability to act. For example, after Japan invaded the Chinese region of Manchuria in 1931, the League was unable to act, given Japan’s veto power.

In 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia (now Ethiopia), and, once again, the League’s response was minimal. In an urgent address to the organization, Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie asked , “What have become of the promises made to me?”

The unrealistic optimism that helped doom the League also plagued international relations more widely at the time. For example, the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact obligated its signatories to resolve conflicts without resorting to violence. However, the pact was effectively meaningless, as countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan blew through international agreements meant to prohibit aggression and expansionism and countries such as France and the United Kingdom refused to act to preserve the balance of power.

Traumatized and weakened from the First World War, the League’s great powers proved not only unable to respond to these security threats but uninterested in addressing them. As a result, the group’s toothless response to blatant aggression only encouraged more invasions. 

By the onset of World War II, the League had been effectively sidelined from international politics. Many experts believe its lack of U.S. membership doomed the organization from the start. Meanwhile, the withdrawal of other countries—Germany, Italy, and Japan had all left by 1937—also undermined the group’s credibility.

Though the League ultimately failed to prevent World War II, the organization made critical inroads on issues such as global health and arms control. Many of the group’s agencies and ideals carried over to its successor organization, the United Nations . But the challenges associated with collective security remain. Even amid the COVID-19 pandemic , the United Nations has struggled to take action due to disagreements among powerful member countries.

The Rise of Hitler

Germany’s road to the Second World War began near the end of the first, when it signed an armistice in November 1918. Although leaders on the frontlines saw the war was unwinnable, others refused to accept defeat.

A myth began to take hold that Germany could have won the war had it not been for unrest at home. This myth, promoted by conservatives and the military, falsely accused Jewish people and left-wing activists of stabbing the country’s war effort in the back. Some called members of the Weimar Republic—Germany’s new, democratic government—the “November criminals” and blamed them for Germany’s loss in World War I.

Then, back-to-back crises hit the German economy. In the early 1920s, the country experienced hyperinflation, a situation in which prices skyrocketed so quickly that German currency lost much of its value. Savings were suddenly worthless. By 1923, buying bread required a wheelbarrow for carrying bills.

A boy holds a kite made of banknotes in Germany in 1922, during an economic crisis in which Germany currency lost much of its value.

Source: Keystone/Getty Images

After a period of economic recovery—and a moment in which it seemed democracy could take hold in Germany—the Great Depression kicked off a new era of financial and political turmoil. Between 1929 and 1932, German unemployment skyrocketed nearly fivefold .  Eventually a quarter of the labor force was unemployed. Against this backdrop, popular support for the Nazi party surged. Between parliamentary elections in 1928 and 1932, the party went from winning 3 percent of the vote to 37 percent—at which point support apparently peaked.

The Nazis promised to tear up the Treaty of Versailles, resurrect the economy, and restore German honor. They also sought to create a much larger, racially pure Germany. Under Nazi ideology, Germans were racially superior and entitled to greater territory or lebensraum (living space) in the east. When they ascended to power, the Nazis persecuted those they saw as inferior, including Jewish, Slavic, Black, and Roma people.

Source: 'Power Distribution in the Weimar Reichstag in 1919-1933' by Fuad Aleskerov, Manfred J. Holler, and Rita Kamalova via London School of Economics; ParlGov.

In 1933, German President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor of the government. Many of the political elite thought they could control him. Instead, Hitler quickly seized the reins of the country, centralizing power and suspending civil liberties. Germany’s short-lived experiment with democracy had failed.

As Germany’s absolute ruler, or führer , Hitler reintroduced conscription, or mandatory military service; rebuilt the country’s armed forces; ordered the genocide of millions; and invaded countries across Europe. Three-quarters of a century after his death, Hitler’s rise to power and Germany’s fall from democracy into fascism serve as frightening reminders of the dangers of racism and extremism in politics. 

Japanese Imperialism

Japan’s 1941 aerial bombardment of the Pearl Harbor naval base in Hawaii brought the United States back into another global conflict. Though U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt called the strike a surprise attack, it did not come out of nowhere; rather, it grew from Japan’s ambitions for imperial power .

Frustrations had been building for decades in Japan over the country’s role in the world. In 1919, representatives from the country pushed for a statement affirming racial equality to be included in the Treaty of Versailles but were rejected. Discriminatory laws in several Western countries targeted Japanese immigration. And to many in Japan, the international system that emerged after World War I seemed designed to privilege Westerners’ access to wealth and resources.

Japan had long sought to accumulate imperial power. Taiwan became Japan’s first colony in 1895, and more territory followed.  In 1931, Japan invaded China’s Manchuria. The territory provided Japan with a geographic buffer against Soviet communism . Manchuria also had an abundance of natural resources  that the island nation desperately lacked. After provoking a war in 1937, the Japanese invaded huge parts of China to the south of Manchuria.

The invasion of Manchuria arguably marks the first salvo of the Second World War. Over the next decade, conflict escalated into outright war between Japan and China. 

Source: Atlas of World History.

During the war, Japanese forces massacred military prisoners and civilians and committed widespread sexual violence. Up to twenty million Chinese people are estimated to have died between 1937 and 1945. These tactics and global condemnation over atrocities at the Rape of Nanjing sparked widespread outrage. However, it took years for Japan’s aggression to provoke international retaliation.

But Japan’s ascendancy and the conflict in Europe concerned Roosevelt. He instituted an embargo cutting Japan off from U.S. oil in response to the country’s expansionism . Japan’s navy had only about six months of oil in reserve . The country decided it was time for an offensive strategy toward Western targets, including at Pearl Harbor.

The United States declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941, one day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. On December 11, Germany and Italy (allies with Japan under the 1940 Tripartite Pact) retaliated by declaring war on the United States.

U.S. Isolationism

The United States of the 1920s and 1930s had, in many ways, turned inward. The mood back home was dour in the aftermath of the First World War. The conflict had taken so many lives, and the Great Depression had ruined the lives of many who survived. The country continued to play an active international role, especially in Latin America and the Caribbean. However, it mostly removed itself from the armed conflicts unfolding across Europe and Asia.

Against this backdrop, Congress enacted high, protectionist tariffs intended to shield American businesses from competition. These economic policies  damaged relations between the United States and its trading partners. It also passed several Neutrality Acts aimed at ensuring the United States avoided foreign conflicts. (A decade prior, the Senate had rejected U.S. membership in the League of Nations for similar reasons.) Meanwhile, domestic resistance to President Roosevelt’s moves to support the Allies in the 1930s revealed to Germany and Japan that aggression had few downsides.

At the start of the 1940s, isolationism had strong support from a political organization called the America First Committee. The group had about eight hundred thousand members and a famous proponent—Charles Lindbergh, the first pilot to cross the Atlantic Ocean solo. The organization’s stated aim was to keep the United States out of the war, which began in Europe in 1939, but the group also served as a platform for racism and anti-Semitism.

At the start of the 1940s, isolationism had strong support from a political organization called the America First Committee. The group had about eight hundred thousand members and a famous proponent—Charles Lindbergh, the first pilot to cross the Atlantic Ocean solo. The organization’s stated aim was to keep the United States out of the war, which began in Europe in 1939. However, the group also served as a platform for racism and anti-Semitism.

Whether the United States could have helped prevent conflict through less isolationist economic and foreign policies is difficult to know. But the debate over the country’s role in international politics—and whether U.S. leaders should put “ America First” —has continued into the present.

Appeasement

In the 1930s, France and the United Kingdom practiced a policy of appeasement toward Nazi Germany. This policy entailed tolerating German territorial aggression rather than confronting it with force. The hope was that German ambition would settle down peacefully. This policy reached its low point in the late summer of 1938 when Hitler threatened to drag Europe into war if the Sudetenland, a majority-German region in Czechoslovakia, was not awarded to Germany.

Just months earlier, Germany had annexed Austria in an event called the Anschluss. Hitler aimed to unite ethnic Germans across Europe under his rule. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain hoped Hitler would be satisfied after acquiring the Sudetenland. British and French leaders signed the Munich Agreement and accepted Hitler’s demands in exchange for a promise that Germany would make no further demands. When Chamberlain returned to London, he arrived with an agreement signed by Hitler. The pact affirmed “the desire of our two peoples never to go to war with one another again.” As a result, Chamberlain believed he held the means to “peace for our time.” Needless to say, that was not the case, as fighting erupted the following year.

British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain at Heston Airport in London on his return from Munich after meeting with Hitler, making his "Peace for Our Time" address, on September 30, 1938.

Source: Central Press/Getty Images

But according to the dictator himself, an earlier challenge from the French could have spelled the end of his ambitions. In 1936, after remilitarizing the Rhineland—a region on Germany’s border with France—in violation of the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler reportedly said , “The forty-eight hours after the march into the Rhineland were the most nerve-wracking in my life. If the French had then marched into the Rhineland, we would have had to withdraw with our tails between our legs.” 

In the decades since World War II, appeasement has been condemned as a disastrous foreign policy failure. Leaders have used and abused the term to justify (or deride) foreign intervention . But judgments of this strategy have the benefit of hindsight. When British and French leaders signed the Munich Agreement, they faced intense domestic pressure to avoid war. And though Chamberlain and others misjudged the massive scale of Hitler’s ambitions, it’s difficult to know whether more interventionist measures would have stopped him.

World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history.

World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history. And unlike World War I, which resulted in mostly military casualties, World War II saw civilian deaths outnumber soldier deaths  three-to-one. High civilian death tolls reflected the rise of aerial warfare that made it possible to bomb faraway cities and towns.  Another uniquely horrifying aspect to the conflict was the Holocaust. During World War II, the Nazis advanced a state-sponsored and systematic campaign of murder and persecution against those deemed inferior or to be enemies based on factors like race and behavior. At least eleven million people were killed, including six million European Jews and five million gay people , Romany , and people with disabilities , among others.

In total, forty-five million civilians died during World War II amid rampant mass killings, starvation, and disease.

World War II led to the creation of the world as it exists today. From the ashes of the conflict emerged the international system of institutions promoting free trade, human rights, and collective security. But it also introduced the potential for cataclysmic destruction, as it ushered in the era of nuclear weapons .

Was World War II inevitable?

It can be tempting to trace the causes of World War II back to one moment, such as Hitler’s invasion of Poland. But this moment only tells one part of the story. In reality, complex dynamics—including the rise of radical nationalism , U.S. isolationism, the failure to maintain a global balance of power, and misplaced optimism that World War I had been the war to end all wars—propelled countries around the world into combat.

Despite the simmering tensions around the globe at the time, World War II was not inevitable. It happened because people in power made decisions throughout the interwar period that helped set the fuse of conflict on fire. These decisions ultimately led to the explosive conflict. Evaluating the choices of policymakers is one of the benefits we have as students of history; and by studying them, we can learn how to avoid similar conflicts in the future.

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World War II summary

Learn about the events leading to world war ii, the war’s major battles, and how the war ended.

World War II , or Second World War , (1939–45) International conflict principally between the Axis powers —Germany, Italy, and Japan—and the Allied powers—France, Britain, the U.S., the Soviet Union, and China.

Political and economic instability in Germany, combined with bitterness over its defeat in World War I and the harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles , allowed Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party to rise to power. In the mid-1930s Hitler began secretly to rearm Germany, in violation of the treaty. He signed alliances with Italy and Japan to oppose the Soviet Union and intervened in the Spanish Civil War in the name of anticommunism.

Capitalizing on the reluctance of other European powers to oppose him by force, he sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 (the Anschluss) and to annex Czechoslovakia in 1939. After signing the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact , Germany invaded Poland on Sept. 1, 1939. Two days later France and Britain declared war on Germany. Poland’s defeat was followed by a period of military inactivity on the Western Front, known as the Phony War.

At sea Germany conducted a damaging submarine campaign by U-boat against merchant shipping bound for Britain. By early 1940 the Soviet Union had divided Poland with Germany, occupied the Baltic states, and subdued Finland in the Russo-Finnish War. In April 1940 Germany overwhelmed Denmark and began its conquest of Norway. In May German forces swept through the Netherlands and Belgium on their blitzkrieg invasion of France, forcing it to capitulate in June and establish the Vichy France regime. Germany then launched massive bombing raids on Britain in preparation for a cross-Channel invasion, but, after losing the Battle of Britain , Hitler postponed the invasion indefinitely.

By early 1941 Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and German troops quickly overran Yugoslavia and Greece in April. In June Hitler abandoned his pact with the Soviet Union and launched Operation Barbarossa, a massive surprise invasion of Russia, reaching the outskirts of Moscow before Soviet counterattacks and winter weather halted the advance.

In East Asia Japan expanded its war with China and seized European colonial holdings. In December 1941 Japan attacked U.S. bases at Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines. The U.S. declared war on Japan, and the war became truly global when the other Axis powers declared war on the U.S. Japan quickly invaded and occupied most of Southeast Asia, Burma, the Netherlands East Indies, and many Pacific islands. After the crucial U.S. naval victory at the Battle of Midway (1942), U.S. forces began to advance up the chains of islands toward Japan.

In the North Africa campaigns the British and Americans defeated Italian and German forces by 1943. The Allies then invaded Sicily and Italy, forcing the overthrow of the Fascist government in July 1943, though fighting against the Germans continued in Italy until 1945. In the Soviet Union the Battle of Stalingrad (1943) marked the end of the German advance, and Soviet reinforcements in large numbers gradually pushed the German armies back.

The massive Allied invasion of western Europe began with the Normandy Campaign in western France (1944), and the Allies’ steady advance ended in the occupation of Germany in 1945.

After Soviet troops pushed German forces out of the Soviet Union, they advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Romania and had occupied the eastern third of Germany by the time the surrender of Germany was signed on May 8, 1945. In the Pacific an Allied invasion of the Philippines (1944) was followed by the successful Battle of Leyte Gulf and the costly Battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa (1945). The U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, and Japan’s formal surrender on September 2 ended the war.

An estimated 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 people died during World War II, including about 6,000,000 Jewish men, women, and children who died in the Holocaust . Millions more civilians were wounded and made homeless throughout Europe and East Asia.

Skip to Main Content of WWII

Research starters.

Beginning a research paper on World War II can be daunting. With Research Starters, you can get a basic introduction to major WWII topics, see recommended secondary sources, and view primary sources you can use from the Museum’s collection.

Research Starters: Worldwide Deaths in World War II

See estimates for worldwide deaths, broken down by country, in World War II. 

Research Starters: D-Day

The Allied invasion of Western Europe was code named Operation Overlord. It required years of planning, training, and supplying by the United States and Great Britain, and was one of the most heavily guarded secrets of the war. 

Research Starters: US Military by the Numbers

See a breakdown of numbers in the US military, by branch and year, in World War II. 

Research Starters: The Draft and World War II

On September 16, 1940, the United States instituted the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, which required all men between the ages of 21 and 45 to register for the draft.

Research Starters: The GI Bill

Research Starters: Higgins Boats

In the late 1930s, the U.S. military began developing small boats that could carry troops from ships to open beaches.

Research Starters: The Battle of Midway

Fought between the U.S. and Japanese navies June 4-7, 1942, this battle turned the tide of the war in the Pacific in favor of the Americans.

Research Starters: Women in World War II

With ever-growing orders for war materials combined with so many men overseas fighting the war, women were called upon to work in ways previously reserved only for men.

Ration Books

Ask anyone who remembers life on the Home Front during World War II about their strongest memories and chances are they will tell you about rationing. You see, the war caused shortages of all sorts of things: rubber, metal, clothing, etc. But it was the shortages of various types of food that affected just about everyone on a daily basis.

Take A Closer Look: America Goes to War

America's isolation from war ended on December 7, 1941, when Japan staged a surprise attack on American military installations in the Pacific. 

History At a Glance: Women in World War II

American women played important roles during World War II, both at home and in uniform.

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109 World War 2 Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

World War 2 was one of the most significant events in modern history, shaping the world as we know it today. From the rise of totalitarian regimes to the devastation of entire cities, the war had a profound impact on millions of people around the globe. If you are tasked with writing an essay on World War 2, you may be overwhelmed by the sheer amount of information and topics to choose from. To help you get started, here are 109 World War 2 essay topic ideas and examples to inspire your writing:

• The causes of World War 2
• The key players in World War 2
• The role of propaganda in World War 2
• The impact of technology on World War 2
• The role of women in World War 2
• The Holocaust and its aftermath
• The Battle of Stalingrad
• The D-Day invasion
• The Pacific War
• The Manhattan Project and the atomic bomb
• The Nuremberg Trials
• The role of the United Nations in post-war reconstruction
• The legacy of World War 2 in modern politics
• The impact of World War 2 on the economy
• The resistance movements in occupied Europe
• The role of Winston Churchill in World War 2
• The role of Franklin D. Roosevelt in World War 2
• The role of Joseph Stalin in World War 2
• The role of Adolf Hitler in World War 2
• The role of Benito Mussolini in World War 2
• The role of Hirohito in World War 2
• The role of General Eisenhower in World War 2
• The role of General Patton in World War 2
• The role of General MacArthur in World War 2
• The role of General Montgomery in World War 2
• The role of General Rommel in World War 2
• The role of General Zhukov in World War 2
• The role of General Yamamoto in World War 2
• The role of General Tojo in World War 2
• The role of General Nimitz in World War 2
• The role of General De Gaulle in World War 2
• The role of General Tito in World War 2
• The role of General Chiang Kai-shek in World War 2
• The role of General Hirohito in World War 2

These are just a few examples of the many topics you could explore in a World War 2 essay. Whether you choose to focus on a specific battle, individual, or aspect of the war, there is no shortage of material to draw from. Remember to conduct thorough research, cite your sources, and present your arguments clearly and convincingly. Good luck with your essay!

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Collection Military Legal Resources

World war ii.

The United States entered World War II in December 1941 and became fully engaged in the war, both in the European and Mediterranean Theater as well as the Pacific Theater. This collection focuses on military legal documents and trials in the aftermath of the war, including the Nuremberg Trials, the World War II Board of Review Decisions, the Malmedy Massacre Report, and the trial of General Yamashita, in roughly chronological order.

Martial Law in Hawaii: the Papers of Major General Thomas H. Green, Judge Advocate General's Corps, U.S. Army

On December 7, 1941, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas H. Green was Staff Judge Advocate, Hawaiian Department. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he became executive to the military governor and was responsible for countless daily operations of the American military government in the Territory of Hawaii. His personal papers—spanning his entire career from 1917 through his retirement in 1949—include notes, speeches and newspaper clippings, as well as correspondence with such historic figures as the secretaries of War, Navy, and Interior, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Generals Walter Short and Delos Emmons, and Admirals William D. Leahy and Chester Nimitz.

Martial Law in Hawaii : December 7, 1941 – April 4, 1943. Major General Green's complete, unpublished manuscript.

Nazi Saboteurs Trial

In mid-June 1942, eight German saboteurs — Ernest Peter Burger, George John Dasch, Herbert Hans Haupt, Henry Harm Heinck, Edward John Kerling, Hermann Otto Neubauer, Richard Quirin, and Werner Thiel — entered the United States by submarine in two groups, one landing on the coast of Long Island, New York, and the other at Ponte Vedra, near Jacksonville, Florida. Per the instructions of the German High Command, both groups of men carried a supply of explosives, fuses and incendiary and timing devices, to be used to destroy vital infrastructure, war-related industries, and various commercial locations in the United States. Within two weeks, George John Dasch turned himself in to the Federal Bureau of Investigation and divulged critical information that led to the arrest of the other seven saboteurs in New York City and Chicago. On July 2, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, as commander in chief of the army and navy, issued two orders that empowered a military commission to prosecute the eight saboteurs. The first, Proclamation No. 2561 — “Denying Certain Enemies Access to the Courts of the United States” — states at the outset that all enemies of the United States who commit certain acts “should be promptly tried in accordance with the law of war.” Specifically, citizens and residents of nations at war with the United States “who during time of war enter or attempt to enter the United States … through coastal or boundary defenses, and are charged with committing or attempting or preparing to commit sabotage, espionage, hostile or warlike acts, or violations of the law of war,” were to be “subject to the law of war and to the jurisdiction of military tribunals” and prohibited from seeking remedy in the federal or state courts. The second order, issued by President Roosevelt under authority of Article of War 38, appointed a military commission to try the eight Germans “for offenses against the law of war and the Articles of War.” The commission was given “power to make such rules for the conduct of the proceeding, consistent with the powers of military commissions under the Articles of War, as it shall deem necessary for a full and fair trial of the matters before it.” The order also prescribed regulations for review of the record of the trial and of any judgment or sentence of the commission.

The commission was convened on July 8, 1942. The eight saboteurs sought to file a writ of habeas corpus with the U.S District Court for the District of Columbia, but their motion was denied. In late July, while the military commission was in session, defense counsel persuaded the U.S. Supreme Court to hear oral arguments on defense challenges to the commission. The Supreme Court’s decision, Ex parte Quirin , issued on July 31, 1942, considered the petitioners’ “contention that the President is without any statutory or constitutional authority to order the petitioners to be tried by military tribunal for offenses with which they are charged” — violation of the law of war, violation of Articles 81 and 82 of the Articles of War, and conspiracy to commit these violations — and that they are consequently entitled to be tried in civil courts. The Court rejected these arguments, and ruled that the German saboteurs were “plainly within the ultimate boundaries of the jurisdiction of military tribunals, and were held in good faith for trial by military commission, charged with being enemies who, with the purpose of destroying war materials and utilities, entered or after entry remained in our territory without uniform — an offense against the law of war. Those particular acts constitute an offense against the law of war which the Constitution authorizes to be tried by military commission.” The military tribunal concluded on August 1, with a guilty verdict for all eight defendants. On August 8, 1942 Haupt, Heinck, Kerling, Neubauer, Quirin, and Thiel were executed. Burger and Dasch received prison sentences. The full text of Ex parte Quirin , linked below, is the electronic version of the final, official opinion of the Supreme Court, which is printed in the bound volumes of the United States Reports . As other documents related to the Nazi saboteurs case are converted to digital format, they will be added to this site.

Nazi Saboteurs Trial , Washington, D.C., 1942

Enactments and Approved Papers of the Control Council and Coordinating Committee, Allied Control Authority, Germany (1945-1948)

The Control Council and Coordinating Committee of the Allied Control Authority in post-World War II-occupied Germany issued a series of enactments and approved papers. This nine-volume series, compiled and printed by the Legal Division of the Office of the U.S. Military Government for Germany, represents the effort to rule an occupied country by unanimous agreement of representatives of the four occupying powers: The United Kingdom, the U.S.S.R., France, and the United States. The collection is not only of historical value, but is an important resource for current military legal scholarship.

• Volume VIII
• Legislative History, Law Index
• Legsilative History, Subject Index

Nuremberg Trials

24 major political and military leaders of Nazi Germany, indicted for aggressive war, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, were brought to trial before the International Military Tribunal. More than 100 additional defendants, representing many sectors of German society, were tried before the United States Nuremberg Military Tribunals in a series of 12 trials known as “Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings.” The four major publications linked below contain: the official proceedings of the trial of the major war criminals (The Blue Series), documentary evidence and guide materials from that trial (The Red Series), the official condensed record of the subsequent trials (The Green Series), and a final report on all the war crimes trials held in Nuremberg, Germany, from 1945 to 1949.

Nurnberg Military Tribunals: Indictments, Case No. 1-12

Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal ("Blue Series") Nuremberg, 14 November 1945 - 1 October 1946

This 42-volume series, also known as “ The Blue Series ,” is the official record of the trial of the major civilian and military leaders of Nazi Germany who were accused of war crimes. The accused were: Hermann Wilhelm Göring, Rudolf Hess, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Robert Ley, Wilhelm Keitel, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Alfred Rosenberg, Hans Frank, Wilhelm Frick, Julius Streicher, Walter Funk, Hjalmar Schacht, Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, Karl Dönitz, Erich Raeder, Baldur von Schirach, Fritz Sauckel, Alfred Jodl, Martin Bormann, Franz von Papen, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Albert Speer, Constantin von Neurath, and Hans Fritzsche. The International Military Tribunal, under the jurisdiction of the Allied Control Authority for Germany, directed the publication of this series.  The London Agreement of 8 August 1945 established the tribunal, which was composed of one member and an alternate from each of the four Allied countries: the French Republic, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America.  English, French, German, and Russian were the languages used throughout the hearings. Documents entered into evidence were reproduced in this series only in the original language, but as the result of the absence of a Soviet editorial staff, none of the Russian-language documents were published.

• Volume XIII
• Volume XVII
• Volume XVIII
• Volume XXII
• Volume XXIII
• Volume XXIV
• Volume XXVI
• Volume XXVII
• Volume XXVIII
• Volume XXIX
• Volume XXXI
• Volume XXXII
• Volume XXXIII
• Volume XXXIV
• Volume XXXV
• Volume XXXVI
• Volume XXXVII
• Volume XXXVIII
• Volume XXXIX
• Volume XLII

Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Office of the United States Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality ("Red Series") Nuremberg, Germany (1945-1946)

This eight-volume, 12-book series, also known as “ The Red Series ,” is a “Collection of Documentary Evidence and Guide Materials Prepared by the American and British Prosecuting Staffs for Presentation before the International Military Tribunal at Nurnberg, Germany.”  The Red Series makes available an indexed sampling of the evidence used to support the charges made against the major Nazi war criminals in their trial at Nuremberg, Germany, 1945-1946.  Volumes I and II serve as an overarching guide for the Red Series. They contain essays that summarize and link together the documents that follow.  Volume II also contains a glossary along with short biographies of the German defendants, as well as summaries of the individual cases against them.

• Opinion and Judgment
• Supplement A
• Supplement B

Trials of War Criminals Before the Nurenberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10 ("Green Series") October 1946 - April 1949

This 15-volume series, also known as “ The Green Series ,” focuses on the 12 trials of almost 200 defendants. The defendants included: diplomats, politicians and jurists, such as Ernst von Weizsaecker, the State Secretary of the Foreign Office, cabinet ministers Schwerin von Krosigk and Hans Lammers, and the Acting Minister of Justice Franz Schlegelberger; military leaders, including Field Marshals Wilhelm von Leeb, Wilhelm List, and Georg von Küchler; SS (Schutzstaffel) leaders, such as Otto Ohlendorf and Oswald Pohl; leading industrialists, such as Friedrich Flick, Alfred Krupp, and the directors of I. G. Farben; and physicians, such as Gerhard Rose. The trial proceedings, conducted in English and German, were carried out under the direct authority of the Allied Control Council, Law No. 10, the text of which is included in Volume I of “the Green Series.”  The trials lasted two and a half years, and produced more than 300,000 pages of testimony and evidence. This publication by the United States Government Printing Office is the official abridged record of the individual indictments and judgments, as well as the administrative materials that were common to all the trials.

The OCCWC (Office, Chief of Counsel for War Crimes) was officially established on October 24, 1946 and formally deactivated on June 20, 1949. The OCCWC was established in the Office of Military Government for Germany (U.S.) [OMGUS], by General Order 301, Headquarters U.S. Forces in Europe, and was the successor to the Subsequent Proceedings Division of the Office of the U.S. Chief of Counsel for the Prosecution of Axis Criminality. In this report on the Nuremberg war crimes trials, which were conducted under the authority of Control Council Law No. 10, Brigadier General Telford Taylor, Chief of Counsel for War Crimes, also describes the creation, organization, and functioning of the OCCWC. His report covers the period from the beginnings of the OCCWC in October 1945 to its deactivation in 1949.

Final Report to the Secretary of the Army on the Nuernberg War Crimes Trials Under Control Council Law No. 10 Telford Taylor, Brigadier General, Chief of Counsel for War Crimes Washington, D.C., 15 August 1949

World War II Board of Review Decisions

European Theatre : includes Volumes 1-34, index digests 1-2, and Index Supplement Digest 1

North African/Mediterranean Theatre of Operations : includes Volumes 1-7 and Digest of Opinions

Pacific Ocean Areas : includes Volume 1

Southwest Pacific Asia/Pacific : includes Volumes 1-4, Appendix, and Index

China, Burma, India/India-Burma Theater : includes Volumes 1-3

Malmedy Massacre Investigation and Record of Trial

Malmedy massacre investigation and report, malmedy, belgium, 17 december 1944.

On December 16, 1944, the German Army began the Ardennes offensive known as the Battle of the Bulge.  On December 17, 113 American soldiers surrendered to a German armored column under the command of SS Colonel Joachim Peiper [variant: Piper]. After the American prisoners were disarmed, they were assembled in a field near Malmedy, Belgium, and shot. The German soldiers involved in this massacre of the American prisoners were later prosecuted by the U.S. Army for war crimes in 1946 in what is known as the Malmedy Massacre Trial.

In March 1949, in response to charges concerning the unfair conduct of the prosecution in the Malmedy cases, the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services appointed a subcommittee to review the Army’s investigative and trial procedures. The Hon. Raymond E. Baldwin, chairman, presided over the subcommittee hearings, which were held in April, May, June, and September 1949. The subcommittee report was released by the full committee on October 13, 1949. The full text of these hearings as well as the subcommittee report are linked below.

Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services

• Part 1: April 18, 20, 22, 29; May 4, 5, 6 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24; June 1, 2, 3, and 6, 1949
• Part 2: September 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, and 28, 1949
• Report, October 13, 1949

Malmedy Massacre Record of Trial: United States v. Valentin Bersin et al., Dachau, Germany, 16 May - 16 July 1946

Following the end of World War II, the attention of the entire world was focused on the proceedings of the International Military Tribunal, which had begun in Nuremberg, Germany, in November 1945, and the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, which had begun in Tokyo, Japan, in April 1946. Both trials saw the countries’ leaders charged with, among other things, war crimes and crimes against humanity.

On May 16, 1946, an equally important, though lesser known, war crimes trial began in a courtroom at the former Dachau concentration camp. A general military government court of seven U.S. Army officers began to try members of Battle Group Pieper (so named after its commander, SS Colonel Joachim Pieper), former Waffen SS soldiers who were accused of murdering 84 American prisoners of war on December 17, 1944 at a road intersection near Malmedy, Belgium, during the Battle of the Bulge. As survivors of the massacre reached American lines, word of the killings quickly circulated among American troops and steeled their determination to halt the German offensive.

American newspapers and magazines immediately began calling these killings “the Malmedy Massacre,” the name by which these war crimes will forever be known. Army war crimes investigators immediately began collecting evidence, but it was not until mid-January 1945 that the bodies of those killed were recovered and given proper burials.

Following a two-month trial, during which survivors identified many of the accused in court and testified that many wounded Americans had been shot in the head at close range, all 73 of the accused SS soldiers were found guilty on July 11, 1946. For an excellent summary of the trial and its aftermath, see The Malmedy Massacre Trial: The Military Government Court Proceedings and the Controversial Legal Aftermath (page 22) by Fred L. Borch, III, Regimental Historian and Archivist for the U.S. Army Judge Advocate General’s Corps.

Trial of the major war criminals before the International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 14 November 1945-1 October 1946

• Volume I | Volume II | Volume III
• Volume IV | Volume V | Volume VI
• Volume VII | Volume VIII | Volume IX
• Volume X | Volume XI | Volume XII
• Volume XIII | Volume XIV | Volume XV
• Volume VII includes Additional Content and appendices B-F, G-J, K-P, R-S, T-Z

*The additional content is a book presented to Ellis F. Burton, Assistant Army Judge Advocate and chief prosecutor on the Malmedy Massacre War Crimes Trial. This book is available in the Library of Congress Law Library Rare Book Room .

General Yamashita Trial and International Military Tribunal of the Far East

The case of general yamashita: a memorandum.

In September 1945, Tomoyuki Yamashita, in his capacity as commanding general of the Japanese Fourteenth Army Group in the Philippines, became a prisoner of war of the United States Army Forces and was charged with violations of the law of war. The official charge from the Judge Advocate General’s Department of the Army states that between October 9, 1944 and September 2, 1945, General Yamashita “unlawfully disregarded and failed to discharge his duty as commander to control the operations of the members of his command, permitting them to commit brutal atrocities and other high crimes against people of the United States and of its allies and dependencies, particularly the Philippines.” On December 7, 1945, a military commission found General Yamashita guilty as charged, and sentenced him to death. Yamashita filed a petition for a writ of habeas corpus to the United States Supreme Court, challenging the commission’s lawful authority and jurisdiction to try him. On February 4, 1946 the Court denied the general’s petition, and he was executed shortly thereafter.

The Case of General Yamashita: A Memorandum was written in November 1949 by U.S. Army Brigadier General Courtney Whitney to refute the arguments presented in a book written, but not at that time published, by one of Yamashita’s six defense counsels, Captain A. Frank Reel. In support of its rebuttals to Reel’s book, the memorandum cites as authorities the Supreme Court opinion, In re Yamashita , 327 U.S. 1 (1946); the United Nations War Crimes Commission Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals ; and the Judge Advocate review of the record of trial, all of which are included as appendices to the memorandum.

The memorandum takes exception to Capt. Reel’s use of the dissenting opinions in the Yamashita decision to “support his post-judicial contention that Yamashita was irregularly tried and unjustly executed.” It affirms the three major findings of the Court: the military commission which tried and convicted Yamashita was lawfully created and lawfully convened; the allegations of the charge against Yamashita adequately alleged a violation of the laws of war; and the regulations governing the procedures to be followed by the commission were not in conflict with the Articles of War and did not deprive Yamashita of due process. The memorandum notes that General MacArthur, who served as the final reviewing authority prior to ordering the execution of sentence, supported the majority opinion of the Court. The memorandum includes in its entirety General MacArthur’s statement of record enumerating his reasons for approving the military commission’s judgment.

The commentary written by the United Nations War Crimes Commission discusses at length the Yamashita decision, focusing on the questions of international law which were involved in that case. Specifically, this document addresses “the legality of the trial of war criminals after the termination of hostilities; the finding that an alleged war criminal is not entitled to the protection of the Geneva Prisoner of War Convention relating to trial; the types of evidence admitted in war crime trial proceedings; the stress placed by the Commission on the need for expeditious procedure; and the responsibility of a commander for offences committed by his troops.” The Memorandum finds the commentary’s “discussion of the validity of that part of the regulations governing the procedure to be followed by the military commission in the admissibility of evidence” to be of particular interest.

The memorandum provides a lengthy recitation of the “specifications to the charge on which Yamashita was tried, convicted, and executed,” and states that it “established a pattern of the ... misconduct of the troops under Yamashita’s command.” The memorandum also quotes extensively from the Judge Advocate General’s review of the trial record to illustrate “the voluminous evidence before the military commission pointing to full knowledge by the high command of this reign of terror instituted against non-combatants and prisoners over a wide area.” The Judge Advocate’s review of the trial concluded that the military commission was legally constituted, and had jurisdiction of Yamashita and the offense with which he was charged. It also found that the evidence in that case supported the finding of guilty, that the trial record disclosed no errors in violation of the rights of the accused, and that the sentence was legal.

The Case of General Yamashita: A Memorandum , Brig. Gen. Courtney Whitney (1949).

See also "Trial of General Tomoyuki Yamashita" in volume 4 of the U.S. Crimes Commission's Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals (1948), Case No. 21 (Page 1).

United States of America v. Tomoyuki Yamashita: Record of Trial Manila, Philipines 8 October - 7 December 1945

On October 8, 1945, a military commission—acting under authority from Gen. Douglas MacArthur—began the trial of Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita on the charge that between October 9, 1944 and September 2, 1945,

at Manila and at other places in the Philippine Islands, while a commander of [the] armed forces of Japan at war with the United States of America and its allies, [he] unlawfully disregarded and failed to discharge his duty as commander to control the operations of the members of his command, permitting them to commit brutal atrocities and other high crimes against people of the United States and of its allies and dependencies, particularly the Philippines; and he, General Tomoyuki Yamashita, thereby violated the laws of war.

Two bills of particulars, consisting of 123 distinct paragraphs alleging Yamashita’s violations of the laws of war, were introduced into evidence by the prosecution. The commission heard from 286 persons and received a total of 423 exhibits. The record of trial totaled 4,055 pages.

On December 7, 1945, the fourth anniversary of the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, the military commission found Gen. Yamashita guilty as charged and sentenced him to death by hanging. Yamashita petitioned the Supreme Court of the United States for writs of habeas corpus and prohibition. The opinion of the court, which rejected Yamashita’s petition, was delivered by Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone on February 4, 1946 ( 327 U.S. 1 ). President Harry S. Truman likewise rejected Yamashita’s plea for clemency. Gen. MacArthur reviewed the record of trial and affirmed the death sentence recommended by the commission. Yamashita was executed by hanging on February 23, 1946.

Before the Miliary Commission convened by the Commanding General, United states Army Forces, Western Pacific. United States of America vs. Tomoyuki Yamaskita. [Proceedings].

• Public Trial - 29 October 1945
• Public Trial - 30 October 1945
• Public Trial - 31 October 1945
• Public Trial - 1 November 1945
• Public Trial - 2 November 1945
• Public Trial - 3 November 1945
• Public Trial - 5 November 1945
• Public Trial - 6 November 1945
• Public Trial - 7 November 1945
• Public Trial - 8 November 1945
• Public Trial - 9 November 1945
• Public Trial - 12 November 1945
• Public Trial - 13 November 1945
• Public Trial - 14 November 1945
• Public Trial - 15 November 1945
• Public Trial - 16 November 1945
• Public Trial - 17 November 1945
• Public Trial - 19 November 1945
• Public Trial - 20 November 1945
• Public Trial - 21 November 1945
• Public Trial - 22 November 1945
• Public Trial - 23 November 1945
• Public Trial - 24 November 1945
• Public Trial - 26 November 1945
• Public Trial - 27 November 1945
• Public Trial - 28 November 1945
• Public Trial - 29 November 1945
• Public Trial - 30 November 1945
• Public Trial - 1 December 1945
• Public Trial - 3 December 1945
• Public Trial - 5 December 1945
• Public Trial - 7 December 1945
• Exhibits Volume 1 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 2 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 3 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 4 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 5 - Defense Exhibits

Judgment of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East Tokyo, Japan; 1946-1948

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) was established by a special proclamation issued January 19, 1946, by Gen. Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. The first meeting of the IMTFE was held in Tokyo, Japan, on April 29, 1946. By the time the tribunal ended over two and a half years later, 419 witnesses had appeared in 818 court sessions and 779 affidavits and depositions had been presented. The IMTFE rendered its judgment November 4–12, 1948, in an opinion that took seven months to prepare and was 1,218 pages long. Maj. Gen. Myron C. Cramer, who served as Judge Advocate General of the Army during World War II, represented the United States at the tribunal.

Judgment of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East

• Volume I, Part A: Chapter I | Chapter II | Chapter III
• Volume I, Part B: Chapter IV | Chapter V
• Volume II, Part B, continued: Chapter VI | Chapter VII | Chapter VIII
• Volume II, Part C: Chapter IX | Chapter X | Annexes and Appendices

Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals

Law reports of trials of war criminals selected and prepared by the united nations war crimes commission (1947-1949).

This 15-volume series summarizes the course of the more important proceedings taken against individuals accused of war crimes during World War II, excluding the major war criminals tried by the Nuremberg and Tokyo International Military Tribunals. These representative trials of war criminals were selected for this series based on the major points of municipal and international law that were raised and settled during the trials as well as the potential for the greatest legal interest. Each volume begins with a unique introduction by the Right Honorable Lord Wright of Durley, Chairman of the United Nations War Crimes Commission.

Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, Volumes 1-15

Nazi War Crimes & Japanese Imperial Government Records

In October 1998, President Clinton signed into law the Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act (NWCDA), which required the U.S. Government to locate, declassify, and release in their entirety, with few exceptions, remaining classified records about war crimes committed by Nazi Germany and its allies. The act required the President to establish an Interagency Working Group to oversee its implementation, which became the largest congressionally mandated, single-subject declassification effort in history, resulting in over 8 million pages of records being opened. This report is concerned with the process of implementing the Disclosure Acts and with the effectiveness of the acts, including the extent to which the acts resulted in the release of relevant records, the extent to which records were not released, and why. The report does not attempt to assess the historical value of the documentation covered by the acts; nor does it describe or present historical analyses or interpretations of declassified documentation. These interpretive tasks are appropriately left to historians and others with the expertise to study the raw sources made available by the Disclosure Acts. (excerpted from the introduction)

Nazi War Crimes & Japanese Imperial Government Records (April 2007)

Report of the Deputy Judge Advocate Report on War Crimes, European Command

This report was submitted by Lieutenant Colonel Clio Edwin Straight, Deputy Judge Advocate for War Crimes, European Command, to Colonel James L. Harbaugh, Jr., Judge Advocate, European Command. It covers pre-trial and trial phases of the war crimes program that dealt with so-called conventional war crimes cases, which were conducted by the United States Military Forces in Europe, from June 1944 to July 1948.

Report of the Deputy Judge Advocate Report on War Crimes, European Command June 1944 to July 1948

Report of Robert H. Jackson, United States Representative to the International Conference on Military Trials

In December 1947 Justice Robert H. Jackson submitted a “documentary record of negotiations,” which he had conducted from June to August 1945 as U.S. representative to the International Conference on Military Trials with representatives of the United Kingdom, France, and the USSR. The purpose of this conference, held in London, was to establish “methods of procedure for the prosecution and trial of the major European war criminals,” and resulted in the adoption of an agreement and charter of London, signed by representatives of the four conferring powers on August 8, 1945.

The Jackson report includes numerous preparatory documents for the 1945 conference: minutes of conference sessions; reports of the drafting committee regarding the agreement and charter; redrafts of the definitions of key terms; and amendments and other proposals submitted by the American, British, French, and Soviet delegations.

In his preface to this report, Justice Jackson highlights the difficulties in reconciling the “divergence in legal concepts and traditions” among the four delegate nations. A consistent point of separation was the difference between the Soviet practice of judicial inquiry, and the Anglo-American theory of criminal trials, coupled with opposite views of the function of the judiciary. Jackson describes these discords as “stubborn and deep,” noting the failure to include in the final charter the American proposal to define “aggression.” There was a significant “difference of viewpoint concerning the principles of conspiracy as developed in Anglo-American law,” and the most serious disagreement concerned the definition of crimes.

The charter was, however, in many respects a success. It defines three broad categories of acts as criminal—crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. It also “enacts the principle that individuals rather than states are responsible for criminal violations of international law and applies to such lawbreakers the principle of conspiracy by which one who joins in a common plan to commit crime becomes responsible for the acts of any other conspirator in executing the plan.” The procedural provisions of the charter are significant because they “represent the first tried and successful effort by lawyers from nations having profoundly different legal systems, philosophies, and traditions to amalgamate their ideas of fair procedure so as to permit a joint inquiry of judicial character into criminal charges.”

This document also includes two reports to the President of the United States submitted by Justice Jackson in June 1945 and October 1946. The 1945 report, which was widely published in the United States and throughout Europe, “was accepted by other governments as an official statement of the position of the United States and as such was placed before all of the delegations to the London Conference.” In this report Jackson outlines the basic features of the plan of prosecution on which the United States was proceeding in preparing its case. The case would begin with the assumption that “an inescapable responsibility” rested on the U.S. “to conduct an inquiry, preferably in association with others, but alone if necessary, into the culpability of those whom there is a probable cause to accuse of atrocities and other crimes.” A fair hearing would be conducted to determine the guilt or innocence of the accused, employing procedures not necessarily consistent with those of a trial under the U.S. system of justice. The hearings would bar “obstructive and dilatory tactics” by the defense, and would disallow the defense from arguing the doctrines that “a head of state is immune from legal liability, and that orders from an official superior protect one who obeys them. It will be noticed that the combination of these two doctrines means that nobody is responsible.” The defendants would consist of a large number of persons who were in authority in the German government and the military establishment, as well as in the financial and industrial sectors, “who by all civilized standards are provable to be common criminals.” Voluntary organizations such as the Gestapo, whose criminal activities subjugated the German people and their neighbors, would be accused as well, with the intent of demonstrating “their declared and covert objectives, and methods of recruitment and effectuating their programs.” The report notes that the U.S. case would need to be “factually authentic and constitute a well-documented history of” what the U.S was convinced was “a grand, concerted pattern to commit aggressions and barbarities which have shocked the world.” The report enumerates the atrocities and offenses, and violations of international law, with which the top Nazi leaders and voluntary associations were being charged. The basic premise of liability would be that “all who participate in the formulation or execution of a criminal plan involving multiple crimes are liable for each of the offenses committed and responsible for the acts of each other.” The United States “proposes to charge that a war of aggression is a crime, and that modern International Law has abolished the defense that those who incite or wage it are engaged in legitimate business. Thus may the forces of the law be mobilized on the side of peace.”

The 1946 report to the President summarizes the judgments of the International Military Tribunal sitting at Nurnberg (Nuremberg), Germany that were rendered on September 30 and October 1, 1946. It also provides statistics regarding testimony and other evidentiary material presented at this lengthy trial, which began on November 20, 1945. The report notes the subsequent war crimes work that would be supervised by Brigadier General Telford Taylor, specifically the prosecution of “representatives of all the important segments of the Third Reich including a considerable number of industrialists and financiers, leading cabinet ministers, top SS and police officials, and militarists.” The core of this report is Justice Jackson’s summary of the accomplishments of the four delegate nations. He states that the Agreement negotiated and concluded by these parties “made explicit and unambiguous that to prepare, incite, or wage a war of aggression, or to conspire with others to do so, is a crime against international society, and that to persecute, oppress, or do violence to individuals or minorities on political, racial, or religious grounds in connection with such a war, or to exterminate, enslave, or deport civilian populations, is an international crime, and that for the commission of such crimes individuals are responsible.” This agreement “is a basic charter in the International Law of the future. Its principles have been incorporated into a judicial precedent,” because from this point forward no one would be able to “deny or fail to know that the principles on which the Nazi leaders” were adjudged to have committed capital offenses “constitute law—and law with a sanction.” The Agreement is also noteworthy because it “devised a workable procedure for the trial of crimes which reconciled the basic conflicts in Anglo-American, French, and Soviet procedures.” The documentation of Nazi aggressions, persecutions, and atrocities, documented from German sources “with such authenticity and in such detail,” would preclude any “responsible denial of these crimes in the future.” Jackson concludes by stating that the Agreement and the military tribunal together have “put International Law squarely on the side of peace as against aggressive warfare, and on the side of humanity as against persecution.”

Report of Robert H. Jackson, United States Representative to the International Conference on Military Trials London, 1945

World War 2 - List of Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

World War 2, spanning from 1939 to 1945, was a cataclysmic event that reshaped the global political and social landscape. Essays might delve into the origins of the war, exploring the political tensions, territorial ambitions, and ideological divides that fueled the conflict. The discourse might extend to the notable campaigns and battles, examining the strategies employed by the Axis and Allied powers. The human cost of the war, the Holocaust, and the war crimes committed could also form a significant area of discussion, alongside the exploration of the resistance movements and the home fronts. Moreover, essays could focus on the aftermath of the war, the establishment of the United Nations, the Nuremberg Trials, and the initiation of the Cold War. The lasting impact of World War 2 on modern warfare, international relations, and the collective memory could provide a profound exploration of the enduring legacy and the lessons derived from this monumental period in history. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of World War 2 you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

How did the Treaty of Versailles Caused World War 2

The only thing needed for evil to triumph is for good men to do nothing. Those who act selfishly and maliciously are not particularly part of the majority in their ways of thinking and behaving. All it takes is a few good people to get the tail blazing and doing what needs to be done to keep evil from prevailing. Over the course of history many have been the victims of tyranny and overt xenophobic ruling. World War II and […]

World War 2 Propaganda

In 1932, during the Great Depression, Poland formed a pact of nonaggression with the Soviet Union. Then in 1934 signed a similar pact with Natzi Germany, which was broken five years later. World War Two began due to the United Kingdom Declared war on Germany for their invasion of Poland in 1939. In the same year the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the East, and divides Poland between the two countries. In 1941 the German concentration camps Auschwitz, Treblinka, Majdanek […]

The Profession of Nursing during World War II

The profession of nursing has been a significant aspect of many wars. World War II is no exception. World War II and its aftermath saw many changes for the nursing profession. Nursing during the war and nursing today are extremely different. The roles, working conditions, education and socioeconomic factors during the war impacted nurses both during that time period and today. The role of nurses before the start of the war was very different from nursing today. The majority of […]

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Ethical Abyss: Examining the Nazi Medical Experiments during World War 2

The medical experiments carried out by the Nazis throughout World War II are an extremely unsettling period in the annals of medicine and human rights. The Nazi regime's physicians and scientists conducted these experiments, which resulted in the murder, mutilation, and systematic torture of thousands of concentration camp inmates. The purpose and character of these experiments, the ethical transgressions they constituted, and their enduring influence on medical ethics and human rights law are all aspects of this essay that are […]

Could World War 2 have been Prevented? a Scrutiny of Missed Diplomatic Opportunities

The question of whether World War II could have been prevented looms large in history. It leads us to wonder if this devastating conflict was inevitable or if there were ways to avoid it. By examining the critical decisions and key moments that led to the outbreak of the war, we can identify potential paths that might have stopped this catastrophe from occurring. While it's easy to see things clearly in hindsight, exploring these possibilities highlights the importance of diplomacy, […]

Causes and Effects of World War II

World War II, in terms of casualties and actual material destruction, was the most devastating war in human history. It cost a lot of countries a lot of money, a lot of soldiers, and much more. Economies crashed, governments crumbled, and some would even say that for the countries in the Axis Coalition, that they were in worse shape after World War II then they were during the Great Depression World War II left destruction in many countries, but not […]

Was the World War 2 a Continuation of World War 1?

World War II Research and Family Paper, The Second World War was one of the most tragic wars facing us in the 1900s. The Second World War is the continuation of the First World War but at a completely new level. I'll explain an overview of the war and what it was like to live through it in this research paper. The Genesis of World War II There were many things that could be considered to have caused the war, […]

Was World War 2 a Good War: Unraveling the Complex Tapestry of Morality and Change

The phrase "Good War" regularly appears when discussing how complicated World War II was. This term has many different meanings, and while it is evident that it caused unimaginable misery, agony, and loss, there were unquestionable components of the struggle that brought about constructive change. Suffering and loss were undeniable aspects of the conflict that led to positive change. Let's delve into the arguments surrounding characterization. The notion of World War II as the "Good War" has been cemented in […]

How did the Cold War Affect the World Today

This project is going to be about the Cold War affect at that time and today. The author-topic happened in the United States and the Soviet Union and during the mid of the 40's to late 80's. The author argument about a political and economic struggle between the two superpowers, we can describe it as militarism. This topic is essential to the United States Because the United States emerged as the sole superpower in the world and, capitalism beat communism. […]

Women in World War II

Many changes in the United States occurred with the start of World War II. These changes were heavily influenced by society, propaganda, and different kinds of advertising. One major change was the drastic shift of traditionally male jobs being taken over by women as a great number of men went off to fight in the war. This may seem like a step in the right direction for gender equality, but when the war concluded, women were expected to hand their […]

Societal Impacts of World War II on America

On September 1, 1939, World War II began with Germany invading Poland due to Adolf Hitler’s belief that the Aryan race was superior and that the Jews were the cause of all of Europe’s problems at the time, especially Germany. During this war, Franklin D. Roosevelt wanted to remain neutral, but after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States joined into the war effort. During 1941 the United States was still trying to recover from the […]

The Aftermath and Effects of World War II on the United States

Despite the overall ending of World War II, the effects of the war brought both positive and negative changes to the United States. These changes included different economic, political, and social aspects that transformed America into all that it is today, and whether or not these changes where positive or negative, both are truly important to the history of the United States of America. According to the textbook, some of the positive changes that World War II brought to the […]

The Impact of African Americans during World War II

The United States was seen as a nation divided by the start of World War II. This division was spurred by race and religion. World War II is known for being a war centered around humanity, prejudice and basic human rights. While the Holocaust, Nazi Germany and Pearl Harbor are popular topics regarding World War II African Americans were ultimately the underdogs of the 1940's. The civil rights movements that followed were direct results of their impact during World War […]

The Allied Powers in World War II

The Allies defeated the Axis in World War II. The Axis were defeated because of various reasons. I believe the Axis lost the war because they were inexperienced and their actions throughout the war were not very smart. The Axis powers simply did not have enough supplies to compete with their enemy. The Allied forces have various supplies that gave them an advantage, things like rubber, cotton, nickel, and even oil. The Allied forces were involved with a lot of […]

Richard Nixon Foreign Policy and Cold War

The Cold War began to come to an end once President Richard Nixon stepped into office. He wanted to take a different approach to the international relations by using diplomacy instead of military action. In 1972, Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet premier, and Nixon signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty. This treaty made both sides agree to halt all nuclear weapons manufacturing. This would then lead to a big step to ending the threat of nuclear war. Even though Nixon had […]

Penicillin during World War II

Humans and bacteria have co-existed for thousands of years. Many people have fallen to bacterial infections secondary to penetrating wounds or from being in proximity to those who are sick. Since ancient times, people have used honey, wine or vinegar on wound dressings, and used heavy metals such as silver or copper for vases to hold water to prevent bacterial growth (Greener, 2012). Also, our bodies naturally develop defenses against the deadly effects of bacteria, but it never seems like […]

Socratic Seminar Slaughterhouse Five

How does the Vonneguts time shifting technique affect the understanding of the novel? Is there any advantage of structuring the slaughter house five in the teleporting manner? There is a linear story that emerges from the time shifting details of the novel. There is the story of Billy,? who makes his own way through time travel across the era of World War 2 toward the Dresden and show the scene of destruction. Whenever we came to the thread of the narrator, […]

Nursing in World War II

Starting in 1939 with Hitler's invasion of Poland, World War II would officially begin its terror among the world. With an increase in need for soldiers, came a rising need for care and nurses (Levine, 2018). Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States officially entered this war and eventually brought a plethora of nurses with it (Wilson, 2018). American involvement in World War II had an extreme effect on the profession of nursing including the creation […]

World War i Vs World War II

World War I and World War II were very similar in many ways. Both began because of the clash of political ideologies. For example, there were imperialistic, nationalistic, and militaristic countries both involved in the wars. As they were similar, they also differ in a number of ways; none of the countries fighting in World War I had a dictator whereas World War II had multiple dictators from the same few countries. World War I and II also had differences […]

Post-World War II America

World War II was coming to a close. The United States had played a large part in the war by assisting in the victory of the Allies over the Axis Powers from the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor until the Japanese surrender in the summer of 1945. The U.S. had, at first, expressed the intent to remain neutral in the war - When the WWII first began with Adolf Hitler's invasion of Poland in 1939, America portrayed itself […]

American Society after World War II

According to Wiese (2004), the 20th century history of the United States hinges on the post-world war era. Following the World War II, the U.S faced diverse changes which had both adverse and positive impacts on the American society.it was after this war that several policies and programs were formulated to transform the American society. This essay explores a number of issues that had an impact on the American society following the war. Suburbanization is considered to be among the […]

Adolf Hitler and the Holocaust

Introduction Have you ever visited the holocaust museum? Located in Washington D.C., it is a place were we honor the people who died in the Final Solution . The Final Solution was a plan made by adolf hitler to kill off the jews. German authorities persecuted other groups on political, ideological, and behavioral grounds. Among them were Communists, Socialists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and homosexuals. I wonder what the reality was in that time and place. Adolf hitler The one who started […]

World War Ll in History

Over 6 million jews died all in one period of time. All those people died in the holocaust because of Adolf Hitler and his Nazi group. The Holocaust changed the world forever, and is something we will never forget. Jews and many others had to experience harsh conditions, and the Holocaust made such a huge impact on our world. On the evening of April 20, 1889, at an inn called the Gasthof Zum Pommer in the village of Braunau Am […]

What is it that Made Germany and Japan do such a Terrible Act?

It has been a while since World War II, but the atrocities committed against humans in Germany and Japan are still vivid: human trials, massacres, racial discrimination, bacterial weapons, etc. are all unforgivable crimes committed against the world. So what is it that made Germany and Japan do such a terrible act? What horrible things have they done? First, why are they doing such atrocious things? As the leader of the Nazi Party, Hitler was very hated for the Jews. […]

The Effects that World War i and World War II had on Minority Groups in America

At the beginning of the 1900s, many problems were arising overseas that would eventually lead to the First World War. The expansion of the war happened quickly. Overall, thirty-two nations were involved. Twenty-eight of which were a part of the Associated powers (the Allies). The Allies included the British Empire, France, Serbia, the United States of America, Italy, and Russia. The Central Powers that opposed them were Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire. In the beginning, President Woodrow Wilson […]

The Nature of Crime during World War II

What if crime during wartime is viewed the same as crime in normal times? In Nazi Germany, crime during wartime is seen through a different lens in comparison to crime not during wartime. In The Book Thief, by Markus Zusak, Hitler is ruling the Germans with propaganda during World War II, around 1939-1945. During wartime, the nature of crime is atypical because of the circumstantial times that are brought upon them. Liesel and Rudy are only stealing when it is […]

The Holocaust in Two Parts

The beginning of the Holocaust started when WWI ended. Germany lost the war, and Adolf Hitler got furious at Jews, homosexuals, and religious groups like Gypsies, and also, there was a bit of an economic crisis, so he needed to go Thanos and wipe out pretty much half of all Jews, homosexuals, and persecuted religious groups. But before he could do that, he needed to rise to power. HITLER'S RISE TO POWER The roots of Hitler's particularly virulent brand of […]

Eugenics Continued after World War II

Francis Galton first coined the term eugenics as a philosophy to improve humanity by encouraging people with presumed desirable traits to have children, while discouraging those with unwanted' attributes to refrain from reproducing. Galton's theory developed with the assistance of his increasingly famous second cousin, Charles Darwin, and his theory of evolution (Galton). Eugenics theory gained further popularity throughout the 20th century, captivating the attention of medical and government leaders. This lead to the eventual artificial replication of the survival […]

The Backbone of the U.S Navy in World War II

It's 1941, World War II has been going on for three years at this point. The United States is at war with the Japanese forces in the Pacific Ocean and is at a disadvantage. Most of the combat took place either in air-to-air fighter aircraft dogfights or upon carriers. The U.S Navy started the war using F4F Wildcat biplanes as their primary fighter aircraft in 1940. The Wildcat planes were mid-wing biplanes that were powered by a Pratt & Whitney […]

Race and Territorial Conflict in World War II

Individual ethnic groups possess their own beliefs and ways of doing things. Each group can have varying perspectives; however, some of those perspectives can be overlapping. Some of these ethnic groups have very extremist ways of viewing things. With that being said, many conflicts differ in conformity, social perception, and social cognition. Although these groups pull themselves further and further away from diversity, they all have the same wants; the want of territory. These groups are in a fight of […]

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How To Write an Essay About World War 2

Understanding world war 2.

Before starting an essay about World War 2, it's essential to have a comprehensive understanding of the war and its global impact. World War 2, fought from 1939 to 1945, was a global war involving most of the world's nations, including all the great powers, eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. Start by outlining the major causes of the war, such as the rise of fascism in Germany and Italy, Japanese imperialism, and the aftermath of World War 1. Discuss key events of the war, including the invasion of Poland, Pearl Harbor, D-Day, and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Understanding the geopolitical, economic, and social ramifications of the war is crucial for writing a comprehensive essay.

Developing a Thesis Statement

A strong essay on World War 2 should be centered around a clear, concise thesis statement. This statement should present a specific viewpoint or argument about the war. For example, you might analyze the role of technology in World War 2, the impact of the war on civilian populations, or the consequences of the war on the post-war world order. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and provide a structured and coherent analysis.

Gathering Historical Evidence

To support your thesis, gather historical evidence from credible sources. This may include primary sources like documents, speeches, and diaries, as well as secondary sources like scholarly articles and history books. Analyze this evidence critically, considering the context and the source's reliability. Use this evidence to build your argument and provide depth to your analysis of World War 2.

Analyzing the Impact of World War 2

Dedicate a section of your essay to analyzing the impact of World War 2. Discuss various aspects, such as the war's influence on international relations, the economy, technological advancements, and the social changes it brought about. Consider both the immediate and long-term effects of the war, and how it shaped the modern world.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the main points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence presented. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the significance of World War 2 in shaping global history. You might also want to reflect on the lessons learned from the war and their relevance to contemporary conflicts.

Reviewing and Refining Your Essay

After completing your essay, review and refine it for clarity and coherence. Ensure that your arguments are well-structured and supported by historical evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers, teachers, or historians to further refine your essay. A well-written essay on World War 2 will not only demonstrate your understanding of this pivotal period in history but also your ability to engage critically with historical narratives.

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Free World War 2 Essay Examples & Topics

World War 2 is an international war from 1939 to 1945. The conflict involved the Axis alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan against the Allied powers of France, Great Britain, the USA, the USSR, and China. WW2 remains the most significant conflict in history, with estimated 40,000,000–50,000,000 deaths.

Keep in mind that you should be politically correct and ethically proper while writing a WW 2 essay. Being one of the most crucial events in the world’s history, it has caused controversial interpretations.

In this article, our team has prepared some tips on how to write World War 2 in an essay or research paper. You’ll find great topics for practice or completing your assignment. Besides, there are World War 2 essay examples. They will be amazing for understanding the appropriate structure and argumentation.

To compose a paper about any war, you’ll have to use common techniques. In essence, writing WWII essays is similar to describing other tragic historical events. You should elaborate on the assigned timeline, refer to trustworthy sources, and be careful in stating your points.

WW2 essay writing includes the following aspects:

• Sources . There are two types of sources that you can use. Primary sources are the first-hand retelling of the event. It might be the newspapers, documents, etc. Secondary sources are based on the primary ones. It might be researches or books. Remember that the sources should be trustworthy.
• Citations . Make sure to cite all your quotes, even the paraphrased ones. Provide the context to each one and try to summarize information from different sources. If you do a quotation, remember to mention it in the reference list.
• Historical context . While writing a paper about real events, it is crucial to provide historical context. You need to analyze the evidence and study various sources. Express your own thoughts based on what you’ve learned.
• Thesis statement . In one sentence, summarize the point of your paper. That’s your thesis statement. It can be a question that you’ll answer in your essay. Our thesis generator can help you create one for your paper.
• Outline. Writing about a war, you should follow the standard academic structure. It includes an introduction with a hook, three body paragraphs with arguments and evidence, and a conclusion. In the body paragraphs, write topic sentences that support the thesis.
• Title . Your WW2 essay title should summarize the main idea of your paper. Make sure to capitalize the words according to the required format.

You’ll have no trouble writing your WW2 essay if you use our tips. What you need to do now is to choose an idea to elaborate on. For that purpose, use our topic generator or check the list below.

There are 25 WW2 essay topics we can recommend to you:

• Impact of World War 2 on the world’s economy.
• What were the reasons for World War 2?
• What are the results of WW2?
• The military training process in the Second World War.
• Versailles Treaty and the way it affected Germany.
• What role did WW2 play in aircraft development?
• The role of African American soldiers in WW2.
• The ways rationing affected people’s lives during WW2.
• WW2 sides and leaders, and their impact on world history.
• The role of propaganda posters during WW2.
• The way WW2 affected civil liberties.
• How the creation of atomic bombs affected WW2.
• The reason why WW2 caused Cold War.
• What are the consequences of World War 2 for the USA?
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights after WW2.
• The reasons the USA entered WW2.
• Causes and events that led to WW2.
• What are the WW2 innovations that changed our lives?
• What role did Penicillin play during WW2?
• The WW2 impact on international alliances.
• What was the women’s role in World War 2?
• Activities for teaching younger students about WW2.
• How WW2 influenced art and culture.
• Could WW2 have been avoided?
• The ways WW2 impacted the railroads.

Thanks for reading, and good luck with your World War 2 essay! You’ll find free samples below.

167 Best Essay Examples on World War II

Miscommunication problems: the us and japan in world war ii.

• Words: 1929

The World War 2 Positive and Negative Repercussions

• Words: 1141

World War 2 Consequences

• Words: 1085

Reasons why Bombing Japan was not justified

• Words: 1391

Could the US Prevent the Start of World War II?

Political cartoon on the events of the berlin aircraft, siege of bastogne and mission command principles.

• Words: 1932

The Japanese Occupation of Southeast Asia 1941-1945

• Words: 2388

Causes of World War II

• Words: 1416

Propaganda During World War II

The causes and consequences of world war two.

• Words: 1933

Pearl Harbor: A Look at the Historical Accuracy

• Words: 1418

World War II Innovations

• Words: 1389

Seven Principles of Mission Command After the Pearl Harbor Attack

• Words: 1126

What Role Did India Play in the Second World War?

• Words: 1154

“The Naked and the Dead” by Norman Mailer

• Words: 1343

Science and Technology as Powerful Tools of Warfare and Destruction

The nuremberg trials and their criticism, effects of the pact of steel agreement on world war ii.

• Words: 4276

The Bombing of Dresden in 1945: Case Analysis

• Words: 3825

The Neutrality of Vatican City During World War II

• Words: 2282

The Battle of Tarawa

• Words: 1371

The World War II Propaganda Techniques

The events and importance of the battle of carentan.

• Words: 1697

Doing Academic World War II Research

• Words: 1120

Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombing

The rape of nanjing: issue analysis, rights of prisoners of war in the geneva convention.

• Words: 4833

Hiroshima Bombing in Berger’s, Hardy’s, Hersey’s Works

• Words: 1494

Entering the Great War in War is a Blessing, Not a Curse

Hiroshima and nagasaki atomic bombings, world war ii: the tragedy of civilian casualties, the dunkirk pullback in world war ii, us holocaust policy during world war ii, canada’s role and experiences in world war ii.

• Words: 2127

Cold War Impact on Germany

German strategy during the beginning of wwii.

• Words: 4266

The Office of Strategic Services Operational Groups in World War II

• Words: 5692

Warfare: Ethical and Moral Issues

The role of propaganda during world war ii, the effectiveness of wwii bombing campaigns, wartime conferences of world war ii, d-day: the role in world war ii, promoting production during world war ii, contribution to world war ii of chinese and native americans, the role of the united states in world war ii, arguments against the use of nuclear weapons in world war ii, the european theatre of operations in wwii.

• Words: 1591

Pre-World War II South Africa: Centuries-Old Exploitation

• Words: 1555

USA’s Ever-Increasing Involvement in Vietnam Between the 1950s and 1970s

• Words: 3062

Wikipedia: Posts About World War II

Hiroshima and nagasaki: the long-term health effects.

• Words: 3867

Chapter Summary: The Rise of the State System, 1914-1950

Matures: 1920-1940 analysis, winston churchill, a leader during the world war ii, the holocaust and schindler’s list: transforming the human perception of violence, the cold war: gains and losses, the iron curtain speech by winston churchill.

• Words: 1158

The Liberation of the Nazi Concentration Camps

The reality and myth of “the good war”, paul kramer: exceptions, and anglo-saxons, fisherman’s wharf in san francisco, the decision to drop the atom bomb, the impacts of the germans on the market garden operation.

• Words: 1116

“Thank God for Atom the Bomb” by Paul Fussell: Arguments for Nuclear Bombing

• Words: 2225

The World War II: Impact and Consequences

• Words: 3016

Female Russian Snipers: From Second World War to Present Day

• Words: 1742

World War II and Germany’s Invasion Plans

Investigation of war causes between the usa and japan.

• Words: 1486

Women’s Role in World War II

• Words: 1969

Donovan Webster’s Book Aftermath

• Words: 1514

World War II Propaganda Posters in America

The influence of the second world war on the 20th and 21st centuries’ cinema.

• Words: 4051

Anti-Japanese Propaganda During World War II

E. b. sledge’s views on dropping the a-bomb, issue of world war ii regarding comfort women.

• Words: 1162

Hiroshima and Its Importance in US History

• Words: 2540

Was the US Justified in Dropping the Atomic Bomb?

• Words: 2348

The Neylam Plan Article. Critique of the Article.

• Words: 1077

The Holocaust: Historical Analysis

Air power in the pacific air war of 1941-1945.

• Words: 2004

Shifting Images of Chinese Americans During World War II

From world war to cold war, “judgment without trial” by tetsuden kashima, the second world war and its legacy, chapters 18-19 of o’reilly’s “killing the rising sun”.

• Words: 1453

The Impact of the Attack on Pearl Harbor

Atomic bomb as a necessary evil to end wwii.

• Words: 1457

Canada as British Ally in the Second World War

• Words: 1376

The Postwar Struggle for Integration: City and Suburbs

Deindustrialization after the world war ii, the cold war: a new history.

• Words: 1146

The United States and the Second World War

Attack on pearl harbor: foreign policy biases’ effects.

• Words: 1994

Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Historic Attitudes

The second world war in american and japanese eyes, civilians as victims of world war ii, world war ii propaganda and its effects.

• Words: 2858

Pearl Harbor Attack: Paranoia and Conspiracy

• Words: 1671

Document Analysis: Japan’s Comfort Women

World war ii: a very short introduction.

• Words: 1189

United States Military Challenges

Why the us decided to drop the atomic bomb on japan.

• Words: 1143

The Spirit of the Marshall Plan

• Words: 1396

The Berlin Airlift. American Experience Documentary

American homefront during world war ii, winston churchill’s input to the battle of britain, churchill’s attempts to defeat the axis powers.

• Words: 1118

Hitler’s and British Policies in World War II

American women in world war ii: oral interview, hiroshima bombing occurrence and impacts, erwin rommel’s leadership in the battle of el alamein, japanese americans internment during the wwii.

• Words: 1695

Japanese Bombing of Darwin Harbor and Australian Security

World war ii in eurasia and america, why did the japanese attack pearl harbor.

• Words: 1176

The Life of a Freedom Fighter in Post WWII Palestine

Dwight d. eisenhower’s role in world war ii, wwii history: how hitler died, origins of the “final solution”.

• Words: 1247

World War 2 Essay: Outline + 100 WW2 Research Topics

This time you have to write a World War II essay, paper, or thesis. It means that you have a perfect chance to refresh those memories about the war that some of us might forget.

So many words can be said about the war in that it seems you will simply get lost in a variety of WW2 research topics and questions.

Still, you do not know what to write about in your World War 2 essay for middle school. Of course, you may look through several free essays in search of ideas. However, you may find our suggestions interesting or get instant writing help right here.

• 🔝 Top 10 Topics
• 🎓 Essay Topics for Student
• 🎖️ WW2 Argumentative Essay Topics
• 💡 More Topic Examples
• 📑 Outline Examples
• 💁 General Info

🔗 References

🔝 top 10 ww2 essay topics.

• Was the battle of Dunkirk a failure?
• WWII technologies that changed our lives
• The outcome of the Nuremberg trials
• Medical experiments during the Holocaust
• Battle of Midway as a turning point in WWII
• Why is penicillin a wonder of World War 2?
• Why is the Bataan Death March a war crime?
• The impact of propaganda during WWII
• Racial segregation in the armed forces during WWII
• What makes the Battle of Stalingrad the deadliest in WWII?

🎓 WW2 Essay Topics for Student

• Contributions of women pilots in World War II
• “Gesture Life” and “Maus”: post-World War II injuries
• The federal government’s actions during World War II
• Rebuilding Europe after World War II
• World War II in Europe: development and costs
• World War II: maskirovka military deception and denials operations
• World War II in the Pacific region
• The second World War’s historical aspects
• The rise and fall of communism after World War II
• South Africa in World War II
• Battle of the Midway during World War II
• World War II: the history of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• What effect did the World War II wartime experience have on African Americans?
• The battle of Britain during World War II
• World War II was a continuation of World War I
• Communism in Europe and America after World War II
• Camps for displaced persons after the end of World War II
• Nazis prosecution for the World War II crimes
• World War II was avoidable
• Nazi Germany’s resources and demise in World War II
• The United States and East Asia since World War II
• Japan after World War II: main events and modifications
• Atomic bomb technology and World War II outcomes
• Pacific theater of World War II
• Impact of World War II on Balkan nationalism, states and societies
• World War II: internment of the Japanese Americans
• World War II in “The Rape of Europa” Documentary
• The characteristics of successful warfare after the second World War
• Great Depression and World War II impact on the United States economy
• Battle of the Bulge during World War II
• Escape from Sobibor: World War 2 holocaust
• World War II: why Germans lost and allies won
• World War II impact on racial issues in the United States
• Women’s representations before and after World War II
• United States-Japan relations during World War II
• Second World War: cause and technology
• American foreign policy since World War II
• World War II, the Cold War and New Europe
• The Crete battle of World War II
• Home front of the United States during the second World War

🎖️ WW2: Argumentative Essay Topics

As it happens quite often, teachers like to ask students to write an essay on World War II. However, don’t expect it to be easy. It should be something more narrow than the essay about the causes of World War II.

You can use some practical techniques to come up with a suitable topic. For instance, some of the most popular ones are mind mapping and brainstorming. Don’t forget to use questions to create a perfect thesis statement.

But we have made your life so much easier and prepared this comprehensive list of WWII argumentative essay topics. There are also short hints to help you start with your paper.

🔫 World War 2 Essay Topics: Military

• Exploring the effects of WWII on life in Hawaii. Research the impact of those events on the social life of families living there.
• Family memories of the Holocaust. Dig deep and see if you have any (distant) relatives who were the witnesses.
• Something unique about Italy in WWII. Look into some exceptional circumstances that occurred there at the time of the war.
• The origins of the phrase “Kilroy was here.” It is quite a controversial topic, so you might want to study all the sources you can find.
• Nationalist Socialists: examine the importance of the movement in the US. What was its social impact since the war? Describe this in your WW2 essay.
• Write about your town/city. Conduct research to find out about the political changes in your hometown related to war.
• The transformation of the prisoner-of-war camps . Write about what happened to the POW camps after the end of the war.
• The fate of the prisoners of war. Study the documents to get to know what happened to them and whether they continued their healthy lives.
• Describe the spies that participated in WWII. Who were they? What usually happened to those who were caught by different sides?
• The role of women . Discover the contribution of the weaker sex in warfare and write about the most surprising facts.
• How important were the weather conditions for the outcomes of WWII ? Find out which battles were lost or won due to the weather.
• War crimes: consequences. Conduct research to answer the questions about the war crime trials, their outcomes, and the most notorious cases.
• Research the role of the US government in WWII . Compare it to the other governments and analyze the strategies they were using.
• The sense of freedom during the war. For this WW2 essay topic, you would need to look critically at how freedom was suppressed or expanded.
• What was so special about the movements of the troop? Here, you would be expected to provide the answers concerning the secrecy and challenges.
• The experiences of the attack survivors. Find out what was happening during the attack on the military units and the planes.

🤖 World War 2 Essay Topics: Technology

• The role of the submarines in the war. This World War II research topic is all about the importance of the submarines.
• Estimate the destruction in the UK. Find out how many historical places were wiped out as a result of the war.
• Was Winston Churchill prepared for it? Write about the background of that influential leader and how it helped him at the wartime.
• Write about the time the US entered the war. Are there any facts that we still don’t know well enough? What about the timing?
• The miracle of the radar. This WW2 essay topic would be interesting for those who are fascinated by technology. What was the role of that device in WWII?
• Rocket technology and the war. Write about the importance of the rockets and what the moment when they changed the course of the war.
• Building the ultimate warship. What was the driving force of the developments in the field of shipbuilding during WWII?
• Describe the main means of communication during the war. Don’t forget to mention the radio and its impact on the major events in your World War 2 essay.
• The development of bridges and roads. What were the main technological achievements in this field that still impact our everyday life?
• Explain the rise of the popularity of motorcycles during the war. Feel free to mention the folding bikes and their invention.
• The technology we have thanks to the war. Dedicate your WW2 essay to the inventions we can’t live without nowadays that were created during the war.
• What about TVs? You can narrow down this World War II essay question as you wish. For example, write about the shows dedicated to the war.
• The jet engines developed by the needs of war. Look into the reasons why those engines were created during WWII.

💰 WW2 Research Topics: Economy

• What about propaganda? This WWII essay should describe how people in the US were reacting to the war and why.
• The product of war: pop culture elements. Think about products that became popular and maybe even stayed a part of culture after the war ended.
• Toy story: WWII edition. Find out how the war influenced the toy production and whether it was a part of propaganda.
• The major changes in the job market sponsored by WWII. What new roles suddenly appeared on the job market, thanks to the war?
• The power of advertising. To narrow it down, you can even mention how the food packaging was adjusted and why.

🎨 WW2 Research Topics: Culture

• Discover the world of fashion during the wartime. It is one of the cool WWII essay topics. It should be about the new trends for civilians at the time.
• The analysis of artworks created during WWII. Choose a piece of art inspired by war and analyze it. What is its story?
• New times require new family traditions. How were the customs inside the families changed by the war? What about raising children? Highlight these issues in your World War 2 essay.
• The secrets of the love letters during the war. This short essay would require you to dig into the archives and find out what the letters could tell us about the relationships back then.
• What was the unique role of animals in WWII? Dedicate your writing to some type of animal and discuss how they were used.
• The rights of African-Americans during the time of war. Write about how their civil rights were changed and try to find the root causes.
• Food preservation methods: another revolution. This example is all about food and how it was packed and preserved during the war.
• The cases of domestic violence during the cold war. Were the rates higher at the time? Did political tension cause it? This is also a great World War 2 essay topic.
• Expanding the vocabulary. Just like any other part of life, the language also went through some changes. What were the new words that emerged?
• The troubled life of housewife during WWII. Describe the work women used to do at the wartime and how it was changed.
• Still resisting: the movements created by families. Here, you should concentrate on the experience of the families that live in the occupied territories.
• Lifesaving food: the role of nutrition in WWII. Try to research and find the battles that were lost or won due to the availability of food.
• The impact of food rationing on soldiers and families. Write your WW2 essay about the struggles of families and different groups of people.
• What were the common sacrifices of families during the war? In this essay, you would need to look into the negative changes in families’ lifestyles.
• The miracle of penicillin: WWII. This research aims to uncover the importance of penicillin or any other medicine of your choice.
• The clothes that saved lives. Write about different types of clothing and materials that were used to help the soldiers on the battlefield.

💡 World War 2 Essay: More Topic Examples

Below, other suggestions on what you might write about in essays on World War II are presented:

Present in Your World War 2 Essay Alternative Decisions That Could Have Changed the Course of the War Dramatically

Such World War 2 essay will aim to explore some of the greatest decision making mistakes of the world leaders. We do not mean that you should discuss some miraculous history events like “what if Hitler had a heart attack.” In the World War 2 essay devoted to this problem, give realistic alternative decisions that were considered but not realized. Analyze those alternatives that could have changed the end of the war.

“In Your World War Ii Essay, Try to Answer the Question “When Did Hitler Lose the War?”

When did Adolf Hitler lose his chance to win World War II? What was it? These are the World War 2 essay questions you have to answer. Analyze different viewpoints of historians and present your opinion in the essay on World War 2.

Cover the Themes of Atrocity and War-Crimes in the World War 2 Essay

Acts of genocides and atrocity against civil population occurred in such countries as Japan, the Soviet Union, and Germany. Some of them were so horrific and immense that they changed the psyche of many people and different nations. When disclosing this theme in the Second World War essay, tell about Nazi concentration camps, “Death-camps,” the Holocaust , etc.

If you are interested in other  history essay  topics, read our hints for writing terrorism essays . And don’t forget to tell us in comments below your opinion about the World War 2.

📑 World War 2 Essay: Outline Examples

The next is creating a neat outline, which would become a massive help for you during the process of writing. Find examples of World War II essay outlines below!

Example 1. Analyze how some alternative decisions could have changed the course of World War II

Try to pick something realistic. Merely writing that if Hitler suddenly died and the war had never happened is just dull. Get creative and maybe take as a basis some real facts that were considered but never came into life.

• In your World War II essay introduction , present the chosen decision. Include your thesis statement in this part as well. It should be your hypothesis concerning the topic.
• In the main body , give at least three arguments why and how that decision would have changed things. Here, you prove your hypothesis to be right. You may add one counter-argument if you wish. For instance, include the opinion of a historian saying that it wouldn’t change anything.
• In conclusion , state your opinion once again, which is now supported by arguments.

Example 2. When did it happen that Germany lost the war?

Think about when Adolf Hitler might have missed his chance to win World War II. What was it? Include some details. Once again, do your research and consider the opinions of different historians.

• In the introduction to this World War 2 essay , present your point of view. In the thesis statement, write the answer to World War II essay questions clearly and coherently.
• The main body here is for you to include three to five pieces of evidence that may prove you right. If you decide to write an argumentative essay, you might add some contradicting facts, too.
• In the last part of your writing, focus on paraphrasing your thesis statement.

Example 3. World War II: discuss war crimes and atrocity

This essay title is related to all acts of cruelty against the civil population, including genocides. You may want to narrow it down according to your preferences. For instance, you can talk about how concentration camps created by Nazis have changed the people’s psyche.

• Introduce this WW2 essay topic by stating how people have changed after surviving the Death Camps. It might be a good idea to include a sentence at the beginning that may serve as a hook to make your readers interested.
• In the body , present not less than three examples of what you think might be relevant. Those should be proven historical facts if you want your essay to be persuasive.
• Conclude by providing a summary of the facts presented in the main body. Add the paraphrased thesis statement.

💁 World War 2: General Information

World war ii: timeline.

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. And on September 3, 1939, France and Britain, fulfilling their obligations to Poland, declared war on Germany and World War II began.

However, the beginning of World War II was preceded by some events, inextricably related:

• September 18, 1931. Japan attacked Manchuria
• October 2, 1935 – May 1936. Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia, conquered and annexed it
• October 25 – November 1, 1936. On October 25, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy concluded a cooperation agreement. November 1 announced the creation of the “ Rome-Berlin Axis “
• November 25, 1936. Nazi Germany and imperialist Japan concluded the Anti-Comintern Pact, directed against the USSR and the international communist movement
• July 7, 1937. Japan invaded China. The World War II began in the Pacific
• 11-13 March 1938. Germany joins Austria (the so-called Anschluss)
• September 29, 1938. Germany, Italy, Great Britain and France signed the Munich agreement obliging the Czechoslovak Republic to cede Nazi Germany to the Sudetenland (where the critical Czechoslovak fortifications were located)
• 14-15 March 1939. Under pressure from Germany, the Slovaks declared their independence and created the Slovak Republic. The Germans broke the Munich agreement , occupied the Czech lands, and established the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

• March 31, 1939. France and the United Kingdom provided guarantees of the inviolability of the borders of Poland
• 7-15 April 1939. Fascist Italy attacked Albania and annexed it
• August 23, 1939. Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact and a secret annex to it, according to which Europe was divided into spheres of influence

Some scientists think that the World War II was a continuation of the World War I ended in 1918.

September 2, 1945, is the date when the World War II ended. Japan, agreed to unconditional surrender on August 14, 1945, officially capitulates, thereby putting an end to World War II.

World War II: Key Facts

• Perhaps, the World War II was one the most destructive wars in modern history. About 27,000 people were killed each day from September 1, 1939, to September 2, 1945.
• The primary opponents were Nazi Germany, fascist Italy, Imperial Japan on the one hand, and the Soviet Union, Great Britain, France the United States , and China on the other.
• Germany capitulated on May 7, 1945 . At the same time, Japan continued to fight for another four months before their capitulation on September 2. Atomic bombs, dropped by American troops on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, were first used against Japan.
• The end of the war was marked by Britain losing most of its empire . At the same time, World War II accelerated the revival of the US and Soviet economies as global superpowers.
• After the end of the World War II, the “Cold War” between the US and the USSR started.

World War 2: Casualties

The exact World War II casualties remain unknown. However, historians name that the total number of victims was over 60 million people including military and civilians killed. Below you’ll find the list of states suffered the highest losses:

• 42,000,000 people–USSR
• 9,000,000 people–Germany
• 4,000,000 people–China
• 3,000,000 people–Japan

World War II: Causes

Perhaps, there were many prerequisites for World War II:

• Japan’s victory over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) opened the door for Japanese expansion in the Asia-Pacific region
• The US Navy first developed plans to prepare for a naval war with Japan in 1890
• The Great Depression, and the global recession that followed
• The coming to power of Hitler and his statement about the injustice of the Versailles Treaty, signed in 1918
• The creation in 1935 of the Luftwaffe, as a direct violation of the 1919 treaty
• Remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936
• Anschluss of Austria and the annexation of part of Czechoslovakia
• Italy’s desire to create a Third Rome and Japan’s goal to create an independent state with the Pan-Asian sphere of influence

World War II: Results

The results of World War II are not limited to losses and destruction. As a result of the war, the face of the world changed: new borders and new states appeared, new tendencies of social development emerged, and significant inventions were made.

The war gave a strong impetus to the development of science and technology. Radar, jet aircraft, ballistic missiles, antibiotics, electronic computers and many other discoveries were made or entered into widespread use during the war. The foundations of the scientific and technological revolution were laid, which transformed and continued to change the postwar world.

The ideology of fascism, Nazism, racism, colonialism thoroughly discredited itself; on the contrary, the ideas of anti-fascism, anti-colonialism, democracy, and socialism gained wide popularity.

The human rights recorded in the UN Charter are internationally recognized. The influence of parties and groups that fought for democracy and social transformations–communists, socialists, social democrats, Christian democrats and other democratic forces, has sharply increased.

In many countries, significant reforms carried out: partial nationalization of industry and banks, the creation of a state system of social insurance, the expansion of workers’ rights. In some countries, including France, Italy, Germany, Japan, have adopted new, democratic constitutions. There was a profound renewal of the society, democratization of state and public institutions.

The colonial system disintegration was another significant result and consequence of the Second World War. Before the war, the vast majority of the world’s population lived in colonies, the area, and population of which many times exceeded the metropolitan countries: Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Italy, and Japan.

During the World War 2 and after its end, part of the dependent and colonial countries (Syria, Lebanon, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia, Burma, Philippines, and Korea) declared itself independent. In 1947, India became independent, divided into two dominions: India and Pakistan. The intense process of liberation of the colonial peoples began, which continued until the complete abolition of the colonies in the second half of the twentieth century.

As a result of the war, the balance of forces in the world has changed dramatically. Germany, Italy, Japan were defeated, for a time turned into dependent countries, occupied by foreign troops. The war destroyed their economy, and they for many years could not compete with their former competitors.

Compared with the pre-war time, the positions of France and even Great Britain weakened considerably. The USA came out of the war significantly strengthened. Having surpassed all other countries economically and militarily, the United States became the sole leader of the capitalist world.

The second “superpower” was the Soviet Union. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had the most massive land army in the world and substantial industrial potential. The USSR Armed Forces were in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe, East Germany and North Korea.

Some countries liberated by the Soviet Union took the road of non-capitalist development. After the liberation from the occupiers in Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, people’s democratic governments were established with the participation or under the leadership of the Communists, who began profound social transformations. By the Yalta agreements , these countries were considered to be the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union and were in fact under its control.

If the United States became the leader of the capitalist world, then the Soviet Union led the social forces that opposed capitalism. Two main poles of attraction of the world forces, conventionally called the East and the West, were formed; began to build two ideological and military-political blocs, the confrontation of which largely determined the structure of the post-war bipolar world.

The anti-fascist coalition split. Its participants came into conflict with each other, and the “ Cold War ” that lasted more than 45 years, until the collapse of the USSR.

This might be interesting for you:

• Interesting History Essay Topics and Events to Write About
• A List of History Websites for a Perfect Research
• Essay on India after Independence: How-to Guide and Prompts
• World War II Research Essay Topics: ThoughtCo
• Coming in from the Cold: The Newsmagazine of the American Historical Association
• A guide to historical research (BBC)
• Seemed Like a Good Idea at the Time: The New York Times
• Why Hitler’s grand plan during the second world war collapsed: The Guardian
• Historical Research: ECU
• Humanities Research Strategies: Historical Methodologies (USC Libraries)
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Thanks for these ideas for essays on World War II. These are what I need for my paper about WWII. Now I can start writing my essay on World War II.

To write World War II essays is very instructive – to know the reasons, the course of war events, the results. These all are necessary to comprehend and debar World War III as humanity won’t go through it!

Home — Essay Samples — War — Aftermath of World War II — How World War 2 Changed The World

How World War 2 Changed The World

• Categories: Aftermath of World War II World History

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Published: Mar 18, 2021

Words: 1325 | Pages: 3 | 7 min read

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The unity of countries around the global world, the rapid evolution of technology and medicine, the initiation of human rights all around the world.

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Poland marks the 85th anniversary of Nazi Germany’s invasion at the start of World War II

Poland’s Prime Minister Donald Tusk attends solemn ceremonies at the monument to the 1939 heroic defense of the Westerplatte peninsula to mark the 85th anniversary of the outbreak of World War II, at Westerplatte, on the Baltic Sea, Poland, on Sunday, Sept. 1, 2024. Attacked by a German Nazi warship in the small hours of Sept. 1, 1939, the Westerplatte military outpost was supposed to hold out for 24 hours, but its soldiers put up resistance to the Germans for seven days. (AP Photo/Wojciech Strozyk)

People lay a wreath at the monument to the 1939 heroic defense of the Westerplatte peninsula outpost during solemn observances of the 85th anniversary of the outbreak of World War II, at Westerplatte, on the Baltic Sea, Poland, on Sunday, Sept. 1, 2024. Attacked by a German Nazi warship in the small hours on Sept. 1, 1939, the Westerplatte military outpost was supposed to hold out for 24 hours, but its soldiers put up resistance to the Germans for seven days. (AP Photo/Wojciech Strozyk)

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WARSAW, Poland (AP) — Poland’s leaders stressed the need for a strong defense in the face of war in neighboring Ukraine and redress as they led solemn ceremonies early Sunday to mark the 85th anniversary of German Nazi forces invading and bombing Polish territory at the start of World War II.

Sirens wailed and a memorial bell tolled as President Andrzej Duda and deputy ambassador of Germany, Robert Rohde, attended an observance in the town of Wielun, the first civilian target of German bombing in the small hours of Sept. 1, 1939. Some 1,200 people were killed in the attack which witnesses say began at 4:40 a.m.

“We can say that we have forgiven even though we remember, even though the pain is persisting and even though there are still tens of thousands of those who have been directly hurt by the Germans,” Duda said. He also called on Berlin to make amends.

Meanwhile, at a monument on the Baltic Sea’s Westerplatte peninsula, where a military outpost was shelled by a German warship just minutes after Wielun was attacked, Prime Minister Donald Tusk and Defense Minister Wladyslaw Kosiniak-Kamysz laid wreaths and attended a memorial roll call for fallen soldiers. At the time, the outpost’s outnumbered troops fought for seven days before surrendering to the Germans, becoming a symbol of heroism and patriotism.

Tusk said war was present again in the region as the Russian invasion of Ukarine, which began in 2022, grinds on.

He said, in a clear reference to Germany, it wasn’t enough to speak about “reconciliation” or to “bend your head in a sense of guilt,” adding that the best sign of lessons learned from the past is “the readiness to organize the entire western world, Europe and NATO for the defense against aggression that we are witnessing today in the battlefields of Ukraine.”

“Today we will not say ‘Neven Again.’ Today we must say ‘Never Again Alone’,” the prime minister said.

Tusk also said Poland was building “the most modern army in Europe, one of the strongest in Europe” to actively contribute to the unity and strength of the NATO defense alliance and the European continent and “to defend our civilization” and “never again expose our homeland to any risks.”

German Foreign Minister Annalena Baerbock posted on X, saying she wished Poles and Germans become “completely normal” toward one another, adding it was the desire of former Polish foreign minister Władysław Bartoszewski who survived the German invasion.

She also wrote that it was their responsibility, “while bearing our past in mind,” to constantly work to keep their friendship alive.

In more than five years of World War II and the brutal German occupation, Poland lost 6 million citizens, or a sixth of its population, of which 3 million were Jewish. The country also suffered huge losses to its infrastructure, industry and agriculture.

Poland’s previous right-wing government demanded $1.3 trillion in damages from Germany. Tusk’s current Cabinet has toned the demand down to some form of compensation that could serve to strengthen the ties between the two neighbors. Germany insists the matter is closed as it had paid damages to the Moscow-led East Bloc after the war. Warsaw says it did not get any share of it.

Addressing attendees at the Wielun observance, the Polish president said: “Forgiveness and the admission of guilt is one thing, but compensation for the damage caused is another thing. And this issue has not been settled yet.”

Associated Press writer Geir Moulson in Berlin contributed to this report.

War Within intro quest disappearing upon quest prompt. Cannot start xpac content

Jaina summons you to Silithus, you get the quest prompt but it suddenly disappears and you can’t port to Silithus. Relogging causes the quest dialogue with the prompt but it keeps going away.

You MIGHT have a phasing issue here. Check your quest log for quests in the area, or BFA quests that may involve jaina or magni.

Having this issue as well. Just started today after I leveled a new character.

Update: Logged out and back in right beside Jaina and quickly clicked on her to complete the quest.

I abandoned all the quests before.

The fix is with the guy above me. You have to log out and back in next to Jaina in Silithus and accept and complete the quest quickly enough to talk to Thrall or she will vanish in the middle, the quest will disappear, and you will have to relog.

This is still a problem. This isn’t a phasing issue with us or our quest (I have none but hers in my log).

just because you don’t have an active quest, doesn’t mean phasing isn’t the culprit.

there are plenty of places where you’ll be put into a particular phase until you have obtained and completed particular quests in the area.

Happening on a freshly boosted character too. In a shard with about 50 people standing here complaining trying to get it to work so it’s a wider issue for sure.

This doesn’t always clear the phase, usually the best option is to complete the quest. As far as the rest I would actually post in the bug forum so the QA team can look into it. It sounds like a bug seeing a few of you said your using boosted chars.

Figured out the work around. Either don’t use the scroll and just fly all the way to Silithus. Or if you used the scroll, fly about 50 feet away and open your adventure guide and go to suggested content. Accept the War Within intro quest from there and fly right back to the spot and it doesn’t bug anymore. So it seems to be something with using the scroll to teleport there that’s causing the problems.

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