example outline for research paper

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Getting started with your research paper outline

Levels of organization for a research paper outline

First level of organization, second level of organization, third level of organization, fourth level of organization, tips for writing a research paper outline, research paper outline template, my research paper outline is complete: what are the next steps, frequently asked questions about a research paper outline, related articles.

The outline is the skeleton of your research paper. Simply start by writing down your thesis and the main ideas you wish to present. This will likely change as your research progresses; therefore, do not worry about being too specific in the early stages of writing your outline.

A research paper outline typically contains between two and four layers of organization. The first two layers are the most generalized. Each layer thereafter will contain the research you complete and presents more and more detailed information.

The levels are typically represented by a combination of Roman numerals, Arabic numerals, uppercase letters, lowercase letters but may include other symbols. Refer to the guidelines provided by your institution, as formatting is not universal and differs between universities, fields, and subjects. If you are writing the outline for yourself, you may choose any combination you prefer.

This is the most generalized level of information. Begin by numbering the introduction, each idea you will present, and the conclusion. The main ideas contain the bulk of your research paper 's information. Depending on your research, it may be chapters of a book for a literature review , a series of dates for a historical research paper, or the methods and results of a scientific paper.

I. Introduction

II. Main idea

III. Main idea

IV. Main idea

V. Conclusion

The second level consists of topics which support the introduction, main ideas, and the conclusion. Each main idea should have at least two supporting topics listed in the outline.

If your main idea does not have enough support, you should consider presenting another main idea in its place. This is where you should stop outlining if this is your first draft. Continue your research before adding to the next levels of organization.

A. Background information
B. Hypothesis or thesis
A. Supporting topic
B. Supporting topic

The third level of organization contains supporting information for the topics previously listed. By now, you should have completed enough research to add support for your ideas.

The Introduction and Main Ideas may contain information you discovered about the author, timeframe, or contents of a book for a literature review; the historical events leading up to the research topic for a historical research paper, or an explanation of the problem a scientific research paper intends to address.

1. Relevant history
2. Relevant history
1. The hypothesis or thesis clearly stated
1. A brief description of supporting information
2. A brief description of supporting information

The fourth level of organization contains the most detailed information such as quotes, references, observations, or specific data needed to support the main idea. It is not typical to have further levels of organization because the information contained here is the most specific.

a) Quotes or references to another piece of literature
b) Quotes or references to another piece of literature

Tip: The key to creating a useful outline is to be consistent in your headings, organization, and levels of specificity.

Be Consistent : ensure every heading has a similar tone. State the topic or write short sentences for each heading but avoid doing both.
Organize Information : Higher levels of organization are more generally stated and each supporting level becomes more specific. The introduction and conclusion will never be lower than the first level of organization.
Build Support : Each main idea should have two or more supporting topics. If your research does not have enough information to support the main idea you are presenting, you should, in general, complete additional research or revise the outline.

By now, you should know the basic requirements to create an outline for your paper. With a content framework in place, you can now start writing your paper . To help you start right away, you can use one of our templates and adjust it to suit your needs.

After completing your outline, you should:

Title your research paper . This is an iterative process and may change when you delve deeper into the topic.
Begin writing your research paper draft . Continue researching to further build your outline and provide more information to support your hypothesis or thesis.
Format your draft appropriately . MLA 8 and APA 7 formats have differences between their bibliography page, in-text citations, line spacing, and title.
Finalize your citations and bibliography . Use a reference manager like Paperpile to organize and cite your research.
Write the abstract, if required . An abstract will briefly state the information contained within the paper, results of the research, and the conclusion.

An outline is used to organize written ideas about a topic into a logical order. Outlines help us organize major topics, subtopics, and supporting details. Researchers benefit greatly from outlines while writing by addressing which topic to cover in what order.

The most basic outline format consists of: an introduction, a minimum of three topic paragraphs, and a conclusion.

You should make an outline before starting to write your research paper. This will help you organize the main ideas and arguments you want to present in your topic.

Consistency: ensure every heading has a similar tone. State the topic or write short sentences for each heading but avoid doing both.
Organization : Higher levels of organization are more generally stated and each supporting level becomes more specific. The introduction and conclusion will never be lower than the first level of organization.
Support : Each main idea should have two or more supporting topics. If your research does not have enough information to support the main idea you are presenting, you should, in general, complete additional research or revise the outline.

How Can You Create a Well Planned Research Paper Outline

You are staring at the blank document, meaning to start writing your research paper . After months of experiments and procuring results, your PI asked you to write the paper to publish it in a reputed journal. You spoke to your peers and a few seniors and received a few tips on writing a research paper, but you still can’t plan on how to begin!

Writing a research paper is a very common issue among researchers and is often looked upon as a time consuming hurdle. Researchers usually look up to this task as an impending threat, avoiding and procrastinating until they cannot delay it anymore. Seeking advice from internet and seniors they manage to write a paper which goes in for quite a few revisions. Making researchers lose their sense of understanding with respect to their research work and findings. In this article, we would like to discuss how to create a structured research paper outline which will assist a researcher in writing their research paper effectively!

Publication is an important component of research studies in a university for academic promotion and in obtaining funding to support research. However, the primary reason is to provide the data and hypotheses to scientific community to advance the understanding in a specific domain. A scientific paper is a formal record of a research process. It documents research protocols, methods, results, conclusion, and discussion from a research hypothesis .

Table of Contents

What Is a Research Paper Outline?

A research paper outline is a basic format for writing an academic research paper. It follows the IMRAD format (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion). However, this format varies depending on the type of research manuscript. A research paper outline consists of following sections to simplify the paper for readers. These sections help researchers build an effective paper outline.

1. Title Page

The title page provides important information which helps the editors, reviewers, and readers identify the manuscript and the authors at a glance. It also provides an overview of the field of research the research paper belongs to. The title should strike a balance between precise and detailed. Other generic details include author’s given name, affiliation, keywords that will provide indexing, details of the corresponding author etc. are added to the title page.

2. Abstract

Abstract is the most important section of the manuscript and will help the researcher create a detailed research paper outline . To be more precise, an abstract is like an advertisement to the researcher’s work and it influences the editor in deciding whether to submit the manuscript to reviewers or not. Writing an abstract is a challenging task. Researchers can write an exemplary abstract by selecting the content carefully and being concise.

3. Introduction

An introduction is a background statement that provides the context and approach of the research. It describes the problem statement with the assistance of the literature study and elaborates the requirement to update the knowledge gap. It sets the research hypothesis and informs the readers about the big research question.

This section is usually named as “Materials and Methods”, “Experiments” or “Patients and Methods” depending upon the type of journal. This purpose provides complete information on methods used for the research. Researchers should mention clear description of materials and their use in the research work. If the methods used in research are already published, give a brief account and refer to the original publication. However, if the method used is modified from the original method, then researcher should mention the modifications done to the original protocol and validate its accuracy, precision, and repeatability.

It is best to report results as tables and figures wherever possible. Also, avoid duplication of text and ensure that the text summarizes the findings. Report the results with appropriate descriptive statistics. Furthermore, report any unexpected events that could affect the research results, and mention complete account of observations and explanations for missing data (if any).

6. Discussion

The discussion should set the research in context, strengthen its importance and support the research hypothesis. Summarize the main results of the study in one or two paragraphs and show how they logically fit in an overall scheme of studies. Compare the results with other investigations in the field of research and explain the differences.

7. Acknowledgments

Acknowledgements identify and thank the contributors to the study, who are not under the criteria of co-authors. It also includes the recognition of funding agency and universities that award scholarships or fellowships to researchers.

8. Declaration of Competing Interests

Finally, declaring the competing interests is essential to abide by ethical norms of unique research publishing. Competing interests arise when the author has more than one role that may lead to a situation where there is a conflict of interest.

Steps to Write a Research Paper Outline

Write down all important ideas that occur to you concerning the research paper .
Answer questions such as – what is the topic of my paper? Why is the topic important? How to formulate the hypothesis? What are the major findings?
Add context and structure. Group all your ideas into sections – Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion/Conclusion.
Add relevant questions to each section. It is important to note down the questions. This will help you align your thoughts.
Expand the ideas based on the questions created in the paper outline.
After creating a detailed outline, discuss it with your mentors and peers.
Get enough feedback and decide on the journal you will submit to.
The process of real writing begins.

Benefits of Creating a Research Paper Outline

As discussed, the research paper subheadings create an outline of what different aspects of research needs elaboration. This provides subtopics on which the researchers brainstorm and reach a conclusion to write. A research paper outline organizes the researcher’s thoughts and gives a clear picture of how to formulate the research protocols and results. It not only helps the researcher to understand the flow of information but also provides relation between the ideas.

A research paper outline helps researcher achieve a smooth transition between topics and ensures that no research point is forgotten. Furthermore, it allows the reader to easily navigate through the research paper and provides a better understanding of the research. The paper outline allows the readers to find relevant information and quotes from different part of the paper.

Research Paper Outline Template

A research paper outline template can help you understand the concept of creating a well planned research paper before beginning to write and walk through your journey of research publishing.

1. Research Title

A. Background i. Support with evidence ii. Support with existing literature studies

B. Thesis Statement i. Link literature with hypothesis ii. Support with evidence iii. Explain the knowledge gap and how this research will help build the gap 4. Body

A. Methods i. Mention materials and protocols used in research ii. Support with evidence

B. Results i. Support with tables and figures ii. Mention appropriate descriptive statistics

C. Discussion i. Support the research with context ii. Support the research hypothesis iii. Compare the results with other investigations in field of research

D. Conclusion i. Support the discussion and research investigation ii. Support with literature studies

E. Acknowledgements i. Identify and thank the contributors ii. Include the funding agency, if any

F. Declaration of Competing Interests

5. References

Download the Research Paper Outline Template!

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Writing Tips

How to Write a Research Paper Outline

4-minute read

25th August 2023

Embarking on the journey of writing a research paper can be both exciting and overwhelming. However, you can navigate this process with clarity and confidence with a well-crafted research paper outline. An outline serves as a roadmap that guides you through each phase of research, organization, and writing.

In this guide, we’ll walk you through the steps to craft a stellar outline that will lay the foundation for an exceptional research paper. Let’s dive in!

The Importance of a Research Paper Outline

Before delving into the process of creating an outline, let’s first discuss a few reasons why it’s a crucial element of your research paper process:

● Organization : An outline helps you organize your thoughts, ideas, and research findings coherently and logically, preventing your paper from becoming disjointed.

● Focus and Direction : It provides a clear path for your research and writing, helping you stay on track and ensuring that you cover all essential aspects of your topic.

● Efficiency : By planning and structuring your paper in advance, you save time during the actual writing process.

Steps to Create a Research Paper Outline

1. identifying the core components of your outline.

Your research paper outline consists of several key components, each serving a specific purpose. Depending on your research topic and your intended audience, your research paper may have additional sections, such as a literature review or methods section, so make sure you’re clear on what the expectations are for your project. Still, your outline should almost certainly contain the following elements:

A. Introduction

● Provide a hook. Begin with a compelling opening that grabs your reader’s attention.

● Include appropriate background information. Provide context about your topic, highlighting its relevance and significance , along with your research objectives .

● State your thesis statement . Clearly state the main argument or purpose of your paper.

B. Main Body

● Organize your major points and arguments. Itemize the primary ideas or arguments you intend to present. Each major point should have its own section.

● Supporting evidence : Beneath each major point, list the supporting evidence, data, or examples that back your arguments.

● Subpoints : If necessary, break down each major point into smaller subpoints to ensure a well-structured and detailed discussion.

C. Counterarguments and Rebuttals (if applicable)

● Consider the counterarguments . Address opposing viewpoints to showcase a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

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● Include the counter rebuttals . Refute counterarguments with strong evidence and reasoning, reinforcing your stance.

D. Conclusion

● Restate your thesis. Summarize your thesis statement, reminding readers of your main argument.

● Summarize your main points . Briefly recap the major points discussed in the body of your paper.

● Provide a meaningful concluding thought. Leave readers with a thought-provoking insight, call to action, or open-ended question.

● Remember your acknowledgements . Finally, add any acknowledgements that should be recognized.

2. Structuring Your Outline

Create a hierarchical structure by arranging your main points, subpoints, and supporting evidence in a logical order. This provides a visual representation of your paper’s flow and allows you to see how ideas connect and progress.

3. Be Concise and Clear

Your outline is a concise roadmap, so use brief phrases or sentences to capture the essence of each section. Avoid wordiness and complex language.

4. Flexibility in Your Approach

Remember, your outline is a flexible tool. As you delve deeper into your research and writing, you might discover the need to rearrange or expand certain sections. Allow your outline to evolve naturally.

5. Seek Feedback

Share your outline with peers, instructors, or your advisor to gain valuable feedback. Their insights can help you refine your outline and ensure that you’re on the right track. They can also let you know if you’ve left out anything of significance.

A well-structured research paper outline is your compass in the vast sea of information and ideas. It keeps you focused, organized, and empowered throughout the research and writing process and can help deter you from making common mistakes .

Following these steps will equip you to create a successful outline: identify your main concepts; structure your outline; check for clarity and concision; allow for flexibility; and seek feedback.

Finally, if you’re interested in having your research paper proofread , please consider our research paper editing services . You can even try a sample of our services for free . Happy outlining and researching!

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An outline is a formal system used to develop a framework for thinking about what should be the organization and eventual contents of your paper. An outline helps you predict the overall structure and flow of a paper.

Why and How to Create a Useful Outline. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of...

Writing papers in college requires you to come up with sophisticated, complex, and sometimes very creative ways of structuring your ideas . Taking the time to draft an outline can help you determine if your ideas connect to each other, what order of ideas works best, where gaps in your thinking may exist, or whether you have sufficient evidence to support each of your points. It is also an effective way to think about the time you will need to complete each part of your paper before you begin writing.

A good outline is important because :

You will be much less likely to get writer's block . An outline will show where you're going and how to get there. Use the outline to set goals for completing each section of your paper.
It will help you stay organized and focused throughout the writing process and help ensure proper coherence [flow of ideas] in your final paper. However, the outline should be viewed as a guide, not a straitjacket. As you review the literature or gather data, the organization of your paper may change; adjust your outline accordingly.
A clear, detailed outline ensures that you always have something to help re-calibrate your writing should you feel yourself drifting into subject areas unrelated to the research problem. Use your outline to set boundaries around what you will investigate.
The outline can be key to staying motivated . You can put together an outline when you're excited about the project and everything is clicking; making an outline is never as overwhelming as sitting down and beginning to write a twenty page paper without any sense of where it is going.
An outline helps you organize multiple ideas about a topic . Most research problems can be analyzed from a variety of perspectives; an outline can help you sort out which modes of analysis are most appropriate to ensure the most robust findings are discovered.
An outline not only helps you organize your thoughts, but it can also serve as a schedule for when certain aspects of your writing should be accomplished . Review the assignment and highlight the due dates of specific tasks and integrate these into your outline. If your professor has not created specific deadlines, create your own deadlines by thinking about your own writing style and the need to manage your time around other course assignments.

How to Structure and Organize Your Paper. Odegaard Writing & Research Center. University of Washington; Why and How to Create a Useful Outline. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lietzau, Kathleen. Creating Outlines. Writing Center, University of Richmond.

Structure and Writing Style

I. General Approaches

There are two general approaches you can take when writing an outline for your paper:

The topic outline consists of short phrases. This approach is useful when you are dealing with a number of different issues that could be arranged in a variety of different ways in your paper. Due to short phrases having more content than using simple sentences, they create better content from which to build your paper.

The sentence outline is done in full sentences. This approach is useful when your paper focuses on complex issues in detail. The sentence outline is also useful because sentences themselves have many of the details in them needed to build a paper and it allows you to include those details in the sentences instead of having to create an outline of short phrases that goes on page after page.

II. Steps to Making the Outline

A strong outline details each topic and subtopic in your paper, organizing these points so that they build your argument toward an evidence-based conclusion. Writing an outline will also help you focus on the task at hand and avoid unnecessary tangents, logical fallacies, and underdeveloped paragraphs.

Identify the research problem . The research problem is the focal point from which the rest of the outline flows. Try to sum up the point of your paper in one sentence or phrase. It also can be key to deciding what the title of your paper should be.
Identify the main categories . What main points will you analyze? The introduction describes all of your main points; the rest of your paper can be spent developing those points.
Create the first category . What is the first point you want to cover? If the paper centers around a complicated term, a definition can be a good place to start. For a paper that concerns the application and testing of a particular theory, giving the general background on the theory can be a good place to begin.
Create subcategories . After you have followed these steps, create points under it that provide support for the main point. The number of categories that you use depends on the amount of information that you are trying to cover. There is no right or wrong number to use.

Once you have developed the basic outline of the paper, organize the contents to match the standard format of a research paper as described in this guide.

III. Things to Consider When Writing an Outline

There is no rule dictating which approach is best . Choose either a topic outline or a sentence outline based on which one you believe will work best for you. However, once you begin developing an outline, it's helpful to stick to only one approach.
Both topic and sentence outlines use Roman and Arabic numerals along with capital and small letters of the alphabet arranged in a consistent and rigid sequence. A rigid format should be used especially if you are required to hand in your outline.
Although the format of an outline is rigid, it shouldn't make you inflexible about how to write your paper. Often when you start investigating a research problem [i.e., reviewing the research literature], especially if you are unfamiliar with the topic, you should anticipate the likelihood your analysis could go in different directions. If your paper changes focus, or you need to add new sections, then feel free to reorganize the outline.
If appropriate, organize the main points of your outline in chronological order . In papers where you need to trace the history or chronology of events or issues, it is important to arrange your outline in the same manner, knowing that it's easier to re-arrange things now than when you've almost finished your paper.
For a standard research paper of 15-20 pages, your outline should be no more than few pages in length . It may be helpful as you are developing your outline to also write down a tentative list of references.

Muirhead, Brent. “Using Outlines to Improve Online Student Writing Skills.” Journal on School Educational Technology 1, (2005): 17-23; Four Main Components for Effective Outlines. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; How to Make an Outline. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Kartawijaya, Sukarta. “Improving Students’ Writing Skill in Writing Paragraph through an Outline Technique.” Curricula: Journal of Teaching and Learning 3 (2018); Organization: Informal Outlines. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Organization: Standard Outline Form. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Outlining. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University; Plotnic, Jerry. Organizing an Essay. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Reverse Outline. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Reverse Outlines: A Writer's Technique for Examining Organization. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Using Outlines. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

A Disorganized Outline Means a Disorganized Paper!

If, in writing your paper, it begins to diverge from your outline, this is very likely a sign that you've lost your focus. How do you know whether to change the paper to fit the outline, or, that you need to reconsider the outline so that it fits the paper? A good way to check your progress is to use what you have written to recreate the outline. This is an effective strategy for assessing the organization of your paper. If the resulting outline says what you want it to say and it is in an order that is easy to follow, then the organization of your paper has been successful. If you discover that it's difficult to create an outline from what you have written, then you likely need to revise your paper.

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Last Updated: May 30, 2024 9:38 AM
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The Writing Process

Making expository writing less stressful, more efficient, and more enlightening, search form, you are here.

Step 2: Plan and organize

Sample Detailed Outline

"Organize. Organize. Organize." —U.S. Vice President and Nobel Peace Prize-winner Al Gore

Below is an example of a detailed outline. (It is for a research paper, but the principles and structure apply to any paper.) Notice the hierarchical use of the roman numeral system . Such a hierarchy is key to organizing your thinking and your argument and keeping track of the relationships between your ideas.

Introduction

quote from movie like Independence Day to get readers’ attention SOURCE: IMDB.com

world preparing to welcome with festivities and open arms the aliens coming to Earth from Andromeda galaxy

Thesis (complete sentence!): Although the aliens seem friendly and say they come in peace, Earth’s number one priority should be to build a defense shield before they arrive.

On March 15, 2016, we discovered not alone in universe: irregular but repeating signal discovered from nearby Andromeda. SOURCE: NYTimes , 3/16/16

Different scientists have decoded the message differently

Commonly accepted interpretation friendly:

“Greetings, people of Earth. We have detected and watched your reports (e.g., The Big Bang Theory ) documenting typical life on Earth. We are currently on our way to Earth to begin our friendship and will arrive in Earth year 2020. Prepare yourselves for a glorious future [unclear signals].” (SOURCE: Michaels, “Aliens Are Our Friends,” People )

still parts of the message undecoded (SOURCE?

all scientists agree: Aliens arriving in 2020 (Source: Fredericks, Wall Street Journal )

Argument: there are signs that message is a warning and that aliens are planning to attack

Prof. Alan Guthman, Harvard Center for Astrophysics, makes case (SOURCE: Guthman, “We Do Not Come in Peace”)

With only one message to work with, we have little clue of tone of message

If we interpret three different patterns in signal differently, tone much different: “Attention, Earthlings. We have observed your unusual lives. We are coming to Earth to…[unclear]. Prepare yourselves for life under our control.”

With all the videos we broadcast into space, an alien race would assume that we are hostile and act accordingly

Logic: Even if these aliens are friendly, it is better to be safe than sorry and protect ourselves

FIND: Estimates of the number of intelligent races in the nearby universe and the probability that at least one of them is hostile and technologically advanced

Argument: Estimates show that workable shield surrounding Earth can be constructed by 2020

If nations of Earth collaborate, we can build shield that will block incoming ships and weapons fire (SOURCE. Teller, “Shielding the Earth,” Physics Rev. Letters )

Will cost huge amounts of $$, but:

if spread out among many countries, affordable FIND. Estimates of costs

We can’t afford NOT to build it

Argument: Building shield will both stimulate global economy and result in very useful new technologies

FIND! Evidence on how previous projects—moon landing, the International Space Station, emergency stimulus packages—created

jobs –find stats!

new products & companies

FIND! I don’t have concrete evidence for this, but I remember hearing how the moon landing and international space station resulted in the creation of new, useful technologies

Counterargument: If we build shield and they detect it, it could signal that we are hostile and provoke the aliens to attack

Missile defense shields on Earth have often provoked international tensions. SOURCE: M. Pritchard, “If You Build It, They Will Attack.” ( Boston Globe )

FIND source that shows that

such tensions do not necessarily lead to attack and

any intelligent race will understand need for others to be prepared to defend themselves.

Counterargument: We are probably not able to build shield that would work against such a technologically advanced race

non-sequitor. fact that it may not work does not mean that it won’t and that we should not try to protect ourselves.

Conclusion.

We have no way of knowing the intensions of a group we have never met on the basis of one message.

The only sensible approach is to try to defend ourselves, especially when there will be benefits for trying such as jobs and new technologies.

As I learned in Las Vegas, “Never risk what you cannot afford to lose.” Can we afford to risk our children’s lives?

Click here to create a detailed outline from your freewrite/brainstorm using GoogleDocs.

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How to Write a Research Paper Outline with Examples

You sometimes have to submit an essay outline or a research proposal checklist for a research project before you do most of the actual research to show that you have understood the assignment, defined a good research question or hypothesis, and contemplated the structure of your research paper. You can find various templates and examples for such outlines, which usually begin with “put your thesis statement/research question at the top” and then ask you to decide whether to add your supporting ideas/points in “alphanumeric,” “decimal,” or “full-sentence” style.

That is certainly one useful (if not overly formalized) way of using outlining to prepare to draft an academic text. But here we want to talk about how to make an outline after you have done a research project or thesis work and are not quite sure how to put everything together into a written thesis to hand in or a research paper manuscript to submit to a journal.

What is a research paper outline?

Creating a research project outline entails more than just listing bullet points (although you can use bullet points and lists in your outline). It includes how to organize everything you have done and thought about and want to say about your work into a clear structure you can use as the basis for your research paper.

There are two different methods of creating an outline: let’s call these “abstract style” and “paper style.” These names reflect how briefly you summarize your work at this initial point, or show how extensive and complicated the methods and designs you used and the data you collected are. The type of outline you use also depends on how clear the story you want to tell is and how much organizing and structuring of information you still need to do before you can draft your actual paper.

research paper outline, scaffolding image

Additional Tips for Outlining a Research Paper in English

Abstract-style research paper outline format.

A research paper outline in abstract style consists, like the abstract of a research paper , of short answers to the essential questions that anyone trying to understand your work would ask.

Why did you decide to do what you did?
What exactly did you do?
How did you do it?
What did you find?
What does it mean?
What should you/we/someone else do now?

These questions form the structure of not only a typical research paper abstract but also a typical article manuscript. They will eventually be omitted and replaced by the usual headers, such as Introduction/Background, Aim, Methods, Results, Discussion, Conclusions, etc. Answering these key questions for yourself first (with keywords or short sentences) and then sticking to the same structure and information when drafting your article will ensure that your story is consistent and that there are no logical gaps or contradictions between the different sections of a research paper .

If you draft this abstract outline carefully, you can use it as the basis for every other part of your paper. You reduce it even more, down to the absolute essential elements, to create your manuscript title ; you choose your keywords on the basis of the summary presented here; and you expand it into the introduction , methods , results , and discussion sections of your paper without contradicting yourself or losing the logical thread.

Research Paper Outline Example (Abstract style)

Let’s say you did a research project on the effect of university online classes on attendance rates and create a simple outline example using these six questions:

1. Why did you decide to do what you did?

Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, many university courses around the world have been moved online, at least temporarily. Since students have been saving time on commuting, I wondered if attendance rates have increased overall.

2. What exactly did you do?

I compared attendance scores for courses that were taught both before (offline) and during (online) the COVID-19 pandemic at my university.

3. How did you do it?

I selected five popular subjects (business, law, medicine, psychology, art & design) and one general course per subject; then I contacted the professors in charge and asked them to provide me with anonymized attendance scores.

4. What did you find?

Attendance did not significantly change for medicine and law, but slightly dropped for the other three subjects. I found no difference between male and female students.

5. What does it mean?

Even though students saved time on traveling between their homes and the campus during the COVID-19 pandemic, they did not attend classes more consistently; in some subjects, they missed more classes than before.

6. What should you/we/someone else do now?

Since I do not have any other information about the students, I can only speculate on potential explanations. Next, I will put together a questionnaire to assess how students have been coping with online classes and how the experiences from this time can benefit university teaching and learning in general.

Note that you could have made the same outline using just keywords instead of full sentences. You could also have added more methodological details or the results of your statistical analysis. However, when you can break everything down to the absolute essentials like this, you will have a good foundation upon which to develop a full paper.

However, maybe your study just seems too complicated. So you look at these questions and then at your notes and data and have no idea how to come up with such simple answers. Or maybe things went in a completely different direction since you started writing your paper, so now you are no longer sure what the main point of your experiments was and what the main conclusion should be. If that is how you feel right now, then outlining your paper in “paper style” might be the right method for you.

Paper-Style Research Paper Outline Format

The purpose of a paper-style outline is the same as that of an abstract-style outline: You want to organize your initial thoughts and plans, the methods and tools you used, all the experiments you conducted, the data you collected and analyzed, as well as your results, into a clear structure so that you can identify the main storyline for your paper and the main conclusions that you want the reader to take from it.

First, take as much space as you need and simply jot down everything in your study you planned to do, everything you did, and everything you thought about based on your notes, lab book, and earlier literature you read or used. Such an outline can contain all your initial ideas, the timeline of all your pilots and all your experiments, the reasons why you changed direction or designed new experiments halfway through your study, all the analyses you ever did, all the feedback and criticism you already got from supervisors and seniors or during conference presentations, and all the ideas you have for future work. If this is your thesis or your first publication, then your first outline might look quite messy – and that is exactly why you need to structure your paper before trying to write everything up.

So you have finally remembered all you have done in your study and have written everything down. The next step is to realize that you cannot throw all of this at the reader and expect them to put it together. You will have to create a story that is clear and consistent, contains all the essential information (and leaves out any that is not), and leads the reader the same way the abstract outline does, from why over what and how to what you found and what it all means .

This does not mean you should suppress results that did not come out as intended or try to make your study look smoother. But the reader does not really need to know all the details about why you changed your research question after your initial literature search or some failed pilots. Instead of writing down the simple questions we used for the abstract outline, to organize your still messy notes, write down the main sections of the manuscript you are trying to put together. Additionally, include what kinds of information needs to go where in your paper’s structure.

1. Introduction Section:

What field is your research part of?

What other papers did you read before deciding on your topic?

Who is your target audience and how much information do your readers need to understand where you are coming from?

Can you summarize what you did in two sentences?

Did you have a clear hypothesis? If not, what were the potential outcomes of your work?

2. Methods Section:

List all the methods, questionnaires, and tests you used.

Are your methods all standard in the field or do you need to explain them?

List everything chronologically or according to topics, whatever makes more sense. Read more about writing the Methods section if you need help with this important decision.

3. Results Section:

Use the same timeline or topics you introduced in the method section.

Make sure you answer all the questions you raised in the introduction.

Use tables, graphs, and other visualizations to guide the reader.

Don’t present results of tests/analyses that you did not mention in the methods.

4. Discussion/Conclusion Section:

Summarize quickly what you did and found but don’t repeat your results.

Explain whether your findings were to be expected, are new and surprising, are in line with the existing literature, or are contradicting some earlier work.

Do you think your findings can be generalized? Can they be useful for people in certain professions or other fields?

Does your study have limitations? What would you do differently next time?

What future research do you think should be done based on your findings?

5. Conclusion Statement/Paragraph:

This is your take-home message for the reader. Make sure that your conclusion is directly related to your initial research question.

Now you can simply reorganize your notes (if you use computer software) or fill in the different sections and cross out information on your original list. When you have used all your jotted notes, go through your new outline and check what is still missing. Now check once more that your conclusion is related to your initial research question. If that is the case, you are good to go. You can now either break your outline down further and shorten it into an abstract, or you can expand the different outline sections into a full article.

If you are a non-native speaker of English, then you might take notes in your mother language or maybe in different languages, read literature in your mother language, and generally not think in English while doing your research. If your goal is to write your thesis or paper in English, however, then our advice is to only use your mother language when listing keywords at the very beginning of the outlining process (if at all). As soon as you write down full sentences that you want to go into your paper eventually, you can save yourself a lot of work, avoid mistakes later in the process, and train your brain (which will help you immensely the next time you write an academic text), if you stick to English.

Another thing to keep in mind is that starting to write in full sentences too early in the process means that you might need to omit some passages (maybe even entire paragraphs) when you later decide to change the structure or storyline of your paper. Depending on how much you enjoy (or hate) writing in English and how much effort it costs you, having to throw away a perfectly fine paragraph that you invested a lot of time in can be incredibly frustrating. Our advice is therefore to not spend too much time on writing and to not get too attached to exact wording before you have a solid outline that you then only need to fill in and expand into a full paper.

Once you have finished drafting your paper, consider using professional proofreading and English editing service to revise your paper and prepare it for submission to journals. Wordvice offers a paper editing service , manuscript editing service , dissertation editing service , and thesis editing service to polish and edit your research work and correct any errors in style or formatting.

And while you draft your article, make use of Wordvice AI, a free AI Proofreader that identifies and fixes errors in punctuation, spelling, and grammar in any academic document.

Research Paper Outline: Designing Your Research Narrative

Table of contents

1.1 What is an outline in college papers?
2.1 Formatting
2.2 Length and detail
3 How to Make an Outline for a Research Paper: 4 Essential Tips
4 Example of a Research Paper Outline
5 How to Make a Research Outline: Final Words

Starting work on the student research paper can be daunting, especially if you have doubts about a topic. A meticulously organized outline serves as a guide through the extensive landscape of knowledge. In this article, you will discover how to make a research paper outline quickly and effectively. These steps will streamline your research and creative process. It will ensure a cohesive and compelling final assignment.

This article delves into the essential aspects of crafting a research paper outline, a foundational tool in academic writing.

We will explore its primary purpose, providing structure and clarity to your research.
Key components of a research paper outline, such as formatting with Roman numerals, maintaining a parallel structure, and choosing the right citation style.
Additionally, we’ll offer insights into balancing the outline’s length and detail to meet assignment requirements and provide effective tips for refining your outline.

Keep reading and find the answers to the most complicated questions about your academic research. Following our advice will give you a high-quality and robust outline for your research paper.

Purpose of the Research Paper Outline

The purpose of an outline for a research paper is paramount to guiding a comprehensive scholarly document. It serves as a roadmap, delineating your research path and ensuring every aspect is noticed. The primary function is to provide a clear and helpful research paper layout.

What is an outline in college papers?

This type of document allows you to present thoughts in a proper order and get needed readers’ reactions. Such an approach helps you avoid confusion while presenting a persuasive case.

Moreover, a customizable research paper outline template proves invaluable for students. It offers a structured format that can be adapted to individual needs. This adaptability enables students to concentrate on the substance of their analysis. Recognizing that activity when you create a research paper outline can be challenging. However, having all the facts and results empowers you to create essays quickly and effectively. That’s why there is no basic research paper outline. This piece of paper is always unique!

Crucially, the utility of an assignment extends beyond mere structural guidance. It serves as a record-keeping tool, allowing you to track and manage the citations mentioned in your essay meticulously. A well-crafted outline of a research paper becomes an indispensable tool. In the subsequent sections, we will discuss the intricacies of constructing a good research paper outline. It will meet the main criteria and elevate the quality and impact of your academic results.

Key Components of Research Paper Outline

Writing a research paper outline is a pivotal phase in the creative process. It furnishes a guide to navigating the complexities of students’ work. The foundational framework often comprises three main elements: a draft, a list of cited works, and an abstract. The comprehensive plan encompasses various elements crucial for a well-rounded and organized academic document. Title page: This page includes the title, author’s name, educational institution, and publication date. It serves as the first impression, offering an academic snapshot. Abstract: This part shows essential discoveries and their connection to earlier research. A well-crafted abstract is concise, focusing on the primary thoughts described in the study. It provides a brief yet comprehensive overview, enticing readers to delve deeper into the text. First part: Sets the stage with background information leading to the central argument. The opening should engage the reader’s curiosity and offer a background for studying the subject. Body: Encompassing various sections such as methods, materials, discoveries, and your views and suggestions, this segment constitutes the essence of the college paper. Here, you will find an exposition of the investigation methods employed, the gathered discoveries, the obtained results, and a reflective discussion of the new information. Last part: Restates the argument, reaffirming the study’s importance and relevance. It should convey that the research has achieved its mission and summarize key takeaways. References/Bibliography: Lists all cited works, encompassing both directly quoted and paraphrased sources. Obviously, adherence to a specified formatting style (e.g., MLA format research paper outline, APA, Harvard) is crucial. Additional resources: Incorporates additional elements such as tables, charts, figures, and specialized terminology. These additions enhance the presentation of data and help a deeper discussion of the topic.

Research essay outlines can be formal or informal. Formal ones are typically submitted to professors during the early stages of writing. Informal outlines serve as drafts where students jot down their initial ideas.

Clarity and organization are paramount when you set up a research paper. A meticulously organized plan is a foundational tool for guiding the writer through the intricacies of academic inquiry. Besides, it streamlines the process of writing an outline for a research paper, it also makes your assignment emerge as a compelling and great contribution. If you need help, you can always ask for support from research paper writers .

Formatting is crucial to crafting a research paper outline and creates a framework for your thoughts. Here are key considerations for the outline format for the research paper:

Roman numerals, letters, and numbers: use Roman numerals (I, II, III) for main sections, capital letters (A, B, C) for subsections, and Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) for further divisions. This tiered structure visually arranges the outline, offering a guide for the reader.
Sustaining parallel structure: guaranteeing grammatical structure and formatting uniformity across the outline, heightening readability and coherence. Thus, it will foster an easier comprehension of the progression of your ideas.
Selecting a citation style: select a specific citation style as per the requirements set by the professor. For example, the teacher tells you to use a research paper outline in Chicago style. Common styles include APA, MLA, Chicago, and others. Adhering to a particular style maintains consistency in referencing sources. It contributes to professionalism.

There are several standards you need to consider during formatting. Have you written everything according to the APA research paper outline style? Look at the research paper format numbering. For example, by employing Roman numerals, letters, and numbers, maintaining parallel structure, and adhering to a designated citation style, you not only enhance the visual appeal of your plan but also demonstrate a commitment to precision and scholarly standards. Indeed, constant style is integral to presenting your research cohesively and professionally.

Length and detail

Striking a delicate balance between consciousness and information is critical, particularly when creating an outline for a research paper. Besides, tailoring the level of detail to match assignment requirements is essential too. Some projects call for a comprehensive and detailed outline. They provide a thorough roadmap for the entire research paper. Conversely, other assignments may benefit from a more brief approach.

If you don’t have time and need help with outline specifics, you can always purchase a research paper online from well-versed professionals.

How to Make an Outline for a Research Paper: 4 Essential Tips

Creating an effective plan for a research paper is an unfast process. It requires a focus on detail and adaptability. There is no basic outline for a research paper. Yet, it must be specific. Here are some tips to enhance your outline-writing skills:

Frequent Revisions:

Treat your research outline as a dynamic document. Frequently review and revise it as your research advances and your comprehension deepens. This iterative method guarantees that your plan stays in sync with the evolving structure of your research paper .

Be Specific:

Add specificity to your topic outline for the research paper. Accordingly, begin a research paper with the main idea. Precisely express the primary concepts in each section, strengthening them with relevant particulars. Thus, understandable subpoints steer your writing process, contributing to the coherence and depth of your research paper.

Detail or Conciseness:

Strive for a balance between detail and conciseness. That is why adding sufficient information to guide your writing is crucial. Avoid overwhelming your detailed outline for a research paper with unnecessary information. Consequently, keep it focused on the key elements to maintain clarity and coherence.

Be Flexible:

Adapt if discoveries or information arise, and be flexible enough to alter the outline accordingly. Flexibility enables your outline to adjust to the nature of the research journey.

By incorporating this advice into your outline-writing strategy, you can create a dynamic and practical roadmap for your research paper. Moreover, frequent revisions and a balanced approach to detail contribute to developing a great outline, setting the stage for an impactful final paper.

Example of a Research Paper Outline

A research paper outline lists key points and sub-topics you want to cover in your writing. It will help you structure your essay and ensure you cover all the information you need to include.

To put this all into practice, here is a short research paper outline example on psychology:

Topic: The influence of anxiety disorders on an individual’s social skills.

Thesis: Anxiety disorders have become more common among young people, affecting their social skills and personalities. Understanding how to tackle diverse anxiety disorders helps improve the quality of life and avoid serious psychological issues.

One of the most important things to remember when creating an outline for a research paper is that it should be as detailed as possible. It means including all the necessary information, such as any relevant background information, references, and other facts or details.

However, don’t overdo it by making your outline too long or complicated. It should be simple enough to read and understand quickly, especially compared to your paper’s length.

If you still have hesitations or doubts regarding your writing skills, PapersOwl pros will gladly assist with research paper writing help. Get your “A” today by using this article as an example (and maybe inspiration) for future research papers!

How to Make a Research Outline: Final Words

In summary, creating a research paper outline is essential for a streamlined writing process. This guide emphasizes the importance of ongoing edits, subpoint clarity, and conciseness. Here you find an outline example for research papers and some tips. Your research’s progress ensures its continued relevance and usefulness. A well-structured outline serves not only as a roadmap but as a useful tool, facilitating the transformation of ideas into a coherent and impactful research paper. As you embark on this intellectual journey, recognize that the thoughtful construction of your outline is not just a precursor; it’s a dynamic foundation shaping the trajectory of your scholarly contribution.

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How to Write an Outline in APA Format

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amanda Tust is a fact-checker, researcher, and writer with a Master of Science in Journalism from Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism.

Before Starting Your Outline
How to Create an Outline

Writing a psychology paper can feel like an overwhelming task. From picking a topic to finding sources to cite, each step in the process comes with its own challenges. Luckily, there are strategies to make writing your paper easier—one of which is creating an outline using APA format .

Here we share what APA format entails and the basics of this writing style. Then we get into how to create a research paper outline using APA guidelines, giving you a strong foundation to start crafting your content.

At a Glance

APA format is the standard writing style used for psychology research papers. Creating an outline using APA format can help you develop and organize your paper's structure, also keeping you on task as you sit down to write the content.

APA Format Basics

Formatting dictates how papers are styled, which includes their organizational structure, page layout, and how information is presented. APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association (APA).

Learning the basics of APA format is necessary for writing effective psychology papers, whether for your school courses or if you're working in the field and want your research published in a professional journal. Here are some general APA rules to keep in mind when creating both your outline and the paper itself.

Font and Spacing

According to APA style, research papers are to be written in a legible and widely available font. Traditionally, Times New Roman is used with a 12-point font size. However, other serif and sans serif fonts like Arial or Georgia in 11-point font sizes are also acceptable.

APA format also dictates that the research paper be double-spaced. Each page has 1-inch margins on all sides (top, bottom, left, and right), and the page number is to be placed in the upper right corner of each page.

Both your psychology research paper and outline should include three key sections:

Introduction : Highlights the main points and presents your hypothesis
Body : Details the ideas and research that support your hypothesis
Conclusion : Briefly reiterates your main points and clarifies support for your position

Headings and Subheadings

APA format provides specific guidelines for using headings and subheadings. They are:

Main headings : Use Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV)
Subheadings: Use capital letters (A, B, C, D)

If you need further subheadings within the initial subheadings, start with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3), then lowercase letters (a, b, c), then Arabic numerals inside parentheses [(1), (2), (3)]

Before Starting Your APA Format Outline

While APA format does not provide specific rules for creating an outline, you can still develop a strong roadmap for your paper using general APA style guidance. Prior to drafting your psychology research paper outline using APA writing style, taking a few important steps can help set you up for greater success.

Review Your Instructor's Requirements

Look over the instructions for your research paper. Your instructor may have provided some type of guidance or stated what they want. They may have even provided specific requirements for what to include in your outline or how it needs to be structured and formatted.

Some instructors require research paper outlines to use decimal format. This structure uses Arabic decimals instead of Roman numerals or letters. In this case, the main headings in an outline would be 1.0, 1.2, and 1.3, while the subheadings would be 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.2.3, and so on.

Consider Your Preferences

After reviewing your instructor's requirements, consider your own preferences for organizing your outline. Think about what makes the most sense for you, as well as what type of outline would be most helpful when you begin writing your research paper.

For example, you could choose to format your headings and subheadings as full sentences, or you might decide that you prefer shorter headings that summarize the content. You can also use different approaches to organizing the lettering and numbering in your outline's subheadings.

Whether you are creating your outline according to your instructor's guidelines or following your own organizational preferences, the most important thing is that you are consistent.

Formatting Tips

When getting ready to start your research paper outline using APA format, it's also helpful to consider how you will format it. Here are a few tips to help:

Your outline should begin on a new page.
Before you start writing the outline, check that your word processor does not automatically insert unwanted text or notations (such as letters, numbers, or bullet points) as you type. If it does, turn off auto-formatting.
If your instructor requires you to specify your hypothesis in your outline, review your assignment instructions to find out where this should be placed. They may want it presented at the top of your outline, for example, or included as a subheading.

How to Create a Research Paper Outline Using APA

Understanding APA format basics can make writing psychology research papers much easier. While APA format does not provide specific rules for creating an outline, you can still develop a strong roadmap for your paper using general APA style guidance, your instructor's requirements, and your own personal organizational preferences.

Typically you won't need to turn your outline in with your final paper. But that doesn't mean you should skip creating one. A strong paper starts with a solid outline. Developing this outline can help you organize your writing and ensure that you effectively communicate your paper's main points and arguments. Here's how to create a research outline using APA format.

Start Your Research

While it may seem like you should create an outline before starting your research, the opposite is actually true. The information you find when researching your psychology research topic will start to reveal the information you'll want to include in your paper—and in your outline.

As you research, consider the main arguments you intend to make in your paper. Look for facts that support your hypothesis, keeping track of where you find these facts so you can cite them when writing your paper. The more organized you are when creating your outline, the easier it becomes to draft the paper itself.

If you are required to turn in your outline before you begin working on your paper, keep in mind that you may need to include a list of references that you plan to use.

Draft Your Outline Using APA Format

Once you have your initial research complete, you have enough information to create an outline. Start with the main headings (which are noted using Roman numerals I, II, III, etc.). Here's an example of the main headings you may use if you were writing an APA format outline for a research paper in support of using cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety :

Introduction
What CBT Is
How CBT Helps Ease Anxiety
Research Supporting CBT for Anxiety
Potential Drawbacks of CBT for Anxiety and How to Overcome Them

Under each main heading, list your main points or key ideas using subheadings (as noted with A, B, C, etc.). Sticking with the same example, subheadings under "What CBT Is" may include:

Basic CBT Principles
How CBT Works
Conditions CBT Has Been Found to Help Treat

You may also decide to include additional subheadings under your initial subheadings to add more information or clarify important points relevant to your hypothesis. Examples of additional subheadings (which are noted with 1, 2, 3, etc.) that could be included under "Basic CBT Principles" include:

Is Goal-Oriented
Focuses on Problem-Solving
Includes Self-Monitoring

Begin Writing Your Research Paper

The reason this step is included when drafting your research paper outline using APA format is that you'll often find that your outline changes as you begin to dive deeper into your proposed topic. New ideas may emerge or you may decide to narrow your topic further, even sometimes changing your hypothesis altogether.

All of these factors can impact what you write about, ultimately changing your outline. When writing your paper, there are a few important points to keep in mind:

Follow the structure that your instructor specifies.
Present your strongest points first.
Support your arguments with research and examples.
Organize your ideas logically and in order of strength.
Keep track of your sources.
Present and debate possible counterarguments, and provide evidence that counters opposing arguments.

Update Your Final Outline

The final version of your outline should reflect your completed draft. Not only does updating your outline at this point help ensure that you've covered the topics you want in your paper, but it also gives you another opportunity to verify that your paper follows a logical sequence.

When reading through your APA-formatted outline, consider whether it flows naturally from one topic to the next. You wouldn't talk about how CBT works before discussing what CBT is, for example. Taking this final step can give you a more solid outline, and a more solid research paper.

American Psychological Association. About APA Style .

Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Types of outlines and samples .

Mississippi College. Writing Center: Outlines .

American Psychological Association. APA style: Style and Grammar Guidelines .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Research Paper Guide

Research Paper Outline

Guide to Creating Effective Research Paper Outline

What is a Research Paper Outline?

A research paper outline serves as a systematic framework for your paper. It's a structured strategy that assists in the organization of your thoughts and ideas before the writing process begins.

The outline structures out the main sections, subtopics, and supporting details in your research paper. In essence, it offers a well-structured and coherent roadmap for the entirety of your paper, maintaining academic rigor and clarity.

Different Research Paper Outline Formats

When it comes to creating a research paper outline, you've got options. Let's explore a few different formats that you can choose from:

Numeric Outline

A numeric outline is a structured organizational format for planning a research paper.

It uses a numerical system to represent the hierarchy of ideas, with each main section or point numbered and subpoints or details indicated by decimal numbers. Numeric outlines are useful for presenting information in a clear and logical sequence.

Here’s a sample research paper outline template for this format:

Alphanumeric Outline

An alphanumeric outline is a hierarchical structure used to outline a research paper, combining numbers and letters to signify the different levels of information.

Main sections are designated with capital letters (A, B, C), which include major points, while subpoints are indicated by numbers and lowercase letters (1, 2, a, b). Alphanumeric outlines help writers organize complex topics and subtopics effectively.

Here’s a sample sample research paper outline for this format:

Full Sentence Outline

A full-sentence outline is a method of planning a research paper in which each point in the outline is presented as a complete sentence or phrase.

It provides a detailed overview of the content and structure of the paper. Full-sentence outlines are particularly helpful for writers who prefer thorough planning and want to capture the essence of each section or point.

Here’s a research paper outline format for full sentences:

Steps to Create a Research Paper Outline

Creating a research paper outline doesn't have to be complicated. Follow these simple steps to get started:

Step 1: Choose Your Research Topic

Begin by selecting a research topic that is both interesting to you and relevant to your assignment or academic objectives. Your chosen topic will serve as the foundation for your entire research paper.

Step 2: Identify Your Main Sections

Determine the main sections or chapters your research paper will include. These are the broad thematic areas that will structure your paper, and they provide a high-level overview of the topics you plan to cover. Here are the main sections a typical research paper involves:

Title Page: This is the first page and includes the paper's title, author's name, institutional affiliation, and often the running head.
Abstract : A concise summary of the paper, usually around 150-250 words, providing an overview of the research, its key findings, and implications.
Introduction: Sets the stage for your research, offering background information and a thesis statement , which is a central argument or hypothesis.
Literature Review : A comprehensive analysis of existing research and literature on your topic, demonstrating your understanding of the subject.
Methodology: Explain the research methods, data collection techniques, and analytical tools used in your study.
Findings: Presents the research results in a structured manner, often including data, tables, or charts.
Discussion: Interpretation of the findings and their implications, offering insights into the research's significance.
Conclusion: Summarizes the main points, reiterates the thesis, and discusses potential future research directions.
References: A list of all sources cited in your paper, following a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA).

Step 3: Break It Down into Subtopics

Under each main section, further divide your content into smaller subtopics. Subtopics are like the building blocks of your paper; they represent the key points or ideas you intend to explore within each main section.

Step 4: Add Supporting Details

For each subtopic, include supporting details, facts, examples, or arguments that bolster your point. These supporting details form the substance of your paper and provide evidence for your claims or arguments.

Step 5: Organize Your Points

Organize your main sections, subtopics, and supporting details in a logical order that flows smoothly from one point to the next. This step ensures that your research paper maintains coherence and readability.

Step 6: Use Numbers or Letters

To enhance clarity within your outline, use numbering, a lettering system, or Roman numerals. Use numerical sequencing for main sections (e.g., "1.," "2.," "3.") and a combination of numbers and letters for subtopics (e.g., "1.1," "1.2," "2.1").

Step 7: Stay Flexible

Recognize that your outline is not set in stone. As you conduct research and begin writing, your ideas may evolve, and you may discover the need to adjust your outline accordingly. Embrace this flexibility to adapt to new insights and information.

By following these steps, you'll create a well-structured research paper outline that serves as a roadmap for your writing journey. It keeps your research organized and makes writing easier, resulting in a more effective paper.

Research Paper Outline Example

A research paper outline could be created in several different ways. Here is a sample research paper outline for a quick review:

Here are some more examples for different formats and subjects:

APA Research Paper Outline PDF

College Research Paper Outline

Argumentative Research Paper Outline

Sample Research Paper Outline

History Research Paper Outline

Research Paper Outline MLA

Research Paper Outline with Annotated Bibliography

Need to consult more examples? Have a look at these top-quality research paper examples and get inspiration!

In conclusion, with the help of these example templates and our step-by-step guide on creating an outline, you're now well-prepared to create an effective one.

If you're in a hurry and want to skip the outlining process, our essay writing service is here to help!

You can get our team of expert essay writers to assist you at any stage of your research or to deliver a well-formatted, accurate research paper.

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How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

How to write a research paper
Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
Stage 2 : Structure & outline
Stage 3 : Iterative writing
Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

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Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Don’t fixate on an article’s citation count in isolation - relevance (to your research question) and recency are also very important.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

You need to have a rough outline in place before you start writing your paper - or you’ll end up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

Introduction
Literature review
Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail.

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications . If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

To choose a research question and review the literature
To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

You Might Also Like:

Can you help me with a full paper template for this Abstract:

Background: Energy and sports drinks have gained popularity among diverse demographic groups, including adolescents, athletes, workers, and college students. While often used interchangeably, these beverages serve distinct purposes, with energy drinks aiming to boost energy and cognitive performance, and sports drinks designed to prevent dehydration and replenish electrolytes and carbohydrates lost during physical exertion.

Objective: To assess the nutritional quality of energy and sports drinks in Egypt.

Material and Methods: A cross-sectional study assessed the nutrient contents, including energy, sugar, electrolytes, vitamins, and caffeine, of sports and energy drinks available in major supermarkets in Cairo, Alexandria, and Giza, Egypt. Data collection involved photographing all relevant product labels and recording nutritional information. Descriptive statistics and appropriate statistical tests were employed to analyze and compare the nutritional values of energy and sports drinks.

Results: The study analyzed 38 sports drinks and 42 energy drinks. Sports drinks were significantly more expensive than energy drinks, with higher net content and elevated magnesium, potassium, and vitamin C. Energy drinks contained higher concentrations of caffeine, sugars, and vitamins B2, B3, and B6.

Conclusion: Significant nutritional differences exist between sports and energy drinks, reflecting their intended uses. However, these beverages’ high sugar content and calorie loads raise health concerns. Proper labeling, public awareness, and responsible marketing are essential to guide safe consumption practices in Egypt.

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How to Write a Research Paper Outline: Detailed Guide

In the vast landscape of academia, where ideas are the currency and knowledge the battleground, crafting a research paper isn't just a scholarly exercise—it's a narrative expedition. As you embark on this intellectual journey, consider this intriguing fact: did you know that Sir Isaac Newton's groundbreaking work, 'Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica,' which revolutionized our understanding of physics, was outlined meticulously before the ink touched the parchment? Much like Newton's meticulous planning, the success of your piece hinges on the blueprint you create—the outline.

In this guide, our research paper help will explore not only the conventional methods but also the avant-garde tips and examples for crafting an outline for a research paper that transforms your ideas into a compelling narrative, paving the way for academic excellence.

What is Research Paper Outline?

A research paper outline is essentially a systematic framework that streamlines the structure of your academic document. It's more than just a preliminary step; it's a practical tool designed to enhance the coherence and organization of your ideas. This skeletal structure acts as a guide, ensuring your paper unfolds logically, and your arguments build upon each other. Besides providing clarity for the writer, a well-crafted outline of a research paper also serves as a roadmap for your readers, helping them navigate through the complexities of your study. In essence, when we explore what is a research paper , it's crucial to recognize the outline as the strategic plan—the blueprint—highlighting key elements like the introduction, thesis statement, supporting evidence, and conclusion.

It's important to integrate several critical elements essential for the paper's effectiveness and coherence. The role of these components is significant in shaping your research and demands thorough attention during the initial stages of your work. In the sections that follow, we'll delve into the crucial components of an outline for your research paper and share insights to elevate your outlining process for a more robust and effective piece.

Title/Cover Page

It is the opening section to introduce the major details. The length of the recommended title is 60 characters. On the whole, do not miss this information on the title page:

Your full name
Professor’s name
Peers who took part in the investigation (if any)
Submission date

A summary is an integral part of the research paper. In college, they call it an abstract. The length of such text should not exceed 250-300 words (1/3 of an A4 page), and a student should include the basic findings, their significance, and a brief conclusion.

Introduction

Experts recommend painstaking the entire research into the investigation’s background. Try to explain why the chosen problem is necessary to analyze and discuss. Mention the results you expected to obtain during the working process and state a hypothesis that should enclose the introduction (it would be the thesis). Also, don’t forget to mention the thesis statement or the topic of your research.

Methodology

List the tools, equipment, & techniques used to carry out a study. This section should make it possible to replicate the investigation step-by-step. The goal of the section is to allow other scientists interested in the same research question to continue the investigation.

Results & Discussion (R&D)

In most cases, master cheap research paper writers combine results and discussion in one huge section. They are interrelated. Start with sharing the findings of the study. Go on interpreting the meaning of the results for the society and provide a short synopsis of the main components: figures and statistical examinations. While adding any visual elements for understanding (graphs, images, etc.), place the numbers next to each of them to provide details in the last section — Appendix.

In the Conclusion part, it is necessary to include:

A summary of the results
Paraphrased thesis statement
Value of the research paper
Ways to implement the findings
Some forecasts

Explore article of our research proposal writing service on writing a conclusion for a research paper to master the art of effectively summarizing and concluding your work.

Based on the chosen paper format, develop a full list of references. Each time you cite something, write the source’s details on a separate piece of paper. It will speed up the process in the end.

Structure of a Research Paper Outline

Crafting an effective academic piece is not just about having great ideas; it's about presenting them in a clear and organized manner. The structure of your research paper outline plays a pivotal role in achieving this goal. In this section, we'll explore three popular formats, each offering a unique approach to organizing your thoughts and arguments.

Alphanumeric research paper outline

The alphanumeric outline follows a hierarchical structure, using a combination of numbers and letters to denote different levels of information. For example:

I. Introduction

A. Background
B. Thesis statement
A. Main point 1
Supporting detail
B. Main point 2
III. Conclusion

Full-sentence research paper outline

This format requires complete sentences for each section and subsection. It provides a detailed preview of the content within each part of the outline. Example:

A. Provide background information.
B. Clearly state the thesis.
A. Present the first main point with supporting details.
B. Explore the second main point.

Decimal research paper outline

The decimal outline employs a numerical system, using decimals to indicate the hierarchy of information. Each level is a subcategory of the preceding level. For instance:

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background
1.2 Thesis statement
2.1 Main point 1
2.1.1 Supporting detail
2.1.2 Supporting detail
2.2 Main point 2

3.0 Conclusion

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Research Paper Outline Formats: MLA and APA

Mla research paper outline.

The Modern Language Association (MLA) research paper format provides a standardized approach to documenting and formatting academic writing. Creating an MLA research paper outline is an essential step in organizing your thoughts and ensuring a cohesive structure for your scholarly work. Here's an in-depth guide to crafting an MLA outline:

A. Background information
C. Purpose of the study
A. First Main Point
Supporting detail or evidence
a. Sub-detail
b. Sub-detail
B. Second Main Point
C. Third Main Point (if applicable)

III. Counterargument (if applicable)

A. Acknowledge opposing views
B. Refute or address counterarguments

IV. Conclusion

A. Summarize main points
B. Restate thesis
C. Implications for future research

V. Works Cited

A. List of sources cited in the paper
Book citations
Journal article citations
Other relevant sources

Formatting Tips:

Ensure your research paper outline is double-spaced.
Use a legible 12-point font, such as Times New Roman.
Apply consistent formatting throughout the document, including indents and headings.
Follow MLA guidelines for citing sources both in the outline and the final paper.

Key Considerations:

Tailor your research paper outline to the specific requirements of your work.
Be concise and clear in writing your outline sections.
Consider including any necessary background information to provide context when you write an outline for a research.
Ensure that each main point and supporting detail aligns with the central thesis.

Need more info? Check our full guide - HOW TO CITE A RESEARCH PAPER USING MLA FORMAT .

APA Research Paper Outline

The American Psychological Association (APA) style is widely used in the social sciences, and creating an APA format research paper outline is crucial for maintaining a standardized structure. Here's a comprehensive guide to crafting an APA outline template for research paper.

Template for Building an Outline in APA, from EssayPro

I. Title Page

A. Title of the research paper
B. Author's name
C. Institutional affiliation
D. Running head and page number (top right corner)

II. Abstract

A. Brief summary of the research paper
B. Keywords (optional)

III. Introduction

IV. Literature Review

A. Overview of relevant literature
B. Identification of gaps in existing research
C. Theoretical framework (if applicable)

V. Methodology

A. Participants
B. Procedure
C. Materials
D. Data analysis

VI. Results

A. Presentation of research findings
B. Use of tables and figures (if applicable)

VII. Discussion

A. Interpretation of results
B. Implications of the findings
C. Limitations and suggestions for future research

VIII. Conclusion

C. Practical applications or recommendations

IX. References

Use a 12-point, Times New Roman font.
Set 1-inch margins on all sides.
Double-space the entire document.
Create a running head in the header section.
Use transitions between sections for smooth reader navigation.
Integrate sources seamlessly, labeling each for reader guidance.
Seek feedback to refine the clarity and effectiveness of your APA outline for research paper.
Strategically employ APA heading levels for hierarchical organization.

By adhering to these guidelines, you'll master how to cite a research paper and ensure a standardized and professional presentation of your work in the social sciences. This meticulous approach not only enhances the clarity of your writing but also showcases your commitment to academic standards.

Goals and Benefits of a Research Paper Outline

Starting your paper without a roadmap is akin to setting sail without a compass—directionless and prone to drift. Crafting a well-structured research paper outline serves as a strategic tool with distinct goals and manifold benefits, transforming the daunting task of research writing into a purposeful journey.

Clarity in Purpose:

A well-crafted outline for a research paper establishes the groundwork for your study by clearly defining its purpose. It forces you to distill the essence of your research, ensuring that every section contributes meaningfully to the overarching goals of your paper.

Streamlined Organization:

One of the primary goals of an outline is to streamline the organization of your ideas. By delineating the key components—introduction, main points, evidence, and conclusion—it provides a systematic structure that prevents your paper from becoming a chaotic jumble of thoughts.

Enhanced Focus and Efficiency:

When you write an outline for a research paper, it acts as a focal point, directing your attention to the core objectives of your study. It serves as a roadmap, guiding you through each section with precision and efficiency, eliminating the risk of veering off course into tangential or irrelevant details.

Seamless Transitions:

Achieving a seamless flow from one section to another is a distinctive benefit of a well-crafted outline. It allows for the strategic placement of transitions, ensuring that your ideas connect coherently and enabling readers to follow your argument with ease.

Time Management and Planning:

Crafting an outline isn’t just a preparatory step; it's a time-management strategy. It compels you to allocate time effectively to each section, preventing procrastination and facilitating a more structured and manageable writing process.

Revision and Refinement:

The iterative nature of outlining allows for continuous revision and refinement. It enables you to assess the coherence of your research paper topics , identify gaps in logic, and refine your arguments before delving into the full paper, saving time and effort in the long run.

Thesis Alignment:

Perhaps most crucially, an outline ensures that every main point and supporting detail aligns harmoniously with the central thesis. This alignment not only strengthens the overall argument but also reinforces the thesis as the guiding force behind your research.

Research Paper Outline Example

Also, check the free research paper outline template example: Developing an Attention-Grabbing Resume! The example is written according to APA writing style guidelines - the rules of the game may be different for other formats.

Things to Remember

An outline is like an action plan which guides you through the writing process.
You need to write an outline if your research paper is more than 1000 words in length.
Basically, the outline contains three main sections: the Introduction, the Body, and the Conclusion.
The outline format depends on the type of academic assignment (MLA, APA), adapting to the specific guidelines relevant to all the ideas you'll present.
Before developing a research paper outline, read the latest version of the manual according to the chosen format of the research paper.

To gain a deeper understanding of the initial stages of academic writing, delve into our article exploring how to start a research paper , providing you with essential steps and methodologies.

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For those moments when you're unsure how to outline a research paper, and it feels like an unsolved maze, let our paper writing service be your academic GPS!

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

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Research Paper Outline Examples

Below are examples of research paper outlines. Creating an outline is the first thing you should do before starting on your research paper.

This article is a part of the guide:

Example of a Paper
Write a Hypothesis
Introduction
Example of a Paper 2

Browse Full Outline

1 Write a Research Paper
2 Writing a Paper
3.1 Write an Outline
3.2 Outline Examples
4.1 Thesis Statement
4.2 Write a Hypothesis
5.2 Abstract
5.3 Introduction
5.4 Methods
5.5 Results
5.6 Discussion
5.7 Conclusion
5.8 Bibliography
6.1 Table of Contents
6.2 Acknowledgements
6.3 Appendix
7.1 In Text Citations
7.2 Footnotes
7.3.1 Floating Blocks
7.4 Example of a Paper
7.5 Example of a Paper 2
7.6.1 Citations
7.7.1 Writing Style
7.7.2 Citations
8.1.1 Sham Peer Review
8.1.2 Advantages
8.1.3 Disadvantages
8.2 Publication Bias
8.3.1 Journal Rejection
9.1 Article Writing
9.2 Ideas for Topics

Once you've decided what topic you will be writing about, the next thing you should pay attention to is the scope of your paper or what you will be including in your discussion . The broader your topic is, the more difficult it is to discuss the full details. This is why you should establish early on the scope and limitations of your paper which will provide the foundation for your research paper outline.

Basically, your outline will constitute three main sections: the Introduction, the Body and the Conclusion. But to make sure your paper is complete, consult your instructor for specific parts they wants to be included in your research paper . Sample outlines for research papers will follow. But first, let’s discuss the main sections of your paper and what information each should cover.

The introduction should contain your thesis statement or the topic of your research as well as the purpose of your study. You may include here the reason why you chose that particular topic or simply the significance of your research paper's topic. You may also state what type of approach it is that you'll be using in your paper for the entire discussion of your topic. Generally, your Introduction should orient your readers to the major points the rest of the paper will be covering, and how.

The body of your paper is where you will be presenting all your arguments to support your thesis statement. Remember the “Rule of 3” which states that you should find 3 supporting arguments for each position you take. Start with a strong argument, followed by a stronger one, and end with the strongest argument as your final point.

The conclusion is where you form a summary of all your arguments so you can arrive at your final position. Explain and reiterate why you've ended up with the said conclusion.

As mentioned earlier, here are some sample outlines for research papers:

Thesis Topic: A Study on Factors Affecting the Infant Feeding Practices of Mothers in Las Pinas City

Statement of the Problem
Definition of Terms
Theoretical Framework
Type of Research
Respondents
Questionnaire
Review of Related Literature
Scope and Limitations
Significance of the Study
Benefits of Breastfeeding
WHO Recommendations
The International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes
The Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative
The Innocenti Declaration on the Protection, Promotion and Support of Breastfeeding
National Situationer
The Milk Code
BFHI in the Philippines
Milk Code Violations
Formula Feeding
Factors Influencing the Decision Regarding Infant Feeding Method
Area Situationer
Socio-economic Demographic Profile of Mothers
Information Regarding Current (Youngest) Infant
Exclusive Breastfeeding
Mixed Feeding
Previous Infant Feeding Practices
Maternal Knowledge
Correlation Tests
Analytical Summary
Thesis Reworded
Recommendations

Topic: Asbestos Poisoning

Definition of Asbestos Poisoning
Symptoms of Asbestos Poisoning
Effects of Asbestos Poisoning
How to Deal with Asbestos Hazards

Topic: Shakespeare Adapted from AResearchGuide.com .

Life of Anne Hathaway
Reference in Shakespeare's Poems
Romeo and Juliet
The Tempest
Much Ado About Nothing
Richard III
Other Poems
Last Two Plays
Concluding Statement

Psychology 101
Flags and Countries
Capitals and Countries

Explorable.com (Jan 6, 2009). Research Paper Outline Examples. Retrieved Jun 03, 2024 from Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/research-paper-outline-examples

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

How often do you use social media per day?
Less than 30 minutes
30 minutes to 1 hour
1 to 2 hours
2 to 4 hours
More than 4 hours
Which social media platforms do you use?
Others (Please specify)
How often do you experience the following on social media?
Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
Cyberbullying
Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
Very positive
Somewhat positive
Somewhat negative
Very negative
In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
Social comparison
In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
Education on healthy social media use
Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
Social media detox programs
Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Research Paper Outline

Ai generator.

Apart from a report outline and a presentation outline , a research paper outline is one of the most common types of outlines you’re likely to encounter in any given field. This outline is incredibly useful in both business and education, as it serves as a guide for students and employees to further understand a certain topic. But before you begin creating the outline of your research paper, make sure you know how to structure it first. In this article, we shall discuss the basic elements of an outline with the help of a few examples.

Research outlines come with variety. To give you some visual representation of these tools, here are some examples of research paper outline in PDF file format you could rely on.

What is Research Paper?

Research Paper Format

Example of Research Paper

Basic Research Paper Outline

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Educational Research Paper Outline

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Simple Research Paper Outline

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Comprehensible Research Paper Outline

Plain Research Paper Outline

Size: 27 KB

What Is a Research Paper Outline

Outlines are tools that are used by authors to chronologically arrange their written ideas about a central topic or thesis. Details in an outline are deductively written which means that it starts by mentioning the major topics, followed by subtopics and supporting details. Outlines are utilized by writers to provide themselves a plan or blueprint on what to include in their papers. Moreover, outlines vary from very general to very specific as well as formal to informal.

Similarly, a research paper outline also does the same. It also functions as a guide for the researchers to identify what pieces of information do they need to involve in their research document.

Essential Parts of a Research Paper Outline

The outline structure of a research paper is fairly similar to that of a book outline . The only difference is the actual content presented in the paper. For us to further understand the significant components of a research paper outline, let us discuss each part accordingly:

Introduction

The introduction is considered to be the most important part of your outline, as it gives readers a general overview of what your topic is about. Here, your thesis statement along with the purpose of your study must be stated clearly. You also have the option to include your reason for studying such a topic and its significance. The methodology and the aims for the investigation must also be emphasized in your introduction. To put it simply, the introduction of your outline should stress out the major points addressed in the research paper.

The body of your outline is where you will need to present every valid argument to support your topic or thesis statement. The best approach to follow would be the “Rule of 3”, in which you must find three supporting arguments to express your point. The body is also composed of several paragraphs or subparts, which include the background of the problem and other supporting data. You may also see a speech outline .

The final part of an outline paper is the conclusion. This consists of a summary of all the major points mentioned to arrive at your final stand on the issue or subject tackled. Be sure to expound your thoughts briefly and concisely in this section, as you don’t want to end up adding a different argument to the outline. Remember to mention the thesis statement again to connect each point accordingly. It’s also advisable to state recommendations or formulate the prospect for future studies in your conclusion. You may also see a chapter outline .

Listed below are examples of a research paper outline:

Topic: Asbestos Poisoning

I. Introduction

Definition of the Topic
Significance of the Study
Definition of Terms
Symptoms of Asbestos Poisoning
Effects of Asbestos Poisoning
Possible Treatments

III. Conclusion

How to Deal with Asbestos Hazards

Thesis: Abortion: Main Causes and Effects

Introductory Clause

Brief introduction of the issue
Definition of terms
The theoretical basis for the paper
Methodology
Thesis statement
Review of related literature
Significance of the study

a. Background of the problem

The history of abortion and the primary causes that lead modern women to consider this method (possible causes such as religion, financial status, career issues, etc. must be expounded)
Explain the position or stand of the church and the state regarding this problem
General information about the possible consequences of abortion supported with valid facts, scientific articles and studies, examples, etc.

b. Available alternatives to abortion along with their pros and cons.

c. Advantages and disadvantages of abortion

Explain all advantages of abortion, with supporting facts and examples
Explain all disadvantages of abortion (both physical and mental), with supporting facts and examples

Final Clause/Conclusion

a. Conclusion

A short analysis of all the facts provided in the paper
Rephrased thesis statement

b. Recommendations for future studies

Based on the examples above, the structure of your outline must consist of a series of headings and subheadings of the said topic. Since an outline must only emphasize the primary points of your research, then you must keep it brief yet informative enough for readers to comprehend.

How to Create an Outline

A well-made outline is essential in locating significant information and keeping track of large amounts of data from a research paper. But an outline must be created properly for it to be understood by a reader, which is why the information should be organized in a logical or hierarchical order for everyone’s convenience. You may also see biography outline .

1. Begin with your thesis statement. It’s important to start your research paper outline with your thesis statement, or at least a topic sentence that supports your thesis statement. So when a person reads your outline, they can immediately identify what your research paper is all about.

2. List down the major points of your research paper. Create a list of strong arguments that must be highlighted in your outline. It would be best to organize them properly by sectioning them into particular categories. You may even label each part in Roman Numerals (I, II, III, IV) to make it easier for readers to find what they are looking for in your outline. You may also see tentative outlines .

3. Note down supporting ideas or argument for each point listed. For every major argument listed, there must be a series of supporting ideas to back up its claims. This usually consists of facts or examples that prove the credibility of such a claim. Similar to the central points of the paper, it is important to keep this section organized by labeling each idea in capital letters (A, B, C). You may also see a resume outline .

4. Subdivide each supporting topic. If necessary, you can continue to subdivide each point to fully expound the ideas presented. This will help make your outline even more informative for readers to grasp. You can then label them with numbers ( 1, 2, 3 ) and lowercase letters ( a, b, c ).

Creating an outline for your research paper isn’t as daunting as it may seem. It’s a step-by-step process that requires proper analysis and comprehension to carry out. If you’re having trouble writing your research paper outline, then it might be better to start off with a rough outline first. After which, you can then make the necessary adjustments to complete your final outline. By studying various outline samples , you’re sure to come up with the perfect research paper outline in no time.

MLA Research Paper Outline

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Air Quality Research Paper Outline

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Academic Research Paper Outline

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Psychology Research Paper Outline

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Students Research Paper Outline

Career Research Paper Outline

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Research Paper Outline Example

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Printable Research Paper Outline

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Sample Research Paper Outline

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Research Paper Outline Format

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Research Paper Outline Guide

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Research Paper Outline in PDF

Simple Research Paper Outline Example

Junior Research Paper Outline

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Sample Research for Outline Paper

A Step-by-Step Guide to Research Process

The research process is the act of identifying, locating, assessing and analyzing of different pieces of information that are needed to support your research question. Then, the collected data will help you derive a rational conclusion. The research process is systematic and is important for you to build your own paper. To help you construct your own research process, you may follow these steps:

1. Distinguish and select a research topic.

Choosing your research topic could be a very critical step to take. It is not just because it is the first move but also due to the fact that your whole research process revolves around this topic; thus, it should be done correctly. To explain further, here are some points you need to remember:

Stick with the parameters. Whether you are making one for academic purposes in middle school or for your job, you need to be wary of the given criterion given by your instructor. Following these are really vital since it is the key to your next step. If you fail to obey the said parameter, it could disqualify or deem your paper proposal invalid. Most of the times, clear guidelines are given to help you take the first step; however, if there’s none, ask to clarify this issue.

Go for interesting topics. Needless to say, composing your own research paper would more enjoyable if the topic is what you truly want to explore. Furthermore, doing your research will be easier since you are having fun on the process.

Go for topics with numerous possible information sources. Assuming that there are numerous things that interest you then identify which of these has loads of various potential basis of information. To do this, you can conduct a preliminary searching of information in various sources such as books, journals, and the holy-grail internet. There’s no need on taking notes yet, simply ponder whether the available pieces of information are capable of meeting your needs and could support your study. If you find too many information, you may need to narrow your topic; if you find too few, you may need to widen your topic.

Never forget to be original. The most probable reason for you to write your own research paper is for your academic completion. Hence, the most possible recipient of your work will be your instructor. Now, consider that your instructor already read thousands of research paper and the only way to stand out is to be rationally different. Think outside the mundane way of thinking, be creative and be innovative. In other words, be original.

Never hesitate to ask for help. Though it may sound absurd, consulting your instructor about this issue would be a great help. Thinking that in most cases, your instructor would be one of the people that would give verdict on your paper, conducting research on ideas that came straight from him/her would be a great advantage.

If you already have a topic with you, it would also be helpful to turn it into a specific question. Doing this would surely make your research concepts and keywords identification a lot easier. For instance, if you are really into music then you can simply pinpoint a specific topic related to that such as:

What are the effects of pop music to the performance level of students?
What makes us have different musical tastes?
What makes a piece of music good to hear?

2. Search for in-depth information.

Now that you have a specific central topic to talk about, it is time to look for deeper information. Utilize the best form of source or material that is appropriate for your study. For example, if you are in search of objective information, you can use books, magazines, journals, and internet. However, there are some details that need a different approach such as responses. In these cases, conduct a survey, observation or interview instead. Moreover, take note of your sources in doing this step.

3. Examine your sources.

In research, there are certain criteria to consider your information valid and reliable. Check on your sources’ date of publication of the information you have gathered. The common acceptable range is 5 years from the present. If you are using the internet as your source, check on the top-level domain if it is either “.edu,” “.gov,” “.org,” etc.

4. Take note.

Making a note of the different data and sources are very important in your research process. This will serve as your guide on which of those are useful for your paper. Moreover, don’t forget to include the author, title, publisher, URL and other details that will be used in citing them.

5. Begin writing your paper.

You may start by constructing a research paper outline which we discussed earlier and follow it by writing a rough draft. Remember, there is no need to be perfect right away. The main purpose of making a rough draft is to organize your information and help you in forming your final paper. Afterward, review and edit your draft as many times as necessary.

6. Cite your sources.

It is important to recall that not all information in your research paper is not yours; thus, it is just appropriate to cite them in your bibliography or reference list. By doing this, you are able to give a polite credit to the authors of the different information you have used and also to avoid plagiarism. Moreover, these would allow your reader to locate the sources of your information for verification and duplication purposes. Remember, there are different styles and formats in citing your sources. MLA, APA, and Chicago are some of the most used citation formats.

7. Proofread your work

The last step before publishing your work is to proofread your work. Simply read over your research paper and see whether there are any grammatical, spelling or any other unnoticed technical and textual errors. Proofreading is also important to check if your paper is speaking of what you really want to imply and inspect if you are following the proper citing process. Before doing this step, it is recommendable to take a break or consult the help of a proficient friend.

Text prompt

Instructive
Professional

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Get science-backed answers as you write with Paperpal's Research feature

How to Write the First Draft of a Research Paper with Paperpal?

Do you encounter writer’s block during the first draft of a research paper? Crafting a clear outline from your initial ideas and notes can feel like a daunting first hurdle. Many researchers and students struggle with the initial stages of research paper writing. Uncertainties about content structure, information selection, and weaving complex findings into a cohesive narrative can lead to staring at a blank page.

AI-generated outlines with a personalized approach
Identify gaps to strengthen your research paper
Step 1: Creating a research paper outline
Step 2: Breaking down the outline into sections
Step 3: Drafting the research paper

A glimpse into academic forums and social media gives a clear picture that many researchers across the world go through similar problems while writing the first draft of a research paper. Where to begin? What should I write? How to begin? How to compile 2-3+ years of research into a 2500 or 5000-word research paper? If you’re grappling with these concerns, do not worry. You’re not alone.

Researchers face a mountain of work when it comes to writing papers. Paperpal decided to tackle this challenge and, in the process, discovered some fascinating writing habits:

Start verbally: Some researchers find their flow by talking through their ideas first. They record themselves or brainstorm with a friend, then use these spoken notes as a springboard for their draft.
Write on the go: Others prioritize keeping their thoughts flowing freely. They write in bursts, leaving the structuring and editing for later.
Divide and Conquer: For some, especially new researchers, a structured approach works best. They break the paper into sections, focusing on building each one in detail before assembling the final draft.
Outlines: Many researchers swear by outlines. Outlines provide a roadmap, complete with headings, subheadings, and key points. This saves time in the long run by eliminating the need for major restructuring later. You can focus on polishing the language and adding academic vocabulary during the final edit .

Inspired by the outline method, Paperpal set out to create a tool that would give researchers a head start. This led to the development of Paperpal’s AI-generated outlines, which build a rough skeleton for your draft, allowing you to flesh out each section with confidence.

How do Paperpal’s AI-generated outlines help you write the first draft 2x faster?

Unlike traditional outlining methods, Paperpal doesn’t just provide a generic structure. Paperpal’s AI-generated outlines identify the key topics that form the backbone of your draft, providing a clear structure without sacrificing crucial elements.

AI-generated outlines with a personalized approach

Paperpal goes beyond just suggesting topics. It seamlessly integrates your input, including notes, ideas, and research findings. This ensures the generated outline reflects your unique perspective and aligns perfectly with your project goals. This personalized approach not only streamlines the drafting process but also fosters a sense of ownership, keeping you engaged and motivated.

Identify gaps to strengthen your research paper

After creating an outline based on your notes, Paperpal takes things a step further by helping you flesh out each section with content suggestions. Let’s say you’re working on the introduction of your research paper . Paperpal not only analyzes your notes to generate an outline, but it also identifies potential gaps in your research. It can then suggest content additions like knowledge gaps, research questions, and rationale statements to address those weaknesses. This comprehensive support streamlines the writing process for your first draft, making it smoother and more effortless.

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Technology and code article, open and remotely accessible neuroplatform for research in wetware computing.

FinalSpark, Rue du Clos 12, Vevey, Switzerland

Wetware computing and organoid intelligence is an emerging research field at the intersection of electrophysiology and artificial intelligence. The core concept involves using living neurons to perform computations, similar to how Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are used today. However, unlike ANNs, where updating digital tensors (weights) can instantly modify network responses, entirely new methods must be developed for neural networks using biological neurons. Discovering these methods is challenging and requires a system capable of conducting numerous experiments, ideally accessible to researchers worldwide. For this reason, we developed a hardware and software system that allows for electrophysiological experiments on an unmatched scale. The Neuroplatform enables researchers to run experiments on neural organoids with a lifetime of even more than 100 days. To do so, we streamlined the experimental process to quickly produce new organoids, monitor action potentials 24/7, and provide electrical stimulations. We also designed a microfluidic system that allows for fully automated medium flow and change, thus reducing the disruptions by physical interventions in the incubator and ensuring stable environmental conditions. Over the past three years, the Neuroplatform was utilized with over 1,000 brain organoids, enabling the collection of more than 18 terabytes of data. A dedicated Application Programming Interface (API) has been developed to conduct remote research directly via our Python library or using interactive compute such as Jupyter Notebooks. In addition to electrophysiological operations, our API also controls pumps, digital cameras and UV lights for molecule uncaging. This allows for the execution of complex 24/7 experiments, including closed-loop strategies and processing using the latest deep learning or reinforcement learning libraries. Furthermore, the infrastructure supports entirely remote use. Currently in 2024, the system is freely available for research purposes, and numerous research groups have begun using it for their experiments. This article outlines the system’s architecture and provides specific examples of experiments and results.

1 Introduction

The recent rise in wetware computing and consequently, artificial biological neural networks (BNNs), comes at a time when Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are more sophisticated than ever.

The latest generation of Large Language Models (LLMs), such as Meta’s Llama 2 or OpenAI’s GPT-4, fundamentally rely on ANNs.

The recent acceleration of ANN use in everyday life, such as in tools like ChatGPT or Perplexity combined with the explosion in complexity in the underlying ANN’s architectures, has had a significant impact on energy consumption. For instance, training a single LLM like GPT-3, a precursor to GPT-4, approximately required 10 GWh, which is about 6,000 times the energy a European citizen uses per year. According to a recent publication the energy consumption projected may increase faster than linearly ( De Vries, 2023 ). At the same time, the human brain operates with approximately 86 billion neurons while consuming only 20 W of power ( Clark and Sokoloff, 1999 ). Given these conditions, the prospect of replacing ANNs running on digital computers with real BNNs is enticing ( Smirnova et al., 2023 ). In addition to the substantial energy demands associated with training LLMs, the inference costs present a similarly pressing concern. Recent disclosures reveal that platforms like OpenAI generate over 100 billion words daily through services such as ChatGPT as reported by Sam Altman, the CEO of OpenAI. When we break down these figures, assuming an average of 1.5 tokens per word—a conservative estimate based on OpenAI’s own tokenizer data—the energy footprint becomes staggering. Preliminary calculations, using the LLaMA 65B model (precursor to Llama 2) as a reference point, suggest energy expenditures ranging from 450 to 600 billion Joules per day for word generation alone ( Samsi et al., 2023 ). While necessary for providing AI-driven insights and interactions to millions of users worldwide, this magnitude of energy use underscores the urgency for more energy-efficient computing paradigms.

Connecting probes to BNNs is not a new idea. In fact, the field of multi-unit electrophysiology has an established state of the art spanning easily over the past 40 years. As a result, there are already well-documented hardware and methods for performing functional electrical interfacing and micro-fluidics needed for nutrient delivery ( Gross et al., 1977 ; Pine, 1980 ; Wagenaar et al., 2005a ; Newman et al., 2013 ). Some systems are also specifically designed for brain organoids ( Yang et al., 2024 ). However, their research is mostly focused on exploring brain biology for biomedical applications (e.g., mechanisms and potential treatments of neurodegenerative diseases). The possibility of using these methods for making new computing hardware has not been extensively explored.

For this reason, there is comparatively less literature on methods that can be used to reliably program those BNNs in order to perform specific input–output functions (as this is essential for wetware computing, not for biomedical applications). To understand what we need for programming of BNNs, it is helpful to look at analogous problem for ANNs.

For ANNs, the programming task involves finding the network parameters, globally denoted as S below, that minimize the difference L computed between expected output E and actual output O , for given inputs I , given the transfer function T of the ANN. This can be written as:

L = f O E , with O = T I S

where f is typically a function that equals 0 when O = E .

The same equation applies to BNNs. However, the key differences compared to ANNs include the fact that the network parameters S cannot be individually adjusted in the case of BNNs, and the transfer function T is both unknown and non-stationary. Therefore, alternative heuristics must be developed, for instance based on spatiotemporal stimulation patterns ( Bakkum et al., 2008 ; Kagan et al., 2022 ; Cai et al., 2023a,b ). Such developments necessitate numerous electrophysiological experiments, including, for instance, complex closed-loop algorithms where stimulation is a function of the network’s prior responses. These experiments can sometimes span days or months.

To facilitate long-term experiments involving a global network of research groups, we designed an open innovation platform. This platform enables researchers to remotely perform experiments on a server interfaced with our hardware. For example, our Neuroplatform enhances the chances of discovering the abovementioned stimulation heuristics. It should be noted that, outside of the field of neuroplasticity, similar open platforms were already proposed in 2023 ( O’Leary et al., 2022 ; Armer et al., 2023 ; Elliott et al., 2023 ; Zhang et al., 2023 ). However, to our knowledge, there are no platforms specifically dedicated to research related to biocomputing.

2 Biological setup

The biological material used in our platform is made of brain spheroids [also called minibrains ( Govindan et al., 2021 ), brain organoids ( Qian et al., 2019 ), or neurospheres ( Brewer and Torricelli, 2007 )] developed from Human iPSC-derived Neural Stem Cells (NSCs), following the protocol of Prof. Roux Lab ( Govindan et al., 2021 ). Based on the recent guidelines to clarify the nomenclature for defining 3D cellular models of the nervous system ( Paşca et al., 2022 ), we can call those brain spheroids “forebrain organoids” (FOs). Generation of brain organoids from NSCs has been already described for both mouse ( Ciarpella et al., 2023 ), and human models ( Lee et al., 2020 ). Our protocol is based on the following steps: expansion phase of the NSCs, induction of the 3D structure, differentiation steps (using GDNF and BDNF), and maturation phase ( Figures 1A , B ). The Figure 1C is an image of the FO obtained using electronic microscope, it shows that it is a compact spheroid. The average shape of FOs obtained with this protocol are spheroids of a diameter around 500 μm ( Govindan et al., 2021 ). Our experiments show that the FOs obtained can be kept alive in an orbital shaker for years, as previously demonstrated ( Govindan et al., 2021 ).

Figure 1 . FO generation and MEA setup. (A) Protocol used for the generation of forebrain organoids (FO). Neural progenitors are first thawed, plated and expanded in T25 flasks. They are then differentiated in P6 dishes on orbital shakers, and finally manually placed on the MEA. (B) Representative images showing various stages of FO formation and differentiation, taken at different time points. The scale bar represents 250 μm. (C) Image of a whole FO taken with scanning electron microscope. The scale bar represents 100 μm. (D) Microscope view of the FO (in white) sitting on the electrodes of the MEA, and the membrane. The hole in the membrane is not visible on the picture since it is hidden by the FO. The scale bar represents 500 μm (E) Overview of the MEA, where the 32 electrodes are visible as 4 sets of 8 electrodes each. An FO is placed atop of each set of 8 electrodes, visible as a darker area. For each FO, the 2 circles correspond to a 2.5 mm circular membrane with a central hole. The scale bar represents 1 mm. (F) Cross-sectional view of the MEA setup, illustrating the air-liquid interface. The medium covering the FO is supplied from the medium chamber through the porous membranes.

Gene expression analysis of mature FOs vs. NSCs showed a marked upregulation of genes characteristic to neurons, oligodendrocytes and astrocytes in FOs compare to NSCs. More precisely, FOs expressed genes typically enriched in the forebrain, such as striatum, sub pallium, and layer 6 of motor cortex ( Govindan et al., 2021 ). Pathway enrichment analysis of FOs vs. NSCs demonstrated activation of biological processes like synaptic activity, neuron differentiation and neurotransmitter release ( Govindan et al., 2021 ).

At the age of 12 weeks, FOs contain a high number of ramified neurons ( Govindan et al., 2021 ), and they are mature enough to be transferred to the electrophysiological measurement system ( Figure 1A ). In this setup, they have a life expectancy of several months, even with 24/7 experiments that include hours of electrical stimulations. This setup has a quick turnaround with occasional downtime – about 1 h – during organoid replacements. Therefore, the platform maintains a high availability for experiments.

3 Hardware architecture

3.1 introduction.

The remotely accessible hardware includes all the systems which are required to preserve homeostasis, monitor environmental parameters and perform electrophysiological experiments. These systems can be controlled interactively using our custom Graphical User Interface (GUI) or via Python scripts. All data is stored in a time-series database (InfluxDB), which can be accessed either via a GUI or via Python scripts. The users typically connect to the system using the Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP).

The platform is composed of several sub-systems, which can be accessed remotely via API calls over the internet, typically through Python.

3.2 Multi-Electrode Array (MEA)

Our current platform features 4 MEAs. The MEAs were designed by Prof. Roux’s Lab form Haute Ecole du Paysage, d’Ingénierie et d’Architecture (HEPIA) and are described in Wertenbroek et al. (2021) . Each MEA can accommodate 4 organoids, with 8 electrodes per organoid ( Figure 1E ).

The MEA setup utilizes an Air-Liquid-Interface (ALI) approach ( Stoppini et al., 1991 ), in which the organoids are directly placed on electrodes located atop of a permeable membrane ( Figure 1D ), with the medium flowing beneath this membrane in a 170 μL chamber. As a result, a thin layer of medium, created by surface tension, separates the upper side of the organoids from the humidified incubator air. This arrangement is further protected by a lid partially covering the MEA ( Figure 1F ). This ALI method enables a higher throughput and higher stability compared to submerged approaches, since no dedicated coating is required, and it is less prone to have the organoids detaching from the electrodes.

3.3 Electrophysiological stimulation and recording system

The electrodes in our system enable both stimulation and recording. The respective digital-to-analog and analog-to-digital conversions are performed by Intan RHS 32 headstages. Stimulations are executed using a current controller that ranges from 10 nA to 2.5 mA, and recordings are obtained by measuring the voltage on each electrode at a 30 kHz sampling frequency with a 16 bits resolution giving an accuracy of 0.15 μV. The headstages are connected to an Intan RHS controller, which in turn is connected to a computer via a USB port. The Figure 2A shows the electrical activity recorded for each of the 32 electrodes. It can be noticed that the recorded activity is different between each electrode. This difference comes from the facts that each set of 8 electrodes records a different FO and that for a given FO, electrodes record at a different location. This display is refreshed in real-time and also available 24/7 on our website at the URL https://finalspark.com/live/ . We compared the recording characteristics of this ALI setup to MCS MEA (60MEA200/30iR-Ti) monitoring a submerged FO, using the exact same Intan system for voltage conversion. The overlays of an action potential recorded, respectively, with the ALI and submerged versions are shown in Figures 2C , D and show similar signal characteristics.

Figure 2 . Recording system and user interface. (A) Electrical activity measured in μV over one second for each of the 32 electrodes. Each set of 8 electrodes records a different FO. (B) Graphical User Interface for manually controlling each of the microfluidic pumps. (C) Overlays of FO action potential recorded by the ALI system of the Neuroplatform. (D) Overlays of FO action potentials recorded with an MCS system. (E) Fluctuations of the flowrate of the medium within the microfluidic system, illustrating the cyclic variations induced by the peristaltic pump operating at 1 round per minute with 10 cams. (F) Temporal variations of the red component of the medium color, triggered by a sudden change in medium acidity, resulting in phenol red color change.

3.4 Micro-fluidics

To sustain the life of the organoids on the MEA, Neuronal Medium (NM) needs to be constantly supplied. Our Neuroplatform is equipped with a closed-loop microfluidic system that allows for a 24/7 medium supply. The medium is circulating at a rate of 15uL/min. The medium flow rate is controlled by a BT-100 2 J peristaltic pump and is continuously adjusted according to needs, for instance during experimental runs. The peristaltic pump is connected to the PC-control software using an RS485 interface, for programmed (i.e., in Python) or manual operations ( Figure 2B ). Additionally, Figure 3A depicts this microfluidic closed-loop circuit.

Figure 3 . Microfluidics. (A) Microfluidic system illustrating the continuously operating primary system, which ensures constant flow in the medium chamber, and the secondary system responsible for medium replacing every 48 h. (B) Side view of the assembly, featuring the camera and the MEA. The entire assembly is enclosed with aluminum foil to ensure the lowest possible noise level. (C) Front view of the assembly, showing the intake and outtake of the microfluidic system, as well as the LED used during image capture.

The microfluidic circuit is made of 0.8 mm (inside diameter, ID) tubing. Continuous monitoring of the microfluidic circuit and flow rate is achieved by using Fluigent flow-rate sensors, which connect to the Neuroplatform control center via USB. Data related to medium flow rate is stored in a database for later access. Figure 2E shows the cyclic variations in flow induced by the cams of the peristaltic pump.

A secondary microfluidic system is used to replace the medium in the closed-loop with fresh medium every 24 h, a process illustrated in Figure 3A . This replacement is fully automated through a Python script and performed in the following consecutive steps:

1. Set the rotary valve to select the path from the reservoir F50 to the syringe pump

2. Pump 2 mL of old medium using the syringe pump

3. Set the rotary valve to select the path from the syringe pump to the waste F50

4. Push 2 mL of old medium to the waste using the syringe pump

5. Set the rotary valve to select the path from the new medium in the F50 in the fridge to the syringe pump

6. Pump 2 mL of fresh medium using the syringe pump

7. Set the rotary valve to select the path from the syringe pump to the reservoir F50

8. Push 2 mL of fresh medium using the syringe pump

3.5 Cameras

Each MEA is equipped with a 12.3-megapixel camera that can be controlled interactively or programmatically (i.e., through a Raspberry Pi) for still image capture or video recording. The camera is positioned below the MEA, while illumination is provided by a remotely controlled LED situated above the MEA. Figures 3B , C illustrate this assembly (the aluminum wrapping is used in order to minimize the noise). This setup is particularly useful for detecting various changes, such as cell necrosis, possible organoid displacement caused by microfluidics, variations in medium acidity (using color analysis since our medium contains Phenol red), contamination, neuromelanin production (which can happen when uncaging dopamine), overflows (where the medium inadvertently fills the chamber above the membrane), or bubbles in the medium. For the latter two events, dedicated algorithms automatically detect these issues and trigger an alert to the on-site operator.

Changes of acidity, for example, can be detected by measuring the average color over a pre-defined window. Figure 2F shows the evolution of the medium’s red color component, with data points recorded hourly. The noticeable sudden drop is attributed to the pumping of medium with a slightly different acidity. This change in acidity results in a color alteration of the phenol red present in the medium.

3.6 UV light controlled uncaging

It is also possible to release molecules at specific timings using a process called uncaging. In this method, a specific wavelength of light is employed to break open a molecular “cage” that contains a neuroactive molecule, such as Glutamate, NMDA or Dopamine. A fiber optic of 1,500 μm core diameter and a numerical aperture of 0.5 is used to direct light in the medium within the MEA chamber. The current system, Prizmatix Silver-LED, operates at 365 nm with an optical power of 260 mW. The uncaging system is fully integrated into the Neuroplatform and can be programmatically controlled during experiment runs via our API (see section 5.3).

3.7 Environmental measurements

The environmental conditions are monitored within two incubators. In both incubators, the following parameters are recorded: CO2, O2 concentrations, humidity, atmospheric pressure and temperature. Door-opening events are also logged since they have a major impact on measurements. The primary purpose of this monitoring is to ensure that experiments are performed in stable and reproducible environmental conditions.

All these parameters are displayed in real-time in a graphic interface showing both instant values as well as variations versus time of noise and flowrates ( Figure 4A ).

Figure 4 . Graphic user interface to monitor critical parameters in the incubators. (A) Graphical User Interface displaying critical environmental conditions for the incubator 1, where electrophysiological experiments are performed, as well as the incubator 2, where FO are maintained on an orbital shaker. (B) The display shows environmental data for incubator 1 for specific time periods, extracted from the database, with door opening events displayed as dashed line. Noise, Temperature, humidity and pressure are indicated by different colored lines. The units of each measurement are normalized between 0 and 1 for the selected time interval.

Incubator 1 houses the MEAs and the organoids used for electrophysiological experiments. In addition to the mentioned parameters, flowmeters are also utilized to report the actual flow rate of the microfluidic for each MEA, as depicted in the graph labelled “Pump” in Figure 4A . The system’s state is indirectly monitored through the noise level of each MEA, as shown in the graph labelled “Noise Intan” in Figure 4A . The noise level is calculated based on the standard deviation of the electrical signals recorded by the electrodes over a 30 ms period.

Incubator 2 houses the organoids which are kept in orbital shakers. Piezoelectric gyroscopes are used to measure the actual rotation speed of the orbital shakers.

Since all the data is logged in the database, it is also possible to access the historical measurements through a dedicated GUI ( Figure 4B ).

4.1 General architecture

The core of the system relies on a computational notebook which provides access to 3 resources ( Figure 5A ):

1. A database where all the information regarding the Neuroplatform system is stored

2. The Intan software running on a dedicated PC, which is used for:

• Recording the number of detected spikes in a 200 ms time window

• Setting stimulation parameters

3. A Raspberry Pi for triggering current stimulation according to stimulation parameters

Figure 5 . Software setup and electrical stimulation. (A) General architecture of the Neuroplatform. The Jupyter Notebook serves as the main controller, enabling initiation and reading of spikes, configuration stimulation signals and access to database via, e.g., Python (B) Parameters of the stimulation current: settings optimally these parameters can elicit spikes. Through the Python API, parameters that can be adjusted for the bi-phasic stimulation signals include the duration (D1) and amplitude (A1) of the positive current phase, and, respectively, D2 and A2 for the negative current phase. Additionally, the polarity of the biphasic signal can be reversed to start with a negative current.

4.2 Database

The Neuroplatform records monitored data 24/7 using InfluxDB, a database designed for time series. Other options are also available.

This database contains all the data coming from the hardware listed in Section 3.

The electrical activity of the neurons is also recorded 24/7 at a sampling rate of 30 kHz. To minimize the volume of stored data, we designed a dedicated process that focuses on significant events, such as threshold crossings that are likely to be due to action potentials (spikes). The following pseudo code illustrates the implemented approach:

- Each 1-min write buffer to database

- Each 33 μs

- For each electrode

- If, at time t , the voltage exceeds a threshold T

- Store (in buffer) 3 ms of data [ t -1 ms, t + 2 ms]

- Each 3 s update T

Additionally, a timestamp corresponding to each detected event is also stored in the database, along with the maximum value of voltage during the 3 ms spike waveform recording.

The threshold T is computed directly from voltage values sampled each 33 μs, according to the following formula:

Where σ i is the standard deviation computed over a set i of 30 ms consecutive voltage values, and M d n represents the median function computed over 101 consecutive σ i values. The use of the median reduces the sensitivity to outliers, which is typically caused by action potentials. In our current setup, a multiplier of 6 on the median has proven to be a good compromise for achieving reliable spike detection.

Besides electric tension data, the number spikes recorded per minute is also computed and stored in the database every minute by a batch process.

4.3 Recording electrical activity

As previously discussed, the communication among neurons is captured by the MEA and converted into a voltage signal sampled at 30 kHz. The Neuroplatform offers two basic access modes to the recorded neural activity:

1. Raw: raw sampling values.

2. Optimized: waveforms of the raw signal near neuronal spikes, available directly from the database.

In addition to the aforementioned features, the Neuroplatform offers even more advanced methods. For instance, it includes counting spikes over a fixed time period of 200 ms following stimulation, with a 10 ms delay suppressing the stimulation artifact.

From a technical perspective, accessing the number of spikes can be accomplished in two different ways:

- Retrieving the number of spikes per minute from the database

- Through direct communication with the PC managing the Intan controller for spike count

The second approach is required when the stimulation protocol demands real-time responsiveness. This is typically the case for certain closed-loop strategies. For instance, closed-loop stimulation strategies have been deployed in primary cortical cultures for effective burst control ( Wagenaar et al., 2005a , b ) and for goal-directed learning ( Samsi et al., 2023 ).

4.4 Syntax for stimulations

Programmatically stimulating the FO on the Neuroplatform is accomplished by sending an electrical current to the MEA electrodes. The electrical current profile can be parameterized in a variety of ways, which is partly shown in Figure 5B . These parameters and controls include:

- Basic shape of stimulation signal:

o Bi-phasic

o Bi-phasic with interphase delay

o Tri-phasic

- Stimulation duration and intensity:

o Positive (A1) and negative (A2) electrical current intensity (typical 1uA, ranging from 0.1uA to 20uA)

o Duration of positive (D1) and negative (D2) stimulation currents

- Stimulation triggers

o Single start

o Table with collection of start triggers

o Pulse trains

- MEA electrodes

send_stim_param (electrodes, params)

5 Examples of electrophysiological experiments

To demonstrate the effectiveness of the Neuroplatform, the following sections will provide an overview of several experiments conducted on the Neuroplatform at FinalSpark’s Laboratories in Vevey, Switzerland.

5.1 Modification of spontaneous activity

The spontaneous electrical activity of the FO can be represented by the concept of “Center of Activity” (CA) ( Bakkum et al., 2008 ) which is defined as a virtual position C on the MEA described by:

Where X k Y k define the spatial position of the 8 electrodes and F k is the number of spontaneous spikes detected. The interest of the concept of CA is that its position provides statistical information about the average location of the activity over the surface of the FO. The ability to change the position of the CA is interesting because it also shows the ability to memorize information in the state of the FO.

The coordinates of the CA can be modified using a high frequency stimulation. In the following experiment we use the following protocol:

1) Compute the CA using the number of detected spikes over 500 ms

2) Goto 1,100x

3) Perform a 20 Hz stimulation during 500 ms using a bi-phasic current (negative first) of 2 μA of 200 μS, for both phases, on one electrode

4) Wait 1 s

5) Goto 5,100x

Figure 6A displays the 100 measured positions of the CA corresponding to the spontaneous activity before the 20 Hz stimulation in blue, and after the high-frequency stimulation in red (the average position is indicated by a cross). A close-up is shown in Figure 6B . The timestamps of the spontaneous activity, before and after stimulation, are presented in Figures 6C , D , respectively. Each graph shows one example of the 100 records of 500 ms used to compute the CA location (showing a decrease of spontaneous firing activity of electrodes 3, 4 and 6). A noticeable shift in the average position (shown by a cross) of the CA can be observed before and after the high-frequency stimulation (as seen in Figure 6A ), indicating a change of state of the biological network. A classifier based on a simple logistic regression is employed to predict if the network has received the 20 Hz stimulation. In this particular experiment, the classification accuracy, computed from the confusion matrix, is 95.5%.

Figure 6 . Center of activity modification. (A) Graph showing the 2D layout of the 8 electrodes, the X and Y axis are normalized units showing the spatial coordinates of the electrodes. All electrodes can be used for both stimulation and reading. A 20 Hz stimulation signal is applied to electrode 6. The 100 blue circles represent the positions of the Center of Activity (CA) before 20 Hz stimulation, while the 100 red circles indicate the positions after the stimulation. The cross mark the average position. (B) A closer look at the two groups of CA. (C) Timestamps depicting the spontaneous activity over 500 ms for each of the 8 electrodes before the high-frequency stimulation. (D) Spontaneous activity observed after the high-frequency stimulation, showing a lower activity of electrodes 6, 4 and 3, compared to (C) .

The Neuroplatform allows users to perform both the experimental part (including stimulation and reading operations) and the visualization of the CA displacement within the same Python source code. The 500 ms 20 Hz signal is generated directly by the Python source code shown below. The first trigger.send instruction sends the trigger for the stimulation on a specific electrode and time.sleep pauses the execution for 50 ms.

Despite the common perception of Python as being less than ideal for real-time signal processing due to its inherent latency, our empirical data reveals a time accuracy of under 1 ms (on an Intel Xeon CPU E5-2690 v2 @ 3.00GHz), a level of precision that is satisfactory for the generation of tetanic signals.

5.2 Optimization of stimulation parameters

In this example, the objective is to identify the set of stimulation parameters that can elicit the maximum number of action potentials within 200 ms after a stimulation.

Depending on the FOs, their composition, and maturity, only specific combinations of electrodes and parameters can elicit spikes. In our experiment, we use an 8-electrode MEA and cycle through several stimulation signal parameters as shown in Figure 7A . Consequently, we need to test a total of 342 different parameter-electrode combinations. The following pseudo code illustrates the Python script used in this experiment.

1) For each set of stimulation parameters

2) For each stimulation electrode

3) For each recording electrode

4) During 15 s, every 250 ms

5) Decide between stimulating, or recording spontaneous activity, with a 50% probability

6) Record number of spikes during 200 ms

Figure 7 . Neural activity stimulation and dopamine uncaging. (A) Graph depicting the number of spikes recorded over 250 ms. The spike counts in orange were measured following a stimulation, while those in blue were measured during periods without stimulation. For clarity in visualization, a small bar is displayed even when no spikes are detected. (B) Diagram illustrating the different steps involved in the closed-loop uncaging process of dopamine, which is repeated 240 times. (C) Timestamps of action potentials from the 8 electrodes before and after stimulation (shown as red line), showcasing the elicited spikes. (D) Graph displaying the number of elicited spikes over the 240 steps of the closed-loop (in blue) alongside the activation events of the UV light source (red).

The aim of probabilistic stimulation and no stimulation in step 5 is to evaluate the difference between elicited and spontaneous spikes in a way that ensures there is no bias.

The bar chart in Figure 7A displays a segment of the experimental results. It shows a 15-s recording from a single electrode, corresponding to one execution of step 4 in the pseudo code above. Each bar represents the spike count during a 200 ms period, repeated every 250 ms. The orange bars in this plot are the result of the parameters selected in step 1 of the pseudo code. The blue bars represent no-stimulation periods, thus corresponding to the spontaneous activity of the neurons.

From Figure 7A , we can see that this particular combination of electrode and parameters reliably elicits responses.

In practice, the Python script can also be used to automatically display the 342 graphs similar to Figure 7A , allowing the operator to select the optimal set of parameters. Additionally, it can compute a scalar metric to characterize the “efficiency” of the parameters, and automatically identify the optimal parameters.

An example of a parameter maximization metric is given in the equation below. Let us denote μ r and μ s the average number of spikes recorded spontaneously or after a stimulation, respectively, and σ r and σ s as their standard deviations. The following metric is used:

The set of parameters that maximize this metric can then be utilized to perform other experiments requiring elicited spikes, such as investigating the effect of pharmacological agents on a biological network’s ability to react quickly to stimulation.

5.3 UV light-induced uncaging of molecules

‘Uncaging’ is a pivotal technique in cellular biology, enabling the precise control of molecular interactions within cells ( Gienger et al., 2020 ). It involves the use of photolabile caged compounds that are activated by specific light wavelengths, releasing bioactive molecules in a targeted and timely manner. This method is particularly valuable for studying dynamic processes in neural networks and intracellular signaling, offering real-time insights into complex biological mechanisms.

Our Neuroplatform is equipped with all necessary components to perform uncaging. In this example, we investigate closed-loop stimulation, where dopamine is used to reward the network when more spikes are elicited by the same stimulation. The release of the dopamine is achieved through the uncaging of CNV-dopamine using the UV system described in section 3.6.

Figure 7B shows the flow chart of the closed-loop uncaging process. The optimal stimulation parameters are first found using the technique shown in 5.2 (in this case, a current of 4uA, biphasic with 100uS per phase), which is sent successively to each of the 8 electrodes with a delay of 10 ms between each electrode.

Figure 7C shows the response timestamps of the 8 electrodes for a period of 1,200 ms, 600 ms before and after the stimulation. The stimulation event is indicated by the vertical red line. It is interesting to observe that in this particular case, most of the elicited spikes originate from 2 electrodes, specifically electrode 112 and electrode 119.

The Python source code implementing the closed-loop process illustrated in Figure 7B is provided below. We would like to highlight here how concise the code is. With only 13 lines of code, the entire closed-loop process has been implemented.

The graph in Figure 7D shows the variation in the number of spikes elicited during the execution of the script above across 5 h. A general increase in the number of elicited spikes can be observed. However, it is obviously not possible to establish causality between the closed-loop strategy and the observed increase with this single experiment alone. The primary purpose of this closed-loop experiment is to demonstrate the flexibility offered by the Neuroplatform.

6 External users of the Neuroplatform

Access to the Neuroplatform is freely available for research purposes. For researchers lacking lab infrastructure, the Neuroplatform provides the capability to conduct real-time experiments on biological networks. Additionally, it allows others to replicate results obtained in their own lab. The database is shared between all research groups, however the Python scripts and Jupyter Notebooks are in private sections.

In 2023, 36 academic groups proposed research projects, of which 8 were selected. At the time of writing, 4 of these have already yielded some results:

• University Côte d’Azure, CNRS, NeuroMod Institute and Laboratoire JA Dieudonné: investigates the functional connectivity of FO and how electrical stimulation can modify it.

• University of Michigan, investigates stimulation protocols that induce global changes in electrical activity of a FO.

• Free University of Berlin, investigates stimulation protocols that induce changes in the electrical activity of a FO. Additionally, this research employs machine learning tools to extract information from neural firing patterns and to develop well-conditioned responses. Moreover, it utilizes both shallow and deep reinforcement learning techniques to identify optimal training strategies, aiming to elicit reproducible behaviors in the FO.

• University of Exeter, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Living Systems Institute, investigates storing and retrieving of spatiotemporal spiking patterns, using closed-loop experiments that combine mathematical models of synaptic communication with the Neuroplatform.

• Lancaster University Leipzig and University of York: characterizes computational properties of FOs under the reservoir computing model, with a view to building low-power environmental sensors.

• Oxford Brookes University, School of Engineering, Computing and Mathematics: investigating the properties of emerging dynamics and criticality within neural organizations using the FOs.

• University of Bath, ART-AI, IAH: using the free energy principle and active inference to study the learning capabilities of neurons, embodied in a virtual environment.

• University of Bristol: stimulating of FOs based on data gathered from an artificial tactile sensor. Use machine learning techniques to interpret the FO’s output, investigating their ability to process real-world data.

7 Discussion and conclusion

The Neuroplatform has now been operational 24/7 for the past 4 years. During this time, the organoids on the MEA have been replaced over 250 times. Considering that we place at least 4 organoids per MEA, and change all the organoids simultaneously, this amounts to testing over 1,000 organoids. Initially, their lifetime was only a few hours, but various improvements, especially related to the microfluidics setup, have extended this to up to 100 days in best cases. It is important to note that the spontaneous activity of the organoids can vary over their lifetime, a factor that must be taken into consideration when conducting experiments ( Wagenaar et al., 2006 ). Additionally, we observed that the minimum current required to elicit spikes, computed using the method described in section 5.2, is increasing over the lifetime of the organoid. This phenomenon may be linked to an impedance increase caused by glial encapsulation ( Salatino et al., 2017 ).

The 24/7 recording strategy as described in section 4.2, results in the constant growth of the database. As of this writing, its size has reached 18 terabytes. This volume encompasses the recording of over 20 billion individual action potentials, each sampled at a 30 kHz resolution for 3 ms. This extensive dataset is significant not only due to its size but also because it was all recorded in a similar in-vitro environment, as described in section 3.2. We are eager to share this data with any interested research group.

8 Future extensions

In the future, we plan to extend the capabilities of our platform to manage a broader range of experimental protocols relevant to wetware computing. For example, we aim to enable a remote control over the injection of specific molecules into the medium, facilitating remote experiments that involve pharmacological manipulation of neuronal activity. This expansion will provide additional degrees of freedom for the automatic optimization of parameters influencing neuroplasticity.

Currently, as detailed in Chapter 2, only one differentiation protocol is used for generating organoids. We plan to introduce additional types of organoid generation protocols soon, with the aim of exploring a broader range of possibilities.

Although 32 research groups requested to access to the Neuroplatform, our current infrastructure only allows us to accommodate 7 groups, considering our own research needs as well. We are in the process of scaling-up the AC/DC hardware system to support more users simultaneously. Additionally, we are currently limited to executing close-loop algorithms for neuroplasticity on one single FO, as these algorithms require sending in real-time adapted simulation signals to each FO. Our software is being updated to run closed-loops in parallel on up to 32 FO.

9.1 Brain organoid generation

Human forebrain organoids were originated as described in Govindan et al. (2021) . Briefly, Human Neural Stem Cells derived from the human induced pluripotent stem (hiPS) cell line (ThermoFisher), were plated in flasks coated with CellStart (Fisher Scientific) and amplified in Stempro NSC SFM kit (ThermoFischer) complete medium: KnockOut D-MEM/F12, 2 mM of GlutaMAX, 2% of StemPro Neural supplement, 20 ng/mL of Human FGF-basic (FGF-2/bFGF) Recombinant Protein, and 20 ng/mL of EGF Recombinant Human Protein (Fisher Scientific). Cells were then detached with StemPro ™ Accutase (Gibco) and plated in p6 at the concentration of 250,000 cells/well. The plates were sealed with breathable adhesive paper and leads, placed on an orbital shaker at 80 rpm, and culture for 7 days at 37°C 5% CO2. After one week the newly formed spheroids were put in differentiation medium I (Diff I), containing DMEM/F-12, GlutaMAX ™ supplement (Gibco), 2% BSA, 1X of Stempro® hESC Supplement, 20 ng/mL of BDNF Recombinant Human Protein (Invitrogen), 20 ng/mL of GDNF Recombinant Human Protein (Gibco), 100 mM of N6,2′-O-Dibutyryladenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate sodium salt, and 20 mM of 2-Phospho-L-ascorbic acid trisodium salt. After one week, brain spheroids were put in differentiation medium II (Diff II) made of 50% of Diff I and 50% of Neurobasal Plus (Invitrogen). After 3 weeks of culture in Diff II, brain organoids were plated in Neurobasal Plus and kept in the orbital shaker until the transfer on the MEA. Medium was change once per week.

9.2 Electron microscopy analysis of FOs

Mature FOs were fixed in 2.5% Glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer pH 7.4, at RT. After 24 h the samples were processed as described in Cakir et al. (2019) at the Electron Microscopy Facility of University of Lausanne. The whole FO images were acquired with Quanta FEG 250 Scanning Electron Microscope.

9.3 Transfer of FOs on MEA

MEA connected with the microfluid system was moved from the incubator and placed on a 12.3-megapixel camera system (with an optical lens of 16 mm of focal, giving a magnification power of 21x) inside the cell culture hood. The lid was removed to access the top of the liquid/air interface. Sterile Hydrophilic PTFE MEMBRANE Hole ‘confetti’ (diameter 2.5 mm, diameter of the hole 0.7 mm) (HEPIA) were positioned on top of each electrode and left there 2 min to absorb the medium. FOs were collected from the plate using wide bore pipette tips (Axygen) and placed in the middle of confetti, in a 10 μL drop of medium. The position of the organoids was adjusted with the help of sterile forceps. After all the organoids were put on place, the chamber was covered with the plate sealer Greiner Bio-One ™ BREATHseal ™ Sealer (Fisher Scientific), and with the MEA lid. MEA containing the organoids were placed immediately back in the cell incubator and were ready to be used for recording and stimulation. A similar procedure was used for the positioning of organoids on MCS MEA (60MEA200/30iR-Ti). In this case the Hydrophilic PTFE MEMBRANE was not used and organoids were directly laid on the electrodes in a 30 μL drop of medium. Recording of organoid activity was performed immediately afterwards.

9.4 System design and assembly

Cell culture media was stored in a 50 mL Falcon tube with a multi-port delivery cap (ElveFlow) and stored at 4°C. Each reservoir delivery cap contained a single 0.8 mm ID × 1.6 mm OD PTFE tubing (Darwin Microfluidics), sealed by a two-piece PFA Fittings and ferrule threaded adapter (IDEX), extending from the bottom of the reservoir to an inlet port on the 4-port valve head of the RVM Rotary Valve (Advance Microfluidics SA). Sterile air is permitted to refill the reservoir through a 0.22-μm filter (Milian) fixed to the cap to compensate for syringe pump medium withdrawal. A similar PTFE tubing and PFA Fittings and adapters were used to connect the syringe pump to the 4-port valve head of the RVM Rotary Valve (Advance Microfluidics SA). Each PTFE tubing coming from the distribution valve connects with a 50 mL falcon tube inside the cell culture incubator (Binder) and to a borosilicate glass bottle (Milian) to collect discarded cell culture medium.

A secondary microfluid system made of 0.8 mm ID × 1.6 mm OD PTFE tubing, were used to connect each 50 mL falcon tube inside the cell culture incubator with its own MEA (HEPIA). The connection was through a precise peristaltic pump BT100-2 J (Darwin Microfluidics) containing 10 rollers. A compute module (Raspberry Pi 4) controlled the peristaltic pump and the Rotary Valve, through a custom application program interface (API), using RS485 interface and RS-232 interface, respectively. A Fluigent flow-rate sensor connected via USB to the Raspberry Pi 4 allowed the monitoring of the flow rate inside the microfluidic system between the peristaltic pump and the MEA. Python was used to develop the software required to carry out automation protocols.

9.5 Uncaging of dopamine

Carboxynitroveratryl (CNV)-caged dopamine (Tocris Bioscience) was dissolved in Neurobasal Plus at the concentration of 1 mM, and injected in the fluidic system. After 3 h from the injection, the uncaging experiment started as described in paragraph 5.3. UV Silver-LED fiber-coupled LED (Prizmatix) was used to uncage the dopamine at the wavelength of 365 nm for 800 ms each time.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

Ethical approval was not required for the studies on humans in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements because only commercially available established cell lines were used.

Author contributions

FJ: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MK: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. J-MC: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. FB: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. EK: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

We thank Steve M. Potter and Daniel Burger for their multiple advices and editing, as well as Mathias Reusser for the figures.

Conflict of interest

FJ, MK, J-MC, FB, and EK are employed at FinalSpark, Switzerland.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: wetware computing, organoid intelligence, biocomputing, synthetic biology, AI, biological neural network, hybrot

Citation: Jordan FD, Kutter M, Comby J-M, Brozzi F and Kurtys E (2024) Open and remotely accessible Neuroplatform for research in wetware computing. Front. Artif. Intell . 7:1376042. doi: 10.3389/frai.2024.1376042

Received: 24 January 2024; Accepted: 11 March 2024; Published: 02 May 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Jordan, Kutter, Comby, Brozzi and Kurtys. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Fred D. Jordan, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Intersection between the biological and digital: Synthetic Biological Intelligence and Organoid Intelligence

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Sample Detailed Outline

How to Write a Research Paper Outline with Examples

What is a research paper outline?

Table of Contents:

Additional Tips for Outlining a Research Paper in English

Research Paper Outline Example (Abstract style)

1. Why did you decide to do what you did?

2. What exactly did you do?

3. How did you do it?

4. What did you find?

5. What does it mean?

6. What should you/we/someone else do now?

Paper-Style Research Paper Outline Format

1. Introduction Section:

2. Methods Section:

3. Results Section:

4. Discussion/Conclusion Section:

5. Conclusion Statement/Paragraph:

Research Paper Outline: Designing Your Research Narrative

Purpose of the Research Paper Outline

What is an outline in college papers?

Key Components of Research Paper Outline

Length and detail

How to Make an Outline for a Research Paper: 4 Essential Tips

Example of a Research Paper Outline

How to Make a Research Outline: Final Words

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How to Write an Outline in APA Format

At a Glance

APA Format Basics

Font and Spacing

Headings and Subheadings

Before Starting Your APA Format Outline

Review Your Instructor's Requirements

Consider Your Preferences

Formatting Tips