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Essay on environmental pollution in nepali | वातावरण प्रदूषण निबन्ध नेपाली

वातावरण प्रदूषण निबन्ध in nepali (Batabaran pradusan essay in nepali 150 words)

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essay on environmental pollution in 250 words-Nepal-2022

                            ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Environment simply refers to ours surrounding. All the natural and man-made things that we see are the elements of the environment. Pollution means decline of the original qualities of the elements of the environment like air, water, land, etc. Our environment determines our health and civilization.  

Environmental pollution is one of the greatest threats of the world today. All living being birds, animals, insects, plants and even human beings are victims of pollution. No part of the world now is unaffected by the problem of pollution these days.

Pollution is of different types. They are air pollution, water pollution and land pollution. Pollution causes various kinds of harms. Polluted air causes lung diseases, pain ad asthma. Similarly, when we drink polluted water become ill with diarrhea, dysentery, jaundice, etc. Loud noise harms our ear. However, the greatest harm is the depletion of the ozone layer. It causes increase in temperature in the earth, acid rain and drought.

The main reason of pollution is industrialization and population increase. These two bring about environmental change. Many factories have been established to produce goods. These factories and vehicles like bus, truck, car, motorcycle emit huge quantities of smoke into the atmosphere. Similarly, over population causes deforestation. So the ecological balance of nature is disturbed.

Environmental problem has been a major problem in the cities of Nepal. The industries are located in the cities like Kathmandu, Pokhara, Biratnagar and Chitwan. Population density is also high there. We do not have good system for the disposal of garbage. We link our drainage to the nearby rivers. So the people in these places suffer from different communicable diseases.

It is the duty of the government and citizens to take the initiative to make the world a better place. Awareness in people is essential. If human beings as well as other organisms are to survive, the environment must be kept neat and clean.    

AIR POLLUTION

For the well-being of living beings, fresh air is the most important element . Air pollution is the undesirable change in the physical or biotic elements of the environment which may cause adverse effects to the biotic community . Pollutants can be divided into two categories on the basis of their production. They are:

         i.             PRIMARY POLLUTANTS:

                                           They can be defined as the pollutants which are directly emitted to the environment from the source. For example: nitrogen derivatives, oxides, halogens, etc.

       ii.             SECONDARY POLLUTANTS:

                                             They can be defined as the pollutants which are not directly emitted but are formed when primary pollutants chemical react in the atmosphere. For example: ozone, formaldehyde, acetyl nitrate, etc.

Dust particles which are emitted from industries and factories, pollutants from burning coal and improper management of waste products, smoke emitted from vehicles, etc. are the major causes of air pollution.

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

A)     natural resources:.

                                       These sources of air pollution are directly related to the activities of the nature. Examples: volcano eruption, forest fire, dust storms, etc.

b)    ARTIFICIAL RESOURCES:

                                       The sources of air pollution which are not naturally made but caused due to human activities are called artificial sources. Examples: CO, CO 2 , NO, NO 2 , SO 2 , Cl 2 , NH 3 , etc. gases produced by burning fuel, industrialization, over population, deforestation, automobile, nuclear explosions, etc.

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution may cause various short and long term effects in the elements of the environment and human health. The effects caused due to air pollution are:

a.     REDUCTION IN VISIBILTY:

                                          When various gases and dust particles mix in the atmosphere, it makes the sky blurry which is often termed as haze. This is the reason why people living in city areas cannot enjoy the clear sky. Due to fog and smog, people cannot see nearby objects clearly which makes it much risky to drive vehicles and fly airplanes due to reduced visibility.

b.     REDUCTION IN SOLAR RADIATION:

                                                      The areas where air pollution is high, solar radiation is absorbed by dust particles and moved to various place. Due to this, the amount of solar radiation required to reach the surface cannot get there and there will be the reduction of solar radiation. On the other hand, the temperature of other areas increases drastically which is harmful to living beings.

c.      GREEN HOUSE EFFECT:

                                      Various greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone, Sulphur dioxide, etc. formed due to air pollution act like a blanket in the atmosphere, which traps the radiation and it does not let the heat escape to outer space. This causes rapid increase in the temperature of the earth. This is known as greenhouse effect.

d.     INHIBITION IN BIOLOGICAL GROWTH OF PLANTS:

                                           Sunlight is very important for plants to prepare food through photosynthesis. But increasing air pollution causes reduction in solar radiation due to which plants do not get enough light for their proper growth and development. This causes inhibition in biological growth of plants.

  e.     ADVERSE EFFECT ON HUMAN HEALTH:

                                                                                     Air pollution has contributed directly to the deteriorating health condition oh humans. Gases like carbon monoxide causes headache, nausea, difficulty in breathing, etc. Nitrogen oxide causes stinging of the eyes, coughing, headache, dry throat, congestion, etc. It may also cause insomnia, laziness, etc.

f.       DEPLETION OF OZONE LAYER:

                                                                       The chemicals causing ozone layer depletion are mainly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide, etc. which are emitted due to air pollution. These compounds decompose in the atmosphere and form nascent hydrogen, chlorine, bromine, etc. which deplete the ozone layer.

g.     ACID RAIN:

                                      The process of deposition of acid gases like Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, etc. from the atmosphere on land in the form of rain is called Acid rain. In the atmosphere these oxides are unable to remain in the gaseous state and hence they react with moisture to form acids which fall into the earth as acid rain. Buildings, mountains, statues, bridges, etc. are corroded by acid rains.

h.     DESTRUCTION OF HISTORICAL MONUMENTS:

                                                                                                 Over a long period of time, air pollution can damage various monuments and buildings of historical importance permanently lowering their esteem. We can take the example of Taj mahal in India which is being damged due to excessive pollution.

i.        CHANGE IN CLIMATE:

                                                       Air pollution causes dust as well as gases to collect in the atmosphere which increases the temperature in some places and decreases the temperature in other places. Due to this, ice melts and it may cause floods in some regions and drought in others.

MEASURES TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

In order to prevent any further air pollution, the following measures can be implemented:

1.     The emission of air pollutants from industries should be controlled by using electrostatic precipitators of filter.

2.     The industrial areas should be constructed far from human settlements.

3.     Over population should be controlled.

4.     Some cheap fuels with higher Sulphur content should be banned and the use of disuphurized coal should be encouraged.

5.     Roadside plantation of trees should be done along the side of the roads which help to minimize the content of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

6.     Alternate sources of energy such as solar energy, wind energy, etc. should be used instead of petroleum products.

7.     Various awareness programmes about the effects of air pollution should be conducted.

WATER POLLUTION

 Water in its purest form is colorless and odourless. But due to various human as well as natural activities, many pollutants enter the sources of water and make them polluted. This causes the water to be unsafe for daily usage. Water pollution can be defined as any undesirable changes in physical and biotic element of water. It degrades the quality of water which may cause serious health hazards.

Sources of water pollution.

   Although water pollution is caused by both humans and natural activities, mostly humans are only responsible for this problem. Natural causes may be mixing of dust in sources of water, production of bacteria and harmful germs in water. Thus, the causes of water pollution can be summarized below:

a)           Sewage water:

    The liquid waste discharged from industrial as well as domestic Sources is called sewage. This sewage without any treatment is directly discharged into sources of water like rivers, lakes, etc. This activity has resulted in spread of water borne diseases as well as the depletion of aquatic life.

b)  Contaminated from industries:  

     Along with the production of various useful products from industries, they also produce various chemical, papers and radioactive substances which are directly discharged into the sources of water without any treatment. Thus, the water will neither be capable of holding aquatic life nor will it be fit for human consumption.

c)           Agricultural wastes: 

     Farmers use various poisonous chemicals like DDT, BHC, Aldrin, etc. to kill pests and insects and increase the crop yield. But, sometimes farmers use these fertilizers in excessive amount due to lack of knowledge about their use. During the rainy season or due to human causes, such harmful chemicals mix with sources of water and kill all the aquatic lives in the water. It may also cause harm to humans as well.

d)  Obstruction in flow of water: 

If there is any sort of obstruction in the flow of water, it may cause all the pollutants to get collected in the source of water. This may cause the water to get more polluted which can be a reason for the end of the aquatic life .

e) Oily pollution: 

Oil is an important fuel. But it is one of the major causes of water pollution. Through various means such as leakage in oil tanks, spilling and washing vehicles, etc. oil reaches the water surface and it decreases the oxygenation in water which kills the aquatic life.

f) Radioactive substances:

  Radioactive substances released from mines through various means mix with sources of water. Due to this, it may be Lethal to plants and animals including humans.

Measures to control water pollution

Water pollution can be minimized by the following activities:

1.  Wastes ejected from homes and factories must be recycled by implementing recycling facilities.

2.  Dead bodies of living beings must be properly disposed either by burning or burying.

3.  The surrounding environment of sources of water must be kept clean by planting trees and preserving them.

4.  The use of compost manure should be encouraged during cultivation rather than using pesticides, insecticides and other harmful fertilizers.

5.  Proper drainage system must be built for efficient collection and treatment of wastes.

6. Various legal measures must be implemented for the protection of rivers and   use of safe water .

SOIL POLLUTION

Soil is a vital part for living beings because it provides a habitat to animals, plants, insects, human and basically every living being in the world. Soil provides necessary moisture as well as minerals to support plants life. Plants prevent erosion and many natural disasters. Many insects and microbes live in soil. Therefore, soil is an important element for insects, plants, animals and humans.

The degradation of soil due to the presence of various unwanted chemicals altering the natural state of the soil is called soil pollution . It is harmful to plants as well as any other forms of life. Uneducated farmers use insecticides, pesticides and various fertilizers in excess amount which not only degrades the quality of soil such as soil texture, water holding capacity, porosity, etc. but also minimizes crop yield. This also kills various useful animals living inside the soil. Soil pollution is mostly found in urban and industrialized areas. If land is polluted, to neither plants can develop properly nor is it suitable for animals.

Sources of soil pollution

Land gets polluted because of various reasons. There are various sources of land pollution such as domestic wastes, use of harmful chemicals, industrial wastes, use of fertilizers, acid rain, etc. The wastes emitted from sources are the main pollution of soil. The major reasons for the pollution of land are as follows:

a)     Domestic wastes

Many products, both edible and non- edible, are used in our daily life. Domestic wastes include waste products such as dust, excreta, broken utensils, plastic, contaminated food etc. When these wastes come in contact with land, it may produce many harmful microbes which also supports in the formation of various diseases. If lots of wastes get deposited in a certain place, it may act as a breeding place for various bacteria. Land pollution may also decrease the fertility of soil.

b)      Excessive use of pesticides

Farmer's main job is to cultivate various crops. However, sometimes various insects and pests attack their crops. In order to protect the crops from any damage, many chemical compounds are used. These chemicals protect the crops from harmful insects. But they also pollute the soil. Due to this reason, insecticides, fungicides, weedicides, etc. are considered as  pollutants. The most dangerous substances that cause harm to the soil are DDT, dialdrin, Aldrin, parathion, etc.

                c) Industrial waste

                          Many useful objects are manufactured by industries. However, some other objects which cause pollution are also emitted. The substances which are thrown from factories include chemicals, metals, nonmetals, waste products, living wastes, etc. which cause harm to the natural quality of the soil which pollutes it and degrades the crop yield. It may also adversely harm the living animals in the polluted soil.

        d)         Use of chemical fertilizers

Many fertilizers are used to increase the productivity and fertility of the soil. If it is used in proper amount, it may increase the crop yield. However, excessive use of these fertilizers is the major cause of soil pollution. Fertilizers contain various elements such as Arsenic (As), Barium (Ba), Calcium (Ca), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb) etc. These elements are responsible for killing various useful living organisms in the soil and also causing imbalance in the nutrients of the soil.

e)                   Municipal Wastes

Municipalities are the major sources of waste products. These waste products most often do not get disposed in the right area due to which the soil gets contaminated. These waters are both organic and inorganic and are responsible for the depletion of fertility of the soil.

f)                    Acid rain

Basically, the presence of any sorts of acid in rain is regarded as acid rain. The major compounds causing acid rain are sulphuric acid (H2S04), nitric acid (HN03), hydrochloric acid (HCI), Carbonic acid (H2C03).

MEASURES TO CONTROL SOIL POLLUTION

1.     The use of harmful chemical fertilizers must be replaced by compost mature in order to maximize the crop yield.

2.     The use of pesticides and insecticides must be minimized and other methods of controlling pests which do not contaminate the soil must be used.

3.     Proper disposal of domestic wastes should be established.

4.     The irrigation of fields using polluted water must be discouraged.

5.     The radioactive substances emitted from factories and laboratories must be appropriately disposed.

6.     Proper drainage system must be built for the disposal human excreta.

7.     Afforestation must be done in order to prevent the soil erosion from natural disasters such as floods, landslides, etc.

8.     The use of materials that do not decay over a certain period of time must be minimized.

9.     Farmers must be trained and educated through various programmes on proper use of fertilizers.

10.        Awareness programmes must be conducted to aware the people about the harmful effects of soil pollution.

11.        Soil conservation methods should be implemented to preserve the soil.

                                             Chemical Pollution

Environmental deterioration due to unscientific and improper use of chemical substances is called chemical pollution.  Our environment is getting increasingly unhygienic and polluted day by day because of this chemical pollution. In general, chemical pollution is excessive in the areas with high population density.

Some causes of chemical pollution are as follows:

1.     Chemical fertilizers:

 Chemical fertilizers and insecticides used by the farmers constitute the major part of chemical pollution. The chemicals contained in fertilizers get dissolved in water and reach rivers, streams and ponds. This process supports the excessive growth of algae and other immaterial grasses. This obviously results   in over-exploitation of oxygen in the water when they decay after their death. It brings a gradual reduction in the number of organisms in the water as they have to undergo oxygen deficiency.

2.     Insecticides:  

The use of insecticides has a negative impact on useful plants and organisms as well. DDT, BHC, methoxychloride, etc. are commonly used insecticides which kill many useful insects and hamper the growth of some plants. This chemical is stored in plants and animals and harms them causing chronic and infectious diseases. Many animals who feed on dead animals (death is caused by insecticides) are badly affected by insecticides.

Dieldrine, aldrin, cobalt, lead, mercury, etc. directly pollute our environment. The use of lead containing petrol is seriously injurious to our health. Scientists are making efforts to produce lead free petrol. The industries established on the bank of rivers, seas and oceans excrete a great amount of mercury that affects fish and other aquatic animals the sea. Many people were killed because of eating the fish containing profuse level of mercury in 1950 in Japan.

3.     Refuses and waste materials :

 Dirt and waste materials are the main causes of environmental pollution. The rapid degradation of our environment is probably owing to improper disposal of dirt and garbage being increasingly collected day to day. The noxious substances in the dirt spread out in the air and water causing rise in atmospheric pollution.

4.     Plastic:  

Plastic is used to make utensils, bags, pipes and many other things. The things made by plastic are not decomposed; it ultimately creates an alarming problem in the environment. This gives off poisonous gas on being burnt. Hence, it is really essential to develop the recycling process of waste plastic in order to save the environment from being polluted.

3.  Smoke from the means of transport and industries :

Greenhouse effect  is on the rise due to the increasing quantity of      carbon dioxide in the air. it has resulted in global temperature increment and dreadful droughts. high temperature accelerates the melting of snow in the polar regions causing the sea surface to rise higher. the lands along the edge of the sea will then come under water. dust and smoke cause chronic lung diseases in animals. moreover, dense smoke has a negative effect on the environment. it causes lung diseases., 4. colours used in foodstuffs :.

 Many people prefer to use different colours in foodstuffs and drinks like tea, coffee, chocolate, etc. to make them attractive to look. This kind of use of colours in food is ruinous to our health. It increases the possibility of death by causing diseases like cancer.

  5. Synthetic clingers:

  control measures of chemical pollution.

l. Rules and regulations are to be made to establish industries, factories and other thermal plants far from residential areas. 

2. Farmers are suggested for the use of organic fertilizers rather than chemical fertilizers.

3. Trainings should be given to farmers for the wise and proper use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides.

 4. The waste water, dyes and other liquids released from industrial areas must be purified before mixing them into water bodies.

 5. Noxious smokes from industries should not be allowed spread in the air.

 6.People must be conscious of the results of using harmful substances in food.

7.Unnecessary use of fertilizers and insecticides should not be done. 

8. Vehicles and industries should be kept in proper conditions.

Pollution control is basically integral to maintain natural balance. Today it is a bounded duty of all of us to protect our environment from being deteriorated. Scientists have been engaged in finding out easier methods of environmental preservation. 

   Management of bio-degradable and non-biodegradable wastes

Solid waste is considered as any sort of bio-degradable and non-biodegradable garbage such as food wastes, construction debris, plastic, clothes etc . Primarily, the amount of solid waste is increasing day by day in urban areas in an alarming rate. The increase in the amount of domestic as well as industrial wastes due to over population causes environmental imbalance.

The unwanted or unusable wastes from industrial, commercial, agricultural operations and even from community activities are called solid wastes. Some kinds of wastes around us are garbage refuse, plastic, broken metals, glass pieces, clothes, rocks, green wastes, paper, etc. On the basis of the characteristics, solid wastes can be classified into biodegradable and non-biodegradable solid wastes. 

  Biodegradable wastes

The wastes which consist of organic matter and can be decomposed into their simpler components such as carbon dioxide, water, methane and other organic molecules by micro-organisms in a short time period are called biodegradable wastes. Kitchen wastes, dead animals, clothes, paper, human wastes, manures, etc. are the biodegradable wastes.

           Non-biodegradable wastes

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One more report ranks Nepal among most polluted countries in the world

Chandan Kumar Mandal

As the country braces for deteriorated air quality with the approaching winter season, Nepal has been once again ranked as one of the most polluted countries in the world.

The State of Global Air report 2020 places Nepal among the top 10 countries with the highest outdoor PM2.5 levels in 2019. With an annual average emission of 83.1 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3) of PM2.5 in the country, Nepal was placed only behind India.

Over 90 percent of the world’s population experienced annual average PM2.5 concentrations that exceeded the World Health Organization’s Air Quality Guideline of 10 μg/m3, according to the report, released on Wednesday.

PM2.5, or particulate matter less than 2.5 microns thick, are among the most dangerous pollutants that can get past the nose and throat to enter the lungs and even the bloodstream. Since PM2.5 particles are small, they are also likely to remain suspended in the air for longer, increasing the chances of people inhaling them.

As per the report, annually produced by the Health Effects Institute and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation’s (IHME’s) Global Burden of Disease (GBD) project, PM2.5 pollution killed 17,900 Nepalis in 2019. Similarly, 42,100 deaths in Nepal were attributed to air pollution during the period.

Long-term exposure to PM2.5 leads to ischemic heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lower respiratory infections such as pneumonia, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and adverse birth outcomes among other adverse health impacts.

The report has once again come as a reminder that Nepalis continue to breathe toxic air despite several national and international reports showing the deteriorating quality of air in the country and terming air pollution as a major public health issue.

“Nepal’s frequent top ranking in terms of poor quality of air shows that we have not done enough to improve the air quality over the years. Although there have been some actions in the past, we should have been going on war-footing,” Bhushan Tuladhar, an environmentalist who closely follows urban environmental issues, told the Post. “As the whole world, including Nepal, is going through the public health crisis of Covid-19, air pollution has been linked with higher Covid-19 death rates . Air pollution was a major killer even before the pandemic. But we have opted for short-term measures.”

In March, the World Air Quality Report had ranked Nepal as the 8th most polluted country in the world with its PM2.5 annual average 44.46 μg/m3, a drop from 54.15 μg/m3 in 2018, when the country was still placed in eighth position.

The state of air report has highlighted that in 2019, air pollution moved up from the 5th to the 4th leading risk factor for death globally only surpassing high blood pressure, tobacco use, and poor diet as it claimed 6.67 million lives worldwide .

For the first time ever, the report has also measured the harmful impact of particulate matter pollution ambient— PM2.5 and household air pollution—exposures on infants’ health and survival in their first month of life (ages 0 to 27 days).

The report concludes that outdoor and household particulate matter pollution contributed to the deaths of nearly 500,000 infants in their first month of life . According to the report findings, air pollution accounts for 20 percent of newborn deaths worldwide, most related to complications of low birth weight and preterm birth.

The highest annual average exposures were seen in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, according to the report, which further pointed out that although PM2.5 levels have shown modest improvements in some regions, there has been little or no sustained progress in the most polluted regions.

The report has pointed out that some regions have seen improvements, notably Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Oceania, led by China, Vietnam, and Thailand. However, others — in particular North Africa, the Middle East, and sub-Saharan Africa — have experienced little or no progress or even have seen increases in exposures.

“The disparities in exposure to PM2.5 across these regions have largely remained constant over the past decade, with South Asia consistently seeing the highest exposures,” reads the report. “In large part, these regional trends track closely with socioeconomic development and national policy actions.”

According to Tuladhar, the country has to prioritise long-term actions to deal with the annually deteriorating air quality while short-term measures can be implemented immediately.

“For example, what we have been doing now is managing ventilators which give clean oxygen rather than managing clean air forever. It’s not that we don’t need ventilators, but we need sustainable solutions for clean air,” said Tuladhar.

“We can start by implementing the air pollution action plan, stopping open garbage burning, strictly checking vehicles that pollute and take them off the road. We can implement emission testing just like we have done with the campaign against drunk driving. Such actions don’t demand much resources.”

Every year as the winter sets in , air quality in major cities, including the capital, turns unsafe . This year, however, the harmful impacts of air pollution, coupled with Covid-19, is likely to turn things worse for the public as studies have shown those with heart and lung ailments are at the higher risk of coronavirus infection and death.

“This report comes as the Covid-19 pandemic, a disease for which people with heart and lung disease are particularly at risk of infection and death, has claimed more than 1 million lives, and as India is entering its annual worst air pollution cycle,” Pallavi Pant, an air quality scientist with Health Effects Institute, told the Post in an email.

“Although the full links between air pollution and Covid-19 are not yet known, there is clear evidence linking air pollution and increased heart and lung disease, and there is growing concerned that air pollution exposures, especially in the most polluted regions of South Asia, could exacerbate the effects of Covid-19 significantly .”

The Covid-19 pandemic and months of lockdown, which saw a partial or complete shutdown of vehicular movement around the world, resulted in the improvement of air quality in major cities . With the volume of public movement slowly returning to pre-Covid times, air quality is also likely to deteriorate to pre-pandemic levels.

For Tuladhar, Covid-19 could be a silver lining when it comes to improving air quality.

“The Covid-19 came up with several opportunities. People realised what clean and pure air quality meant. They surely do not want to go back to bad air days in the pre-pandemic situation. Public also realised the value of cycling, free roads and public health,” said Tuladhar. 

Chandan Kumar Mandal Chandan Kumar Mandal was the environment and migration reporter for The Kathmandu Post, covering labour migration and governance, as well as climate change, natural disasters, and wildlife.

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Status of Air Pollution and its impacts in Nepal: A Review Study

• February 2020
• Conference: International Workshop on ‘Air Pollution and Public Health: Challenges and Interventions’ , New Delhi, India , 5 – 7 February, 2020

• Nepal Academy of Science and Technology

• Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, NAST, Nepal

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Mitigating the impacts of air pollutants in Nepal and climate co-benefits: a scenario-based approach

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• Published: 27 January 2020
• Volume 13 , pages 361–370, ( 2020 )

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• Amrit M. Nakarmi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6916-6058 1 , 2 ,
• Bikash Sharma 3 ,
• Utsav S. Rajbhandari 1 ,
• Anita Prajapati 1 ,
• Christopher S. Malley 4 ,
• Johan C. I. Kuylenstierna 4 ,
• Harry W. Vallack 4 ,
• Daven K. Henze 5 &
• Arnico Panday 3  

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Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) including black carbon (BC), methane (CH 4 ), and tropospheric ozone (O 3 ) are major climate forcers after carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). These SLCPs also have detrimental impacts on human health and agriculture. Studies show that the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, which includes Nepal, has been experiencing the impacts of these pollutants in addition to greenhouse gases. In this study, we derive a national-level emission inventory for SLCPs, CO 2 , and air pollutants for Nepal and project their impacts under reference (REF) and mitigation policy (POL) scenarios. The impacts on human health, agriculture, and climate were then estimated by applying the following: (1) adjoint coefficients from the Goddard Earth Observing System (GEOS)-chemical transport model that quantify the sensitivity of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) and surface O 3 concentrations in Nepal, and radiative forcing in four latitudinal bands, to emissions in 2 × 2.5° grids, and (2) concentration–response functions to estimate health and crop loss impacts in Nepal. With the mitigating measures undertaken, emission reductions of about 78% each of BC and CH 4 and 87% of PM 2.5 could be achieved in 2050 compared with the REF scenario. This would lead to an estimated avoidance of 29,000 lives lost and 1.7 million tonnes of crop loss while bringing an economic benefit in present value of 2.7 times more than the total cost incurred in its implementation during the whole period 2010–2050. The results provide useful policy insights and pathways for evidence-based decision-making in the design and effective implementation of SLCP mitigation measures in Nepal.

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Introduction

Air quality management and climate change mitigation are two inexorably linked environmental challenges of the twenty-first century. Addressing them in a coordinated manner can simultaneously slow down the rate of climate change and protect human health and ecosystems, including agriculture. Yet, air pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHGs) and their impacts are often considered independently in both scientific and policy spheres. CO 2 is widely recognized as the primary driver of global warming and climate change. However, studies have shown that short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs)—including methane (CH 4 ), black carbon (BC), and tropospheric ozone (O 3 )—contribute to near-term climate change, as well as adverse impacts on human health and agriculture (IPCC 2014 ; Ramanathan and Carmichael 2008 ; UNEP/WMO 2011 ). Growing evidence suggests that to reduce global warming and remain under a target of 2 °C rise, it is essential to take a coordinated action, without any delay, for reductions in both CO 2 and SLCPs concurrently (Bowerman et al. 2013 ; Hu et al. 2013 ; Rogelja et al. 2014 ; Shoemaker et al. 2013 ; UNEP/WMO 2011 ). To help address this, several governmental and non-governmental organizations (including the US Environmental Protection Agency, the World Bank, and the Arctic Council) are taking action on SLCP mitigation (Pierrehumbert 2014 ). In addition, a separate United Nations entity, the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC), was formed in 2012 as the only global voluntary organization dedicated to promoting and implementing early mitigation of SLCPs by supporting their integration into existing national planning (CCAC 2016b ). Clearly, an integrated approach to addressing air quality and climate change as part of the policy process will offer a great opportunity to contribute to meeting sustainable development goals (SDGs), although they are not explicitly stated as such (Haines et al. 2017 ).

Several studies have identified Asia as the single largest source of global BC emissions from contained combustion, accounting for more than half of all such emissions (Ramanathan and Carmichael 2008 ; UNEP 2011 ; USAID 2010 ). The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region in South Asia is especially vulnerable to the impacts of SLCPs, in particular to BC. This region is the source of ten large Asian river systems which provide water, ecosystem services, and the basis of livelihoods to more than 210 million people in the mountains and 1.3 billion people downstream (Beniston, cited in Rasul 2014 ). Studies have shown that glaciers in the HKH region have been retreating and will continue to melt at higher rates if the increase in emissions continues (Ramanathan et al. 2008 ; Rose 2012 ; Yongjian et al. 2015 ). While some of the atmospheric changes in the HKH region are driven by the global increase in atmospheric GHG concentrations, approximately 50% of the warming on the Himalayan–Tibetan plateau has also been attributed to BC (Menon et al. 2010 ; Ramanathan et al. 2007 ; UNEP/WMO 2011 ). This glacial melting in the HKH region is due not only to a temperature increase in CO 2 but also to the aerosols that arise mainly from burning biomass and fossil fuel combustion (Gustafsson et al. 2009 ; Ramanathan et al. 2007 ; Rose 2012 ; Sadavarte et al. 2016 ).

Nepal, located between two of the world’s biggest BC emitters, China and India (Ramanathan and Carmichael 2008 ), is particularly vulnerable to the impacts. Thus, domestic action will be insufficient and regional cooperation will be needed to reduce the impacts of SLCPs. However, there is still a data gap on SLCP emissions in Nepal based on their activity levels, emission share, temporal and spatial variation, and quantification of their impacts. Existing policies and plans are largely designed to indirectly support or generate co-benefits for air pollution mitigation without an explicit SLCP-focused policy and planned interventions (Gyawali 2016 ). Past studies of SLCPs in Nepal are usually either concerned with transboundary atmospheric brown clouds (Lüthi et al. 2015 ; Rose 2012 ), or focused at city level and reflect localized data as in the following papers: Rupakheti et al. ( 2016 ); Kim et al. ( 2015 ); Putero et al. ( 2015 ); World Bank ( 2014 ); Shrestha et al. ( 2013b ); ICIMOD ( 2012 ); Dhimal et al. ( 2009 ); CEN/ENPHO ( 2003 ). The World Bank reported that the mean annual ambient PM 2.5 concentration in Nepal was 46.09 μg/m 3 in 2013, and the PM 2.5 concentration in Kathmandu in 2013 was 49 μg/m 3 (WB/IHME 2016 ; WHO 2016 ). A more recent study shows that the daily mean PM 2.5 and BC concentrations in Kathmandu valley, due to the transport sector, can reach 124.76 μg/m 3 and 16.74 μg/m 3 , respectively, during spring (Shakya et al. 2016 ). Other studies suggest that the urban centers are most vulnerable to impacts of air pollution with pollution levels substantially above WHO guidelines (CANN 2014 ; CES 2016 ; DoE 2016 ; Gautam 2010 ; ICIMOD 2012 ; WHO 2016 ; World Bank 2014 ). All these studies call for the control of air pollution to reduce its adverse impacts. For this to happen, a proper understanding of the impacts of SLCPs mitigation measures is paramount for evidence-based policy decision-making. In this context, it is very important for Nepal to undertake an assessment of the potential measures that could be taken to mitigate the impacts of SLCPs.

The objective of this study is to provide a guideline or benchmark for the formulation of a national action plan to be undertaken by each of the respective stakeholders and practitioners. Application of the scenario-based approach using the Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning System–Integrated Benefits Calculator (LEAP-IBC) analytical tool for evaluation of the mitigation of SLCPs in this study also provides an example for devising mitigation strategies in other countries in the HKH region.

The paper is organized as follows: the “ Methodology and modeling framework ” section briefly discusses the methodological framework dealing with mitigation scenario, impact assessment method, and data sources. The “ Results and discussion ” section presents scenario results and discussion, followed by our conclusion in the “ Conclusions and policy implications ” section. The detailed methodological framework is provided in the Supplementary Materials for this paper.

Methodology and modeling framework

This study has been carried out in close compliance with the national SLCP planning process as given by CCAC in the SLCP National Planning Guidance Document (CCAC 2016a ). The initial phase comprised a rigorous literature review and consultations with various governmental as well as non-governmental stakeholders and experts on air pollution. This phase contributed to assessing the current situation regarding emissions and inventory development. It also provided insights on current activities, policies, plans, and institutional frameworks related to SLCP mitigation. Second, emission estimates were derived for the Reference (REF) scenario, beginning in 2010 and extending to 2050 using a bottom-up approach. Third, an analysis of mitigation options suitable in the context of Nepal was carried out from various documents, with priority given to those identified by a UNEP/WMO assessment report and reports on sectoral mitigation options for SLCPs in the HKH region (MOPE 2014 ; Sharma 2014 ; UNEP/WMO 2011 ; USAID 2010 ; USEPA 2012 ). A baseline inventory of emissions was developed. Then, the scenarios were analyzed using the LEAP-IBC modeling framework, with economic and demographic parameters taken as drivers of anthropogenic activities and emissions. Finally, the results were ratified by governmental and non-governmental stakeholders and experts in a validation workshop.

Emission mitigation scenarios

Based on the economic and demographic situations as primary driving factors, SLCP emission projections and their impacts were examined under Reference (REF) and Policy (POL) scenarios. The year 2015 was taken as the base year for results analysis. Agricultural, commercial, and industrial activities were assumed to be dependent on respective gross value added (GVA) in each emitting sector, while the residential sector and waste outputs were assumed to be dependent on population. The transport sector, on the other hand, is dependent on both economic and demographic parameters for freight and passenger transportation, respectively. The economic and demographic data were retrieved from CBS ( 2012 , 2014 ), NPC ( 2017 ), and World Bank ( 2013 ). The assumption of the REF scenario is that the future trend will follow the same path as the current one with no change in current policies. The POL scenario encompasses possible interventions with mitigation measures that are already available and are in practice. The mitigation measures and targets came from the Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) initiative, SDGs of the United Nations, the Water and Energy Vision 2050 (WECS 2013 ), and low carbon economic development strategies (MOPE 2014 ). The major mitigation options identified are clean cooking technology, modern energy access, efficiency improvement in industrial processes, efficiency improvement in lighting, efficient mass transportation, renewable energy electricity generation, control on open biomass burning, intermittent aeration of rice field, animal waste management, waste management, and recovery of methane. The major emission factors for various activities were retrieved from Bond et al. ( 2004 , 2013 ), EMEP/EEA ( 2013 ), IPCC ( 1996 , 2006 ), Shrestha et al. ( 2013a ), and Venkataraman et al. ( 2010 ). Details are tabulated in the Supplementary Materials .

Impact assessment method

Air pollution impacts human health, agriculture, and the environment at local, regional, and global scales. As such, it is necessary to quantify the effect of all emissions from all sources on the ambient pollutant concentrations, and associated impacts on human health, crop loss, and climate. In this work, “adjoint” coefficients, that quantify the sensitivity of a variable (e.g., an air pollution concentration impact metric) to emissions in 2 × 2.5° grids globally (see Henze et al. ( 2007 )), from the GEOS-Chem atmospheric chemistry transport model (Bey et al. 2001 ) were combined with emissions to estimate the following: (1) population-weighted annual average fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) and the maximum 6-month average daily maximum 1 h ozone (O 3 ) concentrations, relevant for the impacts of these pollutants on human health; (2) 3-month average O 3 concentrations across representative growing seasons for four staple crops (rice, wheat, maize, and soy); and (3) radiative forcing in four latitudinal bands (covering the Arctic, northern mid-latitudes, tropics, and southern hemisphere extra-tropics) due to emissions of each pollutant. Concentration–response relationships were then applied to estimate the air pollution-attributable premature deaths and air pollution-associated crop loss and to convert changes in radiative forcing to changes in temperature in each year following emission.

The combination of emissions and adjoint coefficients from the GEOS-Chem model were also used to assess the transboundary effects due to the transport of pollutant emissions from other countries. Outside Nepal, default emissions were used from the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) ECLIPSE dataset ( http://www.iiasa.ac.at/web/home/research/researchPrograms/air/ECLIPSEv5a.html , Stohl et al. ( 2015 )) for all pollutants. In this study for Nepal, a grid of 2 × 2.5° resolution was used to analyze the emissions and their impact at a national scale. An overview of the models and methodology used for impact assessment in this paper is given in the supplementary materials and on the webpage of LEAP-IBC (Heaps 2017 ).

Economic evaluation

Economic evaluation of the impacts estimated for reference and policy scenarios in this study includes direct costs and benefits such as investment, cost of operation and maintenance, cost of resources, cost savings on fuel, carbon trade costs, and the economic value of lives and crop loss. It does not include indirect costs such as the cost of health services, income from tourism, employment generation, and ancillary productions. The costs are represented at 2005 constant price with social discount rate of 6%. The economic value of life was based on the value of a statistical life (VSL). Limitations of data mean that this has been derived by adjusting the ratio of Nepal’s GDP per capita to the EU average GDP per capita. It has been projected that Nepal’s best VSL estimate is about 83,000 USD with an uncertainty range of 41,000–124,000 USD (OECD 2012 ; World Bank 2015 ). The economic value of crops was estimated from a Food and Agriculture Organization estimate of producer price of each crop (FAOSTAT 2016 ).

Data sources for emission inventory

The steps followed in this study include the inventory development for emissions of particulates as well as gaseous emissions. A bottom-up approach was applied to develop the inventory at each activity level. In the REF scenario, the economic sectors were driven by GVA, which were retrieved from economic reports (MoF 2016 ; NPC 2014 ; NPC 2017 ). Another major driver of emissive activities is demography, which includes not only national population growth but also urbanization. These data were taken from CBS ( 2012 , 2014 ). The current status of SLCP emissions in Nepal was derived within the LEAP-IBC modeling framework. The base year in the LEAP-IBC model is 2010. But, as we have passed the year 2016, the year 2015 has been taken as the base year to develop the emission inventory of SLCPs in Nepal. The major sources of energy and non-energy activities and technologies were retrieved from DOF ( 2016 ), FAOSTAT ( 2016 ), IRENA ( 2012 ), Manandhar and Dangol ( 2013 ), MOAD ( 2014 ), NEEP/GIZ ( 2012 ), Pradhan ( 2004 ), Shrestha et al. ( 2012 ), USEPA ( 2012 ), WECS ( 2010 , 2014 ), and World Bank ( 2012 ). The sectors included in the study in addition to activity level data and emission parameters are given in the Supplementary Materials . The 2015 SLCP inventory is given in the “ Emissions ” section.

Uncertainty analysis

Uncertainties can arise from various factors such as inaccuracy in emission monitoring, lack of knowledge involving the emission factor, and activity data estimates. The uncertainty analyses for GHG emissions have also been recommended from the guidance by IPCC, and the method most commonly used in practice for uncertainty analysis is Monte Carlo simulation (IPCC 2000 ). In this study, the uncertainties are calculated at 95% confidence interval for energy and non-energy sectors using Monte Carlo simulation with 10,000 iterations. Sensitivity analysis has also been performed to examine the extent of variations in the results for BC, CH 4 , PM 2.5 , and GHG emissions due to input parameters.

Results and discussion

The results and figures presented in this chapter have been derived from LEAP (Heaps 2016 ).

The emission inventory for 2015 was developed as the first step in results analysis. Table 1 shows the emission of different SLCPs and air pollutants from different sectors in 2015 from fuel and non-fuel combustion, as well as the selected chemical process.

The results of both the REF and the POL scenarios, obtained from the LEAP-IBC modeling framework, are shown in Table 2 . The table indicates that, with the policy intervention of different strategic measures (see Supplementary Materials ), emissions of BC and PM 2.5 can be greatly reduced in 2050 from their values in 2010. Similarly, emissions of CH 4 and GHGs in 2050 can be reduced to near their values in 2010.

From the perspective of sources, residential and commercial sectors are the prime sources of air pollutants. Thus, any strategy must place a strong emphasis on this sector. Meanwhile, in other sectors such as transport and industries, stringent pollution control regulations can help reduce pollution. The remaining sources either require low-emissive technological transformation or awareness to reduce emissive activities, such as reducing the open burning of wastes and biomass and waste reuse and recycle.

Impact analysis of scenarios for mitigation of SLCPs

The “ Emissions ” section described the overall emissions of various pollutants and climate forcers. However, the real measure that concerns everybody is their environmental impacts. This analysis does not include analysis of uncertainties on impact due to variations in BC, CH 4 , PM 2.5 , and GHG emissions. However, the uncertainty analysis for emission level for each pollutant is covered in the “ Uncertainties in emissions and sensitivity analysis ” section.

PM 2.5 concentration

The national population-weighted annual average PM 2.5 concentration was 47 μg/m 3 in 2015, substantially above the WHO standard of 10 μg/m 3 (WHO 2006 ). This value includes not only contributions from national emissions but also the influence of natural sources and transboundary emissions. The latter is estimated to make the larger contribution to national population-weighted PM 2.5 concentrations, contributing almost 50% (Fig.  1 ). The reduction in PM 2.5 concentrations has significant benefits, and these are discussed in the “ Premature deaths avoided ,” “ Loss of crop yield mitigated ,” “ Impact on global temperature ,” and “ Economic evaluation of policy intervention ” sections.

PM 2.5 concentrations in Nepal in various years in reference and policy scenarios. REF, reference; POL, policy

Premature deaths avoided

The most visible and significant impact of air pollution is on human health. Figure 2 indicates that reducing PM 2.5 and O 3 can help reduce large-scale health risks. Emissions from all sources in 2010 and 2015 resulted in an estimated annual air pollution health burden of 23,000 and 30,000 premature deaths, respectively; this accounts for around 1 per 1000 people. Given these figures, the REF scenario suggests that, if no mitigation strategies are implemented, the estimated air pollution-associated health burden increases to 50,000 premature deaths in 2030 and 109,000 premature deaths in 2050, with nearly 88% premature deaths due to PM 2.5 . In addition to increasing PM 2.5 and O 3 concentrations, these figures also reflect increases in, and aging of, Nepal’s population.

Premature deaths in Nepal in reference and policy scenarios. REF, reference; POL, policy

With mitigation measures taken, the estimated total premature deaths from anthropogenic sources in Nepal in the POL scenario are reduced by 11,000 and 29,000 in 2030 and 2050, respectively. However, nearly 57% of premature deaths in the REF scenario are estimated to result from emissions outside Nepal. In the POL scenario, 77% of estimated premature deaths in 2050 are the result of transboundary air pollution because of a reduction in premature deaths due to national emissions. Thus, it is essential to take regional-level mitigation action to reduce transboundary emissions.

Loss of crop yield mitigated

The impact of ozone on four major crops (rice, wheat, maize, and soy) was assessed and was again mainly due to transboundary emissions. Thus, it is crucial that this issue of transboundary emission is addressed in the context of food security. The results indicate that crop losses can be greatly reduced in the POL scenario compared with the REF scenario (Fig.  3 ).

Crop yield loss in Nepal in reference and policy scenarios

Impact on global temperature

One of the greatest concerns is the global warming due to pollutant release. The temperature increment is found to grow in future years, with SLCPs being the dominant factor. Thus, mitigation strategies for control of SLCPs are as important as those for GHGs to reduce Nepal’s contribution to global temperature increases. Figure 4 shows the temperature increment with reference to the temperature level in 2010. It can be seen that the temperature increment in the POL scenario before 2055 is higher than in the REF scenario. This is due to the dominant effect of cooling caused by aerosols. However, beyond this date, the reductions in CH 4 , CO 2 , and O 3 precursors will ultimately reduce Nepal’s contribution to global temperature increases in the POL scenario. As major SLCPs decrease and GHG emissions are controlled, the temperature increment will be much slower than in the REF scenario, remaining below 2 mK in 2100.

Global average equilibrium temperature changes due to emissions in Nepal

Economic evaluation of policy intervention

The cost of mitigation options is high in the energy sector, primarily because of the hydropower development. However, economic benefits due to a reduction in fuel imports, premature mortality, and crop losses are even larger. The costs of mitigation in the non-energy sector are higher than returns. But, owing to its huge contribution to emissions, and its impact, mitigation steps must be undertaken. At net present value, the overall investment and operating cost of implementing mitigation measures throughout the policy scenario sum to 21 billion USD, while the net benefit of 57 billion USD can be achieved. If the energy and non-energy mitigation strategies are implemented together, the benefits from the energy sector pay-off for the cost in the non-energy sector—and the overall benefit—are still positive. The net return is positive, with a benefit-to-cost ratio of 2.7. Thus, overall, the results indicate that the POL scenario is not only technically viable but also economically feasible.

The above economic analysis gives an important insight: mitigation options and activities not only are dependent on each other but also make the implementation process economically more viable if applied altogether. Thus, there must be inter-sectoral cooperation for implementation of the targets set to reduce SLCPs as well as GHG emissions. The economic analysis does not address the uncertainty ranges of SLCPs and the subsequent effects on other climate change benefits.

Uncertainties in emissions and sensitivity analysis

The variance propagation at 95% confidence interval of BC, CH 4 , PM 2.5 , and GHG emissions showed that the variance range reduces over time. The variance range in the POL scenarios narrows compared with the REF scenario fall for all four pollutants. In the POL scenario, the uncertainty range of BC reduces from 26–45 kt in 2015 to 5–9 kt in 2050. Similarly, that for CH 4 narrows down from 0.8–1.3 Mt in 2015 to 0.7–1.1 Mt in 2050 and that for PM 2.5 reduces from 200–280 kt in 2015 to 44–64 kt in 2050. The GHG uncertainty narrows down by little, from 29–43 Mt in 2015 to 38–49 Mt in 2050. These reductions in uncertainty range are due to switching to cleaner fuels with lower emission potential in the POL scenario. The sensitivity analysis for BC shows that the residential fuelwood emission factor and consumption make the major contribution to the variance in BC emission. The sensitivity analysis for CH 4 shows that the emission is most sensitive to emission factors of livestock farming, residential fuelwood, waste, and rice cultivation. Similarly, the sensitivity analysis shows that the variance in the emission of PM 2.5 is highly sensitive to the residential sector. Forest fires and emission factors of industrial coal and diesel consumption in transport are also major contributors to emission variance. Sensitivity analysis shows that in the REF scenario, the emission factor of livestock farming—including fermentation and manure management—makes the greatest contribution to variance in GHG emissions, followed by emission factors for CH 4 and N 2 O of residential fuelwood.

Conclusions and policy implications

This study shows that the emissions and impacts of SLCPs in Nepal are significant with the major sources of BC and PM 2.5 being biomass burning in the residential sector and fuel combustion in transport. The major source of CH 4 emissions is agricultural activities followed by the residential sector and waste management. As anthropogenic activities increase, emission levels rise, contributing to adverse climate and air pollution impacts. If mitigation measures are taken in the POL scenario, 78% of BC, 78% of CH 4 , and 87% of PM 2.5 emissions can be avoided in 2050 compared with the REF scenario. The national, population-weighted PM 2.5 concentration of 47 μg/m 3 in 2015 can be limited to 52 μg/m 3 in 2050 compared with 80 μg/m 3 in the REF scenario. Similarly, 29,000 premature deaths and 1.7 million tonnes of crop loss can be avoided annually by 2050 in the POL scenario compared with the REF scenario. The benefit-cost analysis indicates that there is a net economic saving of 36 billion USD (2005 constant price) if the strategic measures are undertaken in a timely manner. The impact on global climate due to emissions in Nepal could also be reduced by limiting temperature increment within 2 mK in 2100 in the POL scenario from near to 4 mK in the REF scenario. An estimated reduction of 58% can be achieved in 2100 if all the mitigation strategies are implemented.

Air pollution is not limited to a local area but has regional as well as global impacts. This paper suggests that emissions from the HKH region and beyond have a major influence on pollution levels and their impacts in Nepal, owing to the transboundary transport of pollutants. More than 50% of the PM 2.5 concentration in Nepal was estimated to result from emissions outside the country. The situation in the rest of the HKH region is no different, as suggested by other studies as well (Kurokawa et al. 2013 ). This raises the need for regional cooperation among countries in the HKH region to act jointly in effective mitigation of SLCPs and reducing their impacts in the region. It is also essential that voices are raised in international organizations like UNEP and CCAC, requesting the necessary assistance in mitigating SLCPs, as the transboundary effects are at a much larger scale than the national-level effects.

These scenarios and results suggest that mitigation practices should be implemented as soon as possible, not only in Nepal but in other countries of the HKH region as well. The mitigation technologies are readily available, and supporting policies need to be devised and implemented. The inclusion and prioritization for mitigation of SLCPs in national policy are of utmost importance as their climate impacts are higher and short term in nature. Overall, coordinating this with similar and relevant strategies in the regional context can benefit the whole HKH region as well.

Several policy pathways could be followed for effective implementation of SLCP mitigation measures in Nepal that are so crucial for achieving several SDGs: from their role in reducing poverty to combating climate change, and engaging in adaption and mitigation. Developing an integrated approach to both air pollution abatement and climate change during the policy process is perhaps the most desirable pathway to maximize synergy, thereby making the public policy process more effective and efficient. Another pathway would be to build SLCP abatement policies on existing national development policies and initiatives. Integration of the economic costs of pollution into product pricing would incentivize consumers to make more informed choices, while at the same time creating pressure on producers to reduce their pollution footprint and adopt better practices. However, this calls for creating and supporting enabling conditions to confront a broad range of existing barriers to the design and implementation of national SLCP mitigation strategies. These include the need for a strong science–policy interface to raise awareness; data on pollution and its impacts; a dedicated regulatory institution with resources and capacity for effective implementation, monitoring, and enforcement; and changing the entrenched social norm and behavior of citizens.

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Acknowledgments

The authors are immensely grateful to the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) for making available and conducting training on the LEAP-IBC software module. We are thankful to Mr. Krishna Gyawali for sharing his knowledge on policy gap analysis of Nepal, and to Maheswor Rupakheti, IASS Potsdam, for insightful recommendations regarding SLCPs. We would also like to show our gratitude to Eklabya Sharma, Mats Eriksson, Bhupesh Adhikari, Prakash Bhave, and Karuna Bajracharya for their valuable opinions and suggestions during the study. We would also like to acknowledge Elaine Monaghan for her conscientious editing of the manuscript. This research was conducted under the Atmosphere Initiative at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD).

The research was partially supported by core funds from ICIMOD contributed by the governments of Afghanistan, Austria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Switzerland, and the UK.

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Amrit M. Nakarmi, Utsav S. Rajbhandari & Anita Prajapati

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International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Lalitpur, Nepal

Bikash Sharma & Arnico Panday

Stockholm Environment Institute, Environment Department, University of York, York, UK

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Nakarmi, A.M., Sharma, B., Rajbhandari, U.S. et al. Mitigating the impacts of air pollutants in Nepal and climate co-benefits: a scenario-based approach. Air Qual Atmos Health 13 , 361–370 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00799-6

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Received : 08 May 2018

Accepted : 17 January 2020

Published : 27 January 2020

Issue Date : March 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00799-6

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