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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. and Distinguished Service University Professor. He served as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School, from 2010 to 2020.

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What is the Case Study Method?

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Overview dropdown down, celebrating 100 years of the case method at hbs.

The 2021-2022 academic year marks the 100-year anniversary of the introduction of the case method at Harvard Business School. Today, the HBS case method is employed in the HBS MBA program, in Executive Education programs, and in dozens of other business schools around the world. As Dean Srikant Datar's says, the case method has withstood the test of time.

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How Cases Unfold In the Classroom

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Most programs begin with registration, followed by an opening session and a dinner. If your travel plans necessitate late arrival, please be sure to notify us so that alternate registration arrangements can be made for you. Please note the following about registration:

HBS campus programs – Registration takes place in the Chao Center.

India programs – Registration takes place outside the classroom.

Other off-campus programs – Registration takes place in the designated facility.

What happens in class if nobody talks? Dropdown down

Professors are here to push everyone to learn, but not to embarrass anyone. If the class is quiet, they'll often ask a participant with experience in the industry in which the case is set to speak first. This is done well in advance so that person can come to class prepared to share. Trust the process. The more open you are, the more willing you’ll be to engage, and the more alive the classroom will become.

Does everyone take part in "role-playing"? Dropdown down

Professors often encourage participants to take opposing sides and then debate the issues, often taking the perspective of the case protagonists or key decision makers in the case.

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Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies

The open-ended problems presented in case studies give students work that feels connected to their lives.

To prepare students for jobs that haven’t been created yet, we need to teach them how to be great problem solvers so that they’ll be ready for anything. One way to do this is by teaching content and skills using real-world case studies, a learning model that’s focused on reflection during the problem-solving process. It’s similar to project-based learning, but PBL is more focused on students creating a product.

Case studies have been used for years by businesses, law and medical schools, physicians on rounds, and artists critiquing work. Like other forms of problem-based learning, case studies can be accessible for every age group, both in one subject and in interdisciplinary work.

You can get started with case studies by tackling relatable questions like these with your students:

• How can we limit food waste in the cafeteria?
• How can we get our school to recycle and compost waste? (Or, if you want to be more complex, how can our school reduce its carbon footprint?)
• How can we improve school attendance?
• How can we reduce the number of people who get sick at school during cold and flu season?

Addressing questions like these leads students to identify topics they need to learn more about. In researching the first question, for example, students may see that they need to research food chains and nutrition. Students often ask, reasonably, why they need to learn something, or when they’ll use their knowledge in the future. Learning is most successful for students when the content and skills they’re studying are relevant, and case studies offer one way to create that sense of relevance.

Teaching With Case Studies

Ultimately, a case study is simply an interesting problem with many correct answers. What does case study work look like in classrooms? Teachers generally start by having students read the case or watch a video that summarizes the case. Students then work in small groups or individually to solve the case study. Teachers set milestones defining what students should accomplish to help them manage their time.

During the case study learning process, student assessment of learning should be focused on reflection. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick’s Learning and Leading With Habits of Mind gives several examples of what this reflection can look like in a classroom: 

Journaling: At the end of each work period, have students write an entry summarizing what they worked on, what worked well, what didn’t, and why. Sentence starters and clear rubrics or guidelines will help students be successful. At the end of a case study project, as Costa and Kallick write, it’s helpful to have students “select significant learnings, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commit to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.”

Interviews: While working on a case study, students can interview each other about their progress and learning. Teachers can interview students individually or in small groups to assess their learning process and their progress.

Student discussion: Discussions can be unstructured—students can talk about what they worked on that day in a think-pair-share or as a full class—or structured, using Socratic seminars or fishbowl discussions. If your class is tackling a case study in small groups, create a second set of small groups with a representative from each of the case study groups so that the groups can share their learning.

4 Tips for Setting Up a Case Study

1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students’ lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers.

2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary. Hook the learners to help them understand just enough about the problem to want to learn more.

3. Have a clear rubric: Giving structure to your definition of quality group work and products will lead to stronger end products. You may be able to have your learners help build these definitions.

4. Provide structures for presenting solutions: The amount of scaffolding you build in depends on your students’ skill level and development. A case study product can be something like several pieces of evidence of students collaborating to solve the case study, and ultimately presenting their solution with a detailed slide deck or an essay—you can scaffold this by providing specified headings for the sections of the essay.

Problem-Based Teaching Resources

There are many high-quality, peer-reviewed resources that are open source and easily accessible online.

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University at Buffalo built an online collection of more than 800 cases that cover topics ranging from biochemistry to economics. There are resources for middle and high school students.
• Models of Excellence , a project maintained by EL Education and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has examples of great problem- and project-based tasks—and corresponding exemplary student work—for grades pre-K to 12.
• The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning at Purdue University is an open-source journal that publishes examples of problem-based learning in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms.
• The Tech Edvocate has a list of websites and tools related to problem-based learning.

In their book Problems as Possibilities , Linda Torp and Sara Sage write that at the elementary school level, students particularly appreciate how they feel that they are taken seriously when solving case studies. At the middle school level, “researchers stress the importance of relating middle school curriculum to issues of student concern and interest.” And high schoolers, they write, find the case study method “beneficial in preparing them for their future.”

Using Case Studies to Teach

Why Use Cases?

Many students are more inductive than deductive reasoners, which means that they learn better from examples than from logical development starting with basic principles. The use of case studies can therefore be a very effective classroom technique.

Case studies are have long been used in business schools, law schools, medical schools and the social sciences, but they can be used in any discipline when instructors want students to explore how what they have learned applies to real world situations. Cases come in many formats, from a simple “What would you do in this situation?” question to a detailed description of a situation with accompanying data to analyze. Whether to use a simple scenario-type case or a complex detailed one depends on your course objectives.

Most case assignments require students to answer an open-ended question or develop a solution to an open-ended problem with multiple potential solutions. Requirements can range from a one-paragraph answer to a fully developed group action plan, proposal or decision.

Common Case Elements

Most “full-blown” cases have these common elements:

• A decision-maker who is grappling with some question or problem that needs to be solved.
• A description of the problem’s context (a law, an industry, a family).
• Supporting data, which can range from data tables to links to URLs, quoted statements or testimony, supporting documents, images, video, or audio.

Case assignments can be done individually or in teams so that the students can brainstorm solutions and share the work load.

The following discussion of this topic incorporates material presented by Robb Dixon of the School of Management and Rob Schadt of the School of Public Health at CEIT workshops. Professor Dixon also provided some written comments that the discussion incorporates.

Advantages to the use of case studies in class

A major advantage of teaching with case studies is that the students are actively engaged in figuring out the principles by abstracting from the examples. This develops their skills in:

• Problem solving
• Analytical tools, quantitative and/or qualitative, depending on the case
• Decision making in complex situations
• Coping with ambiguities

Guidelines for using case studies in class

In the most straightforward application, the presentation of the case study establishes a framework for analysis. It is helpful if the statement of the case provides enough information for the students to figure out solutions and then to identify how to apply those solutions in other similar situations. Instructors may choose to use several cases so that students can identify both the similarities and differences among the cases.

Depending on the course objectives, the instructor may encourage students to follow a systematic approach to their analysis.  For example:

• What is the issue?
• What is the goal of the analysis?
• What is the context of the problem?
• What key facts should be considered?
• What alternatives are available to the decision-maker?
• What would you recommend — and why?

An innovative approach to case analysis might be to have students  role-play the part of the people involved in the case. This not only actively engages students, but forces them to really understand the perspectives of the case characters. Videos or even field trips showing the venue in which the case is situated can help students to visualize the situation that they need to analyze.

Accompanying Readings

Case studies can be especially effective if they are paired with a reading assignment that introduces or explains a concept or analytical method that applies to the case. The amount of emphasis placed on the use of the reading during the case discussion depends on the complexity of the concept or method. If it is straightforward, the focus of the discussion can be placed on the use of the analytical results. If the method is more complex, the instructor may need to walk students through its application and the interpretation of the results.

Leading the Case Discussion and Evaluating Performance

Decision cases are more interesting than descriptive ones. In order to start the discussion in class, the instructor can start with an easy, noncontroversial question that all the students should be able to answer readily. However, some of the best case discussions start by forcing the students to take a stand. Some instructors will ask a student to do a formal “open” of the case, outlining his or her entire analysis.  Others may choose to guide discussion with questions that move students from problem identification to solutions.  A skilled instructor steers questions and discussion to keep the class on track and moving at a reasonable pace.

In order to motivate the students to complete the assignment before class as well as to stimulate attentiveness during the class, the instructor should grade the participation—quantity and especially quality—during the discussion of the case. This might be a simple check, check-plus, check-minus or zero. The instructor should involve as many students as possible. In order to engage all the students, the instructor can divide them into groups, give each group several minutes to discuss how to answer a question related to the case, and then ask a randomly selected person in each group to present the group’s answer and reasoning. Random selection can be accomplished through rolling of dice, shuffled index cards, each with one student’s name, a spinning wheel, etc.

Tips on the Penn State U. website: http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/cases/

If you are interested in using this technique in a science course, there is a good website on use of case studies in the sciences at the University of Buffalo.

Dunne, D. and Brooks, K. (2004) Teaching with Cases (Halifax, NS: Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education), ISBN 0-7703-8924-4 (Can be ordered at http://www.bookstore.uwo.ca/ at a cost of $15.00)

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Case Study in Education Research

Introduction, general overview and foundational texts of the late 20th century.

• Conceptualisations and Definitions of Case Study
• Case Study and Theoretical Grounding
• Choosing Cases
• Methodology, Method, Genre, or Approach
• Case Study: Quality and Generalizability
• Multiple Case Studies
• Exemplary Case Studies and Example Case Studies
• Criticism, Defense, and Debate around Case Study

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Case Study in Education Research by Lorna Hamilton LAST REVIEWED: 27 June 2018 LAST MODIFIED: 27 June 2018 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0201

It is important to distinguish between case study as a teaching methodology and case study as an approach, genre, or method in educational research. The use of case study as teaching method highlights the ways in which the essential qualities of the case—richness of real-world data and lived experiences—can help learners gain insights into a different world and can bring learning to life. The use of case study in this way has been around for about a hundred years or more. Case study use in educational research, meanwhile, emerged particularly strongly in the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom and the United States as a means of harnessing the richness and depth of understanding of individuals, groups, and institutions; their beliefs and perceptions; their interactions; and their challenges and issues. Writers, such as Lawrence Stenhouse, advocated the use of case study as a form that teacher-researchers could use as they focused on the richness and intensity of their own practices. In addition, academic writers and postgraduate students embraced case study as a means of providing structure and depth to educational projects. However, as educational research has developed, so has debate on the quality and usefulness of case study as well as the problems surrounding the lack of generalizability when dealing with single or even multiple cases. The question of how to define and support case study work has formed the basis for innumerable books and discursive articles, starting with Robert Yin’s original book on case study ( Yin 1984 , cited under General Overview and Foundational Texts of the Late 20th Century ) to the myriad authors who attempt to bring something new to the realm of case study in educational research in the 21st century.

This section briefly considers the ways in which case study research has developed over the last forty to fifty years in educational research usage and reflects on whether the field has finally come of age, respected by creators and consumers of research. Case study has its roots in anthropological studies in which a strong ethnographic approach to the study of peoples and culture encouraged researchers to identify and investigate key individuals and groups by trying to understand the lived world of such people from their points of view. Although ethnography has emphasized the role of researcher as immersive and engaged with the lived world of participants via participant observation, evolving approaches to case study in education has been about the richness and depth of understanding that can be gained through involvement in the case by drawing on diverse perspectives and diverse forms of data collection. Embracing case study as a means of entering these lived worlds in educational research projects, was encouraged in the 1970s and 1980s by researchers, such as Lawrence Stenhouse, who provided a helpful impetus for case study work in education ( Stenhouse 1980 ). Stenhouse wrestled with the use of case study as ethnography because ethnographers traditionally had been unfamiliar with the peoples they were investigating, whereas educational researchers often worked in situations that were inherently familiar. Stenhouse also emphasized the need for evidence of rigorous processes and decisions in order to encourage robust practice and accountability to the wider field by allowing others to judge the quality of work through transparency of processes. Yin 1984 , the first book focused wholly on case study in research, gave a brief and basic outline of case study and associated practices. Various authors followed this approach, striving to engage more deeply in the significance of case study in the social sciences. Key among these are Merriam 1988 and Stake 1995 , along with Yin 1984 , who established powerful groundings for case study work. Additionally, evidence of the increasing popularity of case study can be found in a broad range of generic research methods texts, but these often do not have much scope for the extensive discussion of case study found in case study–specific books. Yin’s books and numerous editions provide a developing or evolving notion of case study with more detailed accounts of the possible purposes of case study, followed by Merriam 1988 and Stake 1995 who wrestled with alternative ways of looking at purposes and the positioning of case study within potential disciplinary modes. The authors referenced in this section are often characterized as the foundational authors on this subject and may have published various editions of their work, cited elsewhere in this article, based on their shifting ideas or emphases.

Merriam, S. B. 1988. Case study research in education: A qualitative approach . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This is Merriam’s initial text on case study and is eminently accessible. The author establishes and reinforces various key features of case study; demonstrates support for positioning the case within a subject domain, e.g., psychology, sociology, etc.; and further shapes the case according to its purpose or intent.

Stake, R. E. 1995. The art of case study research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Stake is a very readable author, accessible and yet engaging with complex topics. The author establishes his key forms of case study: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Stake brings the reader through the process of conceptualizing the case, carrying it out, and analyzing the data. The author uses authentic examples to help readers understand and appreciate the nuances of an interpretive approach to case study.

Stenhouse, L. 1980. The study of samples and the study of cases. British Educational Research Journal 6:1–6.

DOI: 10.1080/0141192800060101

A key article in which Stenhouse sets out his stand on case study work. Those interested in the evolution of case study use in educational research should consider this article and the insights given.

Yin, R. K. 1984. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . Beverley Hills, CA: SAGE.

This preliminary text from Yin was very basic. However, it may be of interest in comparison with later books because Yin shows the ways in which case study as an approach or method in research has evolved in relation to detailed discussions of purpose, as well as the practicalities of working through the research process.

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Prepare your students to navigate business challenges by immersing them in real-world scenarios.

Transform business education

Bring excitement into your classroom with engaging case discussions and introduce students to the challenge and fun of making important decisions.

Illustrate business concepts

Help students learn by doing with over 50,000+ cases featuring real-world business scenarios spanning across multiple areas of business.

Encourage new ways of thinking

Student build confidence and critical thinking skills while learning to express their ideas and convince others, setting them up for success in the real world.

Explore Different Types of Cases

Find cases that meet your particular needs.

New! Quick Cases

Quickly immerse students in focused and engaging business dilemmas. No student prep time required.

Traditional cases from HBS and 50+ leading business schools.

Multimedia Cases

Cases that keep students engaged with video, audio, and interactive components.

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Select a discipline and start browsing available cases.

• Business & Government Relations
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Case Teaching Seminar

Register now for our Teaching with Cases Seminar at Harvard Business School, held June 21 - 22 . Learn how to lead case discussions like a pro and earn a certificate from Harvard Business Publishing.

Fundamentals of Case Teaching

Our new, self-paced, online course guides you through the fundamentals for leading successful case discussions at any course level.

Case Companion: Build Students’ Confidence in Case Analysis

Case Companion is an engaging and interactive introduction to case study analysis that is ideal for undergraduates or any student new to learning with cases.

Discover Trending Cases

Stay up to date on cases from leading business schools.

Discover new ideas for your courses

Course Explorer lets you browse learning materials by topic, curated by our editors, partners, and faculty from leading business schools. 

Teach with Cases

Explore resources designed to help you bring the case method into your classroom.

Inspiring Minds Articles on Case Teaching

Insights from leading educators about teaching with the case method.

Book: Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide

A book featuring practical advice for instructors on managing class discussion to maximize learning.

Webinar: How ChatGPT and Other AI Tools Can Maximize the Learning Potential of Your Case-Based Classes

Register now.

Supplements: Inside the Case

Teaching tips and insights from case authors.

Guide: Teaching Cases Online

A guide for experienced educators who are new to online case teaching.

Educator Training: Selecting Cases to Use in Your Classes

Find the right materials to achieve your learning goals.

Educator Training: Teaching with Cases

Key strategies and practical advice for engaging students using the case method.

Frequently Asked Questions

What support can I offer my students around analyzing cases and preparing for discussion?

Case discussions can be a big departure from the norm for students who are used to lecture-based classes. The Case Analysis Coach is an interactive tutorial on reading and analyzing a case study. The Case Study Handbook covers key skills students need to read, understand, discuss and write about cases. The Case Study Handbook is also available as individual chapters to help your students focus on specific skills.

How can I transfer my in-person case teaching plan to an online environment?

The case method can be used in an online environment without sacrificing its benefits. We have compiled a few resources to help you create transformative online learning experiences with the case method. Learn how HBS brought the case method online in this podcast , gather some quick guidance from the article " How to Teach Any Case Online ", review the Teaching Cases Online Guide for a deep dive, and check out our Teaching Online Resources Page for more insights and inspiration.

After 35 years as an academic, I have come to the conclusion that there is a magic in the way Harvard cases are written. Cases go from specific to general, to show students that business situations are amenable to hard headed analysis that then generalize to larger theoretical insights. The students love it! Akshay Rao Professor, General Mills Chair in Marketing at the University of Minnesota

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• Case Teaching Resources

Teaching With Cases

Included here are resources to learn more about case method and teaching with cases.

What Is A Teaching Case?

This video explores the definition of a teaching case and introduces the rationale for using case method.

Narrated by Carolyn Wood, former director of the HKS Case Program

Learning by the Case Method

Questions for class discussion, common case teaching challenges and possible solutions, teaching with cases tip sheet, teaching ethics by the case method.

The case method is an effective way to increase student engagement and challenge students to integrate and apply skills to real-world problems. In these videos,  Using the Case Method to Teach Public Policy , you'll find invaluable insights into the art of case teaching from one of HKS’s most respected professors, Jose A. Gomez-Ibanez.

Chapter 1: Preparing for Class (2:29)

Chapter 2: How to begin the class and structure the discussion blocks (1:37)

Chapter 3: How to launch the discussion (1:36)

Chapter 4: Tools to manage the class discussion (2:23)

Chapter 5: Encouraging participation and acknowledging students' comments (1:52)

Chapter 6: Transitioning from one block to the next / Importance of body (2:05)

Chapter 7: Using the board plan to feed the discussion (3:33)

Chapter 8: Exploring the richness of the case (1:42)

Chapter 9: The wrap-up. Why teach cases? (2:49)

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Teaching Resources Library

Case studies.

The teaching business case studies available here are narratives that facilitate class discussion about a particular business or management issue. Teaching cases are meant to spur debate among students rather than promote a particular point of view or steer students in a specific direction.  Some of the case studies in this collection highlight the decision-making process in a business or management setting. Other cases are descriptive or demonstrative in nature, showcasing something that has happened or is happening in a particular business or management environment. Whether decision-based or demonstrative, case studies give students the chance to be in the shoes of a protagonist. With the help of context and detailed data, students can analyze what they would and would not do in a particular situation, why, and how.

Case Studies By Category

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Education case studies, around-the-world case studies on unicef's education programme.

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Case studies

Adolescent education and skills.

Improving students' mental health in Bangladesh

Improving the quality of lower secondary through inquiry-based learning and skills development (Argentina)

An online career portal strengthens career guidance among secondary students in India and helps them plan for future educational and work opportunities (India)

Lessons on youth-led action towards climate advocacy and policy (India)

Learning, life skills and citizenship education and social cohesion through game-based sports – Nashatati Programme (Jordan)

Mental health promotion and suicide prevention in schools (Kazakhstan)

A multi-level, cross-sectoral response to improving adolescent mental health (Mongolia)

The Personal Project (Morocco)  

Improving adolescents’ learning in violence-affected areas through blended in-person and online learning opportunities - Communities in Harmony for Children and Adolescents (Mexico)

A community-based approach to support the psychosocial wellbeing of students and teachers (Nicaragua)

Flexible pathways help build the skills and competencies of vulnerable out-of-school adolescents (United Republic of Tanzania)

Climate change and education

Schools as platforms for climate action (Cambodia)

Paving the way for a climate resilient education system (India)

Youth act against climate and air pollution impacts (Mongolia)

Early childhood education

Early environments of care: Strengthening the foundation of children’s development, mental health and wellbeing (Bhutan)

Native language education paves the way for preschool readiness (Bolivia)

Developing cross-sector quality standards for children aged 0-7 (Bulgaria)

Expanding quality early learning through results-based financing (Cambodia)

Harnessing technology to promote communication, education and social inclusion for young children with developmental delays and disabilities (Croatia, Montenegro, and Serbia)

Scaling up quality early childhood education in India by investing in ongoing professional development for officials at the state, district and local levels (India)

Strengthening early childhood education in the national education plan and budget in Lesotho to help children succeed in primary and beyond (Lesotho)

Enhancing play-based learning through supportive supervision (Nigeria)

Learning social and emotional skills in pre-school creates brighter futures for children (North Macedonia)

How developing minimum standards increased access to pre-primary education (Rwanda)

Expanding access to quality early childhood education for the most excluded children (Serbia)

Advancing early learning through results-based financing (Sierra Leone)

Lessons learned from designing social impact bonds to expand preschool education (Uzbekistan)

Equity and inclusion

Inclusive education for children with disabilities.

Strengthening policies to mainstream disability inclusion in pre-primary education (Ethiopia)

National early screening and referrals are supporting more young children with disabilities to learn (Jamaica)

Ensuring inclusive education during the pandemic and beyond (Dominican Republic)

Championing inclusive practices for children with disabilities (Ghana)

Accessible digital textbooks for children in Kenya (Kenya)

Planning for inclusion (Nepal)

Harnessing the potential of inclusive digital education to improve learning (Paraguay)

Gender equality in education

Sparking adolescent girls' participation and interest in STEM (Ghana)

Non-formal education and the use of data and evidence help marginalized girls learn in Nepal (Nepal)

Getting girls back to the classroom after COVID-19 school closures (South Sudan)

Education in emergencies

Creating classrooms that are responsive to the mental health needs of learners, including refugees (Poland)

Return to school (Argentina)

Learning from the education sector’s COVID-19 response to prepare for future emergencies (Bangladesh)

Prioritising learning for Rohingya children (Bangladesh)

Prioritizing children and adolescents’ mental health and protection during school reopening (Brazil)

Learning where it is difficult to learn: Radio programmes help keep children learning in Cameroon

Reaching the final mile for all migrant children to access education (Colombia)

Supporting the learning and socio-emotional development of refugee children (Colombia)

Mission Recovery (Democratic Republic of the Congo)

The National Building the Foundations for Learning Program, CON BASE (Dominican Republic)

Mental health and psychosocial well-being services are integrated in the education system (Ecuador)

Improving access to quality education for refugee learners (Ethiopia)

The Learning Passport and non-formal education for vulnerable children and youth (Lebanon)

Accelerated Learning Programme improves children’s learning in humanitarian settings (Mozambique)

Responding to multiple emergencies – building teachers’ capacity to provide mental health and psychosocial support before, during, and after crises (Mozambique)

Teaching at the right level to improve learning in Borno State (Nigeria)

Remedial catch-up learning programmes support children with COVID-19 learning loss and inform the national foundational learning strategy (Rwanda)

Learning solutions for pastoralist and internally displaced children (Somalia)

Recovering learning at all levels (South Africa)

How radio education helped children learn during the COVID-19 pandemic and aftermath (South Sudan)

Addressing learning loss through EiE and remedial education for children in Gaza (State of Palestine)

Providing psychosocial support and promoting learning readiness during compounding crises for adolescents in Gaza (State of Palestine)

Inclusion of South Sudanese refugees into the national education system (Sudan)

Inclusion of Syrian refugee children into the national education system (Turkey)

Including refugee learners so that every child learns (Uganda)

Learning assessments

Assessment for learning (Afghanistan)

Formative assessment places student learning at the heart of teaching (Ethiopia)

Strengthening teacher capacity for formative assessment (Europe and Central Asia)

All students back to learning (India)

Strengthening the national assessment system through the new National Achievement Survey improves assessment of children’s learning outcomes (India)

A new phone-based learning assessment targets young children (Nepal)

Adapting a remote platform in innovative ways to assess learning (Nigeria)

Assessing children's reading in indigenous languages (Peru)

Southeast Asia primary learning metrics: Assessing the learning outcomes of grade 5 students (Southeast Asia)

Minimising learning gaps among early-grade learners (Sri Lanka)

Assessing early learning (West and Central Africa)

Primary education / Foundational Literacy and Numeracy

Supporting Teachers to Improve Foundational Learning for Syrian Refugee Students in Jordan

Empowering teachers in Guinea: Transformative solutions for foundational learning

Improving child and adolescent health and nutrition through policy advocacy (Argentina)

Online diagnostic testing and interactive tutoring (Bulgaria)

Supporting the socio-emotional learning and psychological wellbeing of children through a whole-school approach (China)

Engaging parents to overcome reading poverty (India)

Integrated school health and wellness ensure better learning for students (India)

Instruction tailored to students’ learning levels improves literacy (Indonesia)

A whole-school approach to improve learning, safety and wellbeing (Jamaica)

Multi-sectoral programme to improve the nutrition of school-aged adolescents (Malawi)

Parents on the frontlines of early grade reading and math (Nigeria)

Training, inspiring and motivating early grade teachers to strengthen children’s skills in literacy and numeracy (Sierra Leone) Life skills and citizenship education through Experiential Learning Objects Bank (State of Palestine)

Curriculum reform to meet the individual needs of students (Uzbekistan)

Improving early grade reading and numeracy through ‘Catch-Up,’ a remedial learning programme (Zambia)

Reimagine Education / Digital learning

Education 2.0: skills-based education and digital learning (Egypt)

Empowering adolescents through co-creation of innovative digital solutions (Indonesia)

Virtual instructional leadership course (Jamaica)

Learning Bridges accelerates learning for over 600,000 students (Jordan)

Unleashing the potential of youth through the Youth Learning Passport (Jordan)

Lessons learned from the launch of the Learning Passport Shkollat.org (Kosovo)

Opening up the frontiers of digital learning with the Learning Passport (Lao PDR)

Building teachers’ confidence and capacity to provide online learning (Maldives)

Mauritania’s first digital learning program: Akelius Digital French Course (Mauritania)

Mitigating learning loss and strengthening foundational skills through the Learning Passport (Mexico)

Expanding digital learning opportunities and connectivity for all learners (Tajikistan)

For COVID-19 education case studies, please click here and filter by area of work (Education) and type (Case Study / Field Notes).

Resources for partners

Learning at the heart of education

Key Asks 2021 - National Reviews - SDG 4 Quality Education

More from UNICEF

Transforming education in africa.

An evidence-based overview and recommendations for long-term improvements

Early Childhood Education for All

It is time for a world where all children enter school equipped with the skills they need to succeed.

A world ready to learn

Prioritizing quality early childhood education

Mission: Recovery education in humanitarian countries

Updates on UNICEF’s work to deliver education to children in crisis-affected countries, with support from the US Government

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Babson Executive Education Case Studies, Practice Areas & Experts

Looking for Babson corporate case studies? Is your organization trying to solve a specific problem or develop a new capability, product, service, or ecosystem? Babson’s thought leaders build collaborative training solutions for corporations, non-profits, NGOs, and governments. Explore Babson Executive Education case studies, practice areas, and experts.

Our Work Spans Four Main Practice Areas

Work with real-world practitioners who influence growth strategy and receive awards for research and knowledge transfer in corporate innovation. Our training programs give you access to expert Babson trainers in live online and face-to-face formats, providing customized coaching, action plans for your challenges, and networking opportunities. Explore our practice areas and featured experts.

Pursue new markets, business models, revenue lines, and businesses while continuing to manage current customers, products, and services. With expert support, you can build or strengthen your corporate innovation infrastructure, or develop skills and frameworks for strategic innovation.

Gina Colarelli O’Connor

Professor of innovation management practice area leader, strategic innovation.

Renowned researcher, trainer, and consultant, Gina O’Connor is an expert in the fields of breakthrough innovation in large mature companies, technological innovation, and corporate entrepreneurship. As the Practice Area Leader, she collaborates with her colleagues to co-create offerings and leads implementation that support organizations in building Strategic Innovation Capabilities.

Peter Cohan

Professor of practice in management.

With expertise in competitive strategy, corporate strategy, and national competitiveness strategy, Peter Cohan is experienced at a variety of management consulting and strategy consulting firms, as well as strategic planning in the finance industry. He founded and runs a management consulting and venture capital firm. He is widely published and has served on presidential subcommittees.

Bradley George

Associate professor of entrepreneurship.

Bradley George has expertise in corporate entrepreneurship, clean tech, environmental entrepreneurship, new venture creation, and sustainable entrepreneurship. He advises startups, ranging from small family businesses and social ventures to VC-backed firms around the world. He spent 15 years in the diesel engine industry, collaborating in the creation and launch of new business units and product lines.

An expert in innovation management and growth strategy, Erik Noyes’s focus is on entrepreneurial thinking, new venture creation, and business innovation. An awarded trainer, he has consulted for companies such as Nokia, BMW, Hewlett-Packard, New Balance, and Motorola to identify and evaluate new growth businesses.

To operate successfully, organizations and teams need to understand how to navigate uncertainty, embrace ambiguity, and solve problems—while remaining open to new opportunities. Learn this entrepreneurial mindset and apply it to your biggest challenges.

Andrew Corbett

Professor of entrepreneurial studies.

One of the most cited entrepreneurship experts in the world, Andrew Corbett focuses on corporate entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship training.

Anirudh Dhebar

Professor of marketing.

Anirudh Dhebar focuses on disruptive change and enterprise transformation; science, technology, and the enterprise; high-tech marketing; and pricing. He has supported such companies as Siemens, IBM, FLIR, Ericsson, Merck Life Science, Novartis, Fidelity, MAPFRE, Santander, McGraw-Hill Education, Saint-Gobain, and more. He is respected as a researcher and trainer, and is widely published.

Danna Greenberg

Professor of management.

Danna Greenberg’s expertise includes organizational behavior, work-life transitions, how this influences their identity, engagement, and performance at work, and how organizational and societal factors influence work-life balance. Widely published, she serves as a consultant and board member to organizations focused on improving organizational support and individual management of work and family.

Scott Taylor

Associate professor of management.

Scott Taylor’s focus is leader assessment and development. He has worked domestically and internationally with over 50 companies in a variety of industries. He also is a member of the Consortium for Learning Innovation convened by McKinsey & Company.

Get support reimagining your organization’s culture to maximize the success of women and underrepresented groups throughout the organization. Reinvigorate innovation, growth, and performance with inclusive leadership and stand out from your less diverse competition.

Smaiyra Million P’21

Executive director of the arthur m. blank center for entrepreneurship.

Smaiyra Million’s leadership supports innovation, excellence, and profitability by improving the business ecosystem for high-achieving women. She is founder of soaVentures, a business consultancy that helps women-founded and women-owned businesses. She has served as COO, CEO, advisor, and more at a wide range of companies across industries.

Wendy Murphy

Wendy Murphy is highly regarded for her research and training in the area of careers, including mentoring and developmental networks, identity, and the work-life interface. Her work is widely published.

Angela Randolph

Assistant professor of entrepreneurship.

Angela Randolph is an awarded expert in opportunity development and cognitive and behavioral process. She also is experienced in new venture startups, consulting social and commercial ventures, consulting large organizations in treasury management practices, evaluating potential business acquisitions, and process improvement.

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Using case studies to do program evaluation

• Using case studies to do program evaluation File type PDF File size 79.49 KB

This paper, authored by Edith D. Balbach for the California Department of Health Services is designed to help evaluators decide whether to use a case study evaluation approach.

It also offers guidance on how to conduct a case study evaluation.

This resource was suggested to BetterEvaluation by Benita Williams.

• Using a Case Study as an Evaluation Tool 3
• When to Use a Case Study 4
• How to Do a Case Study 6
• Unit Selection 6
• Data Collection 7
• Data Analysis and Interpretation 12

Balbach, E. D. 9 California Department of Health Services, (1999).  Using case studies to do program evaluation . Retrieved from website: http://www.case.edu/affil/healthpromotion/ProgramEvaluation.pdf

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Implementing case study design to evaluate diverse institutions and STEM education contexts: Lessons and key areas for systematic study

Krystle p. cobian.

1 University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA

Damani Khary White-Lewis

2 University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA

Sylvia Hurtado

Hector v. ramos.

This chapter highlights the important contributions of case study research to the evaluation of student-centered programs and broader STEM initiatives in higher education. We summarize the Diversity Program Consortium’s case study evaluation of the Building Infrastructure Leading to Diversity (BUILD) initiative, funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), with aims to enhance diversity in the NIH-funded workforce. We describe lessons learned from the case study design used for the evaluation of BUILD that applies to administrators of STEM initiatives who are interested in case study methods and to evaluators who are familiar with case studies and tasked with program evaluation of a multisite STEM program. These lessons include practical considerations for logistics and the importance of clarifying the goals of the case study design within the larger program evaluation, fostering the continuation of knowledge within the evaluation team, and embedding trust building and collaboration throughout all stages of the case study.

INTRODUCTION

Enhancing diversity, equity, and inclusion in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines in U.S. higher education has been a prolonged project spanning several decades ( Tsui, 2007 ). Often, federal agencies, private foundations, and program evaluators aim to understand the short- and long-term impacts of STEM initiatives on the individual career success of women and racial groups historically excluded from the scientific workforce ( Felix, Hertle, Conley, Washington, & Bruns, 2004 ). More recently, there is added interest in studying how such initiatives create sustainable institutional-wide change ( Reeves, Bobrownicki, Bauer, & Graham, 2020 ). This complex, multilevel approach characterizes recent efforts by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Science Foundation, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, which now provide resources for evaluation of large-scale intervention programs designed to holistically support groups that have historically been excluded from science education and training.

One example of a large-scale investment in postsecondary STEM education and its evaluation is the Diversity Program Consortium (DPC) (n.d.) . The DPC is a network of institutions and programs, funded by the NIH, to improve scientific training and mentoring and enhance diversity of participation in biomedical research careers ( McCreath et al., 2017 ). Diverse and primarily undergraduate teaching institutions across the United States received Building Infrastructure Leading to Diversity (BUILD) awards, which provided funding for the implementation and evaluation of a range of programs and structural changes aimed at engaging and increasing the retention of individuals from diverse backgrounds in biomedical research, and ultimately, the biomedical workforce. The 10 BUILD sites were funded for student training, faculty development, and institutional capacity-building activities ( Hurtado, White-Lewis, & Norris, 2017 ).

While each BUILD site conducts local program evaluation for summative feedback and reports to the NIH (see Chapter 7 by Hwalek et al. for more detail), the Coordination and Evaluation Center (CEC) was funded to conduct a longitudinal, consortium-wide evaluation of the training and mentoring interventions that BUILD and National Research Mentoring Network (NRMN) 1 awardees develop and implement. (Guerrero et al. discuss the complexity of this endeavor in Chapter 1.) The DPC developed process and outcome indicators at critical training and career-transition points called Hallmarks of Success ( McCreath et al., 2017 ). As described in greater detail, the Hallmarks span student-level, faculty-level, and institutional-level impacts ( DPC, n.d. ). While the CEC administers and manages consortium-wide surveys and survey data collection in coordination with each BUILD site, it also conducts case studies as part of the overall consortium-wide evaluation ( Moses et al., 2020 ).

Case study research is used to understand a phenomenon within its context ( Stake, 2011 . Due to the importance of understanding how programs operate within their unique context, this approach is utilized often in several fields of study and in program evaluation ( Yin, 1992 , 2017 ). Case study research is becoming more widely accepted in health services research ( Crowe et al., 2011 ) and in the science and engineering fields more broadly. For example, case studies can explain various processes for achieving sustainability and institutionalization of program components and innovations within their unique context ( Cobian & Ramos, 2021 ). This is critical considering the diversity of higher education institutions with respect to geographic locations, state education policy environments, student demographics, and institutional missions and aspirations.

Case studies aim to provide multiple forms of evidence to lend insight into the implementation of BUILD awards and help to explain the processes that lead to observed outcomes ( Davidson et al., 2017 ; McCreath et al., 2017 ). The utility of the case study method is the holistic approach to understanding processes in their context ( Stake, 2011 ), which can address a number of the institutional-level outcomes identified in the Hallmarks of Success.

This chapter aims to describe how case study research can effectively contribute to the evaluation of large-scale, multilevel, multisite, undergraduate programs and broader STEM initiatives. We provide a brief summary of the case studies developed for the DPC evaluation, focusing on the approach, design, implementation, and analysis processes. (For additional details on the qualitative analysis of the case studies, see Moses et al. [2020] .) We also provide lessons learned from the ongoing case study project conducted by the CEC to evaluate the BUILD initiative. This chapter will show how case study design can be implemented to improve understanding of institutional systems change, particularly for initiatives aimed at supporting diversity.

IMPLEMENTING CASE STUDY DESIGN FOR THE DPC EVALUATION

Case study research utilizes multiple forms of evidence. Still, it is a predominantly qualitative method in which a bounded entity, program, or system (a “case”) is studied at length in its real-life context ( Stake, 2011 ; Yin, 2017 ). Case studies are useful when the boundaries between the phenomenon of interest and its larger context are not clearly distinguishable and cannot be manipulated, as is typically the case with experimental methods (i.e., conducting multiple experiments within a controlled environment; Yin, 2017 ). Multiple case studies involve the study of several cases that are often replications of the first case, and therefore may share similar features. When multiple cases—such as BUILD sites—are examined, findings are generated by comparing the cases to fundamentally understand the quintain , or the umbrella of cases representing the phenomenon of interest. Evaluating the large-scale, multisite BUILD initiative required an in-depth understanding of each site’s program and its unique institutional context to understand the broad phenomenon of interest–aspects of the programs and/or institutions that were driving program impacts ( Moses et al., 2020 ).

The primary evaluation question of interest for the DPC evaluation is: How are BUILD programs building capacity and infrastructure for primary and partner institutions to advance diverse student success in biomedical research training? (For additional questions, see Moses et al. [2020] .) BUILD awards were granted for 5 years, with an opportunity for an additional 5-year renewal. Considering the potential length of time, the programs could operate on each campus, the case study evaluation team planned to conduct two phases of site visits. The first phase was an exploratory multiple case study ( Yin, 2017 ) to understand how and what the campuses chose to implement (beyond their descriptions in the funded proposals), and why they took on various forms despite a common starting point in the NIH request for proposals. The second phase of case studies will be an explanatory multiple case study ( Yin, 2017 ) to understand, given this extensive knowledge about the BUILD sites and initiatives, the processes and challenges for program impact and institutionalization as funding begins to sunset.

Data collection

In case study research, qualitative and quantitative data are drawn from multiple sources in order to inform understanding of each case ( Yin, 1992 ). To obtain a contextual understanding of each site prior to physical site visits, the research team compiled data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) and reviewed campus websites in order to develop campus profiles. The team also conducted individual interviews, focus groups, and observations of BUILD activities and collected documents, including reports and articles shared by participants.

Identification of key participants for interviews and focus groups was important for ensuring that we collected data from individuals who could provide insight into the BUILD initiative’s impact at each campus. Case study research team members used their knowledge of higher education and STEM education contexts to identify participants with different vantage points about the BUILD initiative. Additionally, the case study research team conducted pre-site visit interviews virtually with the BUILD principal investigators and central BUILD faculty and staff members in order to gain an understanding of the program components and the launch of the program at each campus.

During each site visit, members of the research team conducted interviews with additional faculty and administrators at the campus to get a sense of program impact and initial outcomes. At the conclusion of each visit, the researchers held an in-person meeting with the BUILD team to provide an initial briefing about the research team’s observations and to exchange questions about key issues that the case study team sought to better understand. In many cases, the final meeting confirmed observations and the case study research team was able to offer suggestions to meet the DPC’s goals. Finally, in order to ensure that the case study team obtained the perspectives of all individuals relevant to understanding BUILD programs at each site, the team conducted virtual post-visit interviews with individuals who participants recommended.

It is important to note that BUILD site stakeholders collaborated with the case study research team throughout the process of data collection and initial analysis. For example, the case study team members worked with local site liaisons to determine participants and ensure that the sites stayed informed about the case study visits. The case study team also held debriefing meetings with each site’s core BUILD program leaders. These meetings allowed for further insight and exchange between data collectors and program administrations and served as a form of member checking ( Lincoln & Guba, 1986 ).

Analyzing the data

In multiple case study design, the creation of narrative reports allows researchers to begin to understand the phenomenon of interest within each case’s context. The case study team developed a narrative report for each BUILD site to accomplish this. Each narrative report began to weave the case study team’s analysis, including publicly available data, participants’ voices, relevant STEM education theories, and the DPC Hallmarks, to provide preliminary assertions that began to answer the case study evaluation questions. Members of the case study evaluation team wrote reports, transcribed interviews and focus groups, and coded at the student, faculty, and institutional level, and corresponding Hallmarks of Success. (For additional details, see Moses et al. [2020] .) Each level had common but also some unique codes to capture participants’ vantage points within the interventions and across the larger institutional context. Members of the team conducted cross-case analysis—an in-depth exploration of similarities and differences within and across BUILD sites—in order to test assertions using matrices ( Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014 ). For example, a cross-case analysis can be conducted to examine experiences of faculty in culturally aware mentorship training within and across sites to understand the efficacy of the intervention and how faculty experience challenges or support for intentions to encourage students to pursue biomedical careers ( White-Lewis, Romero, Gutzwa, & Hurtado, 2022 ).

Qualitative analysis can be particularly challenging in a multiyear study when case study team membership shifts because this can lead to loss of institutional knowledge and insight from data collection. For example, in the case study team, membership shifted between the data collection and data analysis phases. While these shifts posed a challenge to maintaining contextual knowledge of the BUILD sites, incoming team members “visited” sites by reading through all campus narrative reports, interviews, and collected data, and met regularly with the case study team to discuss and make sense of the data. Additionally, some members of the case study team have been involved since the beginning and have been present at most of the site visits. Regular discussions during analysis and writing were most helpful in raising questions and reexamining conclusions.

We continue to analyze the case study data from the first phase in order to address the Hallmarks of Success; these data are also combined with survey data from the larger DPC evaluation in order to answer DPC evaluation questions in multiple- or mixed-methods studies. Data from the first exploratory phase of site visits also informed areas to explore in more depth for the second phase of site visits, which aims to explain BUILD program outcomes.

LESSONS FROM THE DPC CASE STUDY

Next, we describe important lessons learned from the case study design and implementation to evaluate the BUILD initiative. The lessons are ordered based on when they occurred during the process of design and implementation. All of the lessons incorporate practical and theoretical considerations.

Anticipate and adapt to logistical challenges

Given the scale of the current BUILD case studies, we provide some practical guidance for evaluators to anticipate the logistics and resources necessary for an effective single or multiple case study of a STEM program evaluation. Our multiple case study consisted of 10 site visits to institutions across the United States. Our team included approximately four to eight researchers at any given time who collected interview and focus group data from approximately 500 students, faculty, program administrators, evaluators, and senior institutional administrators. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic impacted plans for data collection between the first and second phases of site visits. With scale and COVID-19 in mind, we share a few considerations for future evaluations.

First, robust demographic information was essential both for annual reporting to the funders (the NIH) and for analysis, given that the program was focused on understanding what interventions work for underrepresented groups as defined by the NIH. As such, one practical recommendation is to make sure to request that participants complete demographic data forms to gather information about their social identities. Second, institutional review board changes pertaining to consent and COVID-19 suggest more online interaction, meaning that participants must receive materials earlier and verbal consent is recorded as part of interviews. Third, we recommend developing a well-organized process for cloud-based protective storage of all case study data so that analysts can easily access documents while working remotely. For example, our team used Dedoose to code transcripts, which allowed several team members to continue coding and analysis while working in different locations and on different devices. The team also transitioned work-flow and processes to ensure all analytic memos and documents were digital and could be shared securely online. Secure “box” sites were used for storing confidential information, whereas team writing and analysis was facilitated with Google docs and spreadsheets.

Another set of recommendations pertains to recruitment and local site logistics. To build participant recruitment across multiple sites, each BUILD site appointed a knowledgeable contact who could facilitate identification of participants among faculty, staff, students, and campus administrators–the main actors engaged with BUILD. Site contacts attended regular site-based meetings (held on Zoom) that focused on implementation and local evaluation to become familiar with the case study team leads. These BUILD site contacts also provided information on relevant partners both within and outside of the campus who had insight into the site’s initiatives. In some cases, site contacts were helpful in scheduling interviews and rooms for in-person interviews.

For any site contact and site principal investigators, we found it important to provide a detailed set of requirements to clarify needs for identifying participants for the study. This step was critical for enhancing consistency in data collection efforts. The consequence of not providing detailed guidance to partners enlisted to help with identifying case study participants could lead to over-interviewing of individuals who may not be able to answer the study’s research questions, or to bias from either the case study team or the site contact in identifying participants. Site contacts and principal investigators were instrumental in providing feedback about who to interview in order to answer the case study team’s research questions. It is also helpful to have a detailed organization plan, including strategies for (1) tracking progress with data collection for each site, (2) managing and protecting participant data, (3) coordinating interview schedules and travel, (4) curating notes and memos from data collection, and (5) training team members on coding data to ensure reliability of the analysis. Doing so ensures that progress across multiple sites is visible and can be shared across the data collection team.

Clarify the goals of the case study design within the larger program evaluation

A strong case study design requires clear short-term and long-term goals and routine re-examination of these goals in order to ensure an effective program evaluation. Indeed, much like the logic models that sites used as guides for their own short-term and long-term goals, evaluation efforts may also have phases during a larger program evaluation wherein specific evaluation tasks are more appropriate. For the BUILD initiative, the goal in the first phase was to better understand implementation of the strategies that campuses used to fulfill the aims articulated in the Request for Proposals (RFA) of the grant-funded initiative; in the second phase, we will focus on institutionalization and program impact. However, the case study team also understood there was a clear short-term need to obtain a multifaceted understanding of how programs were being implemented on each campus while the larger DPC evaluation began collecting survey data to measure attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that contributed to program outcomes at the student and faculty level.

Some case study designs lean toward being theoretically driven from the beginning of the project, which allows for more precision and efficiency with data collection and analysis. This can narrow the focus of what to examine, which can make the process of identifying assertions and themes that answer the evaluation questions easier ( Yin, 1992 ). An explanatory study has more focus and is especially relevant to augmenting quantitative results from each site. An exploratory study, on the other hand, allows more room for an inductive analysis to generate emergent themes but can be broad and unwieldy, especially with multiple team members involved and a large amount of data.

Finding a balance between both approaches is necessary: A purely inductive approach to understanding STEM initiatives is not possible considering the large body of research that exists and influences current STEM education and training programs. Additionally, a theoretically driven case study is not always feasible in a complex, multisite program where each site employs different theories to guide local implementation efforts. Moreover, several STEM theories and literature guided the development of the Hallmarks of Success because they needed to span all sites. Thus, common theories could be referenced in relation to specific outcomes and commonly implemented initiatives.

Finally, considering the multitude of decisions involved in case study design, the over-arching program evaluation approach should also be considered to ensure that the case study aligns with the particular paradigm, lens, or epistemological stance of the evaluation. For example, Mertens and Hopson (2006) described several evaluation models sensitive to diversity, culture, and power. Likewise, Boyce (2017) considered a STEM program evaluation approach that explicitly sought to examine how an education program is equitable. She shared the challenges and opportunities that arise as evaluators continue to expand on efforts and strategies for melding equity-driven evaluation approaches with STEM programs that aim to broaden participation for historically excluded groups. The present study employed an evaluation model that was sensitive to issues of power and equity (see Chapter 5 by Maccalla et al.); however, future program evaluations might consider an explicit equity-driven evaluation design and a subsequent case study design that extends this work.

Employ a range of methods to explore outcomes

Examination of program outcomes can be challenging when working to evaluate a large, multi-site program with several levels of potential impact. One solution is to employ a wider variety of data collection and research methods in order to answer key evaluation questions. Specifically with the case study team and the broader CEC evaluation, the CEC identified opportunities to mix survey data with case study data in a variety of mixed methods designs ( Creswell, 2014 ) in order to answer important research questions that could otherwise not be answered as thoroughly by only relying on one form of data. For example, the case study team examined biomedical bachelor’s degree rates at each BUILD site to identify the extent to which degree production increased in each major by race and gender. This information could then be supplemented with interviews from site participants who had more insight and the ability to explain increases or decreases in certain disciplines. Researchers on the comprehensive evaluation team can work together on mixed methods design ( Creswell, 2014 ) where quantitative and qualitative data are mixed and analyzed in an intentional order and with intentional priority given to one form of data over the other, in order to answer the research question(s) driving the next stages of the Enhance Diversity study. In other words, case study researcher can collect and use multiple forms of data in order to systematically investigate the impact of an intervention. Additionally, case study data can be combined with survey data from the evaluation in order to answer other research questions where the survey data provides key measures from site participants in aggregate form, and case study data provides details about how and why there may be differences in across sites on key variables.

Another suggestion that entails using multiple methods to explore outcomes involves returning to case study data collected in the exploratory phase and supplementing with additional collection of data to understand change (only possible in multiyear studies). For example, in the first phase of case study site visits, the research team found that efforts to increase biomedical research publications varied considerably among BUILD sites for both students and faculty. This led the team to return to examine this pattern by collecting information about BUILD-funded research—as indicated in peer-reviewed publications and grant numbers found in several biomedical databases—in order to further document and measure the impact of BUILD funding on the production of publications on each campus. Doing so allowed researchers to examine program impact and diffusion of BUILD funding, specifically by recording the amount of biomedical research articles published by faculty and students at each institution, involving BUILD-affiliated trainees and mentors. This process was facilitated by supplementing the original data collection with an additional step of collecting publicly available information after the first phase of case study data collection.

Finally, causal mapping can be a useful approach to account for outcomes ( Ackermann & Alexander, 2016 ; Miles et al., 2014 ). Qualitative data are organized into “maps” that link outcomes to processes and decisions made by individuals within the organization. In turn, these linkages create a visualization of what actions likely caused the next set of actions that led to an outcome. Another related analytical and presentation method is program mapping, which helps compare overall initiatives across multiple sites as well as in-depth intervention program elements within a single site ( Reeves et al., 2020 ). A single program map can be simple or complex; it can identify program areas (e.g., faculty mentor development, curricular reform, summer program enrichment) where greater institutionalization has occurred and other program areas that are likely to sunset after grant funding ends based on conclusions drawn from interviews and site visits. It is important to note that this is facilitated by obtaining tracking data of participants in each the program areas, information which is also useful to campuses for reporting to funding agencies.

Foster the continuation of knowledge within the evaluation team

Evaluation teams, particularly for large-scale programs, will inevitably have turnover in membership. For example, as we noted above, the case study team’s membership shifted between data collection and data analysis for the Phase 1. Good case study research requires a continuation of knowledge with respect to the rich details and memories of the analysts. As such, case study teams should plan for turnover in membership by developing systems to onboard new analysts and ensure that research artifacts, decision-points, and case knowledge are shared with team members and threaded throughout the case study.

The team can create an organization plan for developing and storing (in a secure case study database) its analytic memos, audit trails, cross-case matrices, and all analytic notes used to make sense of the data. All artifacts and data collected from each case or site should be organized in the database. These multiple forms of evidence all contribute to informing analysts about the phenomena of interest. This calls for greater transparency in analytical steps and saving work that demonstrates the team’s decisions. The case study team members should also maintain and regularly review artifacts to retain memory of cases and contexts.

Incoming case study team members should be provided with an orientation that describes the organization system and key documents in order to reduce the overwhelming amount of data and increase team members’ capacity to support data collection and analysis. The orientation can guide them through the evaluation goals, overarching questions and subquestions, the current phase of the case study, and an overview of the cases. Likewise, an exit process for outgoing team members can help with retention of contextual knowledge that may be held by anyone leaving the project. The process can be as simple as writing one final analytic memo that details aspects of the case study design where the case study team member has unique knowledge or experience. This process can also involve establishment of a mutual agreement that an individual will stay on as a co-author for a developing manuscript or be available for consultation for the duration of the case study data collection, analysis, and dissemination of findings.

Embed collaboration and trust building throughout all stages of the case study

Stakeholder participation and collaboration are critical for a successful case study because they ensure trustworthiness and can lead to richer collection of data. This was especially evident considering the multiple sites involved and the intended collaborative agreement between all institutions in the DPC. Mutual collaboration and consideration of stakeholders and participants is especially important considering the DPC’s aims of supporting students from underrepresented groups and the institutions that serve them.

It is important to note that collaboration was structured into the DPC evaluation through an agreement among the NIH and all grantees involved. This immediately set the expectation that we would work together and that participants would have a way to provide input into the cross-campus evaluation. Other evaluations that do not have formal collaborative agreements may have to make additional efforts to collaborate with stakeholders and obtain buy-in at each site.

Moreover, conversations and site visits in the first phase allowed the CEC to establish the evaluation team as engaged and committed to the same goals as each of the campuses: improving pathways into biomedical careers and educating the next generation of scientists. This was accomplished through thoughtful observations, recognition of challenges and successes, and immediate feedback that sometimes confirmed their own assessments about the progress of their efforts. For some, it helped highlight the forest instead of the trees, reminding them of the value of their day-to-day of their work improving STEM training for underrepresented groups.

As funding initiatives shift toward large-scale investments aimed at institutional transformation, internal and external evaluators must also shift approaches in order to conduct assessments that monitor program goals, modify approaches, and provide external feedback ( McCreath et al., 2017 ) in ways that address the complexity of organizational change. Additionally, efforts to evaluate diversity-focused programs will also need to be evaluated with more attention to embedding culturally responsive and equity-based practices at each step of the evaluation process. Program evaluation efforts utilizing case study design can provide a rich, in-depth understanding of program implementation and effectiveness and provide opportunities for collaboration, reciprocity, and equity in collecting and analyzing data. This understanding can supplement quantitative measures in mixed methods and/or multiple methods evaluation in order to increase understanding of program outcomes, or it can stand alone in presenting multifaceted dimensions of program implementation.

When evaluating a program aimed at enhancing diversity, it is critical to consider ways that evaluation efforts can mitigate harm to the underrepresented groups central to the program itself. The DPC evaluation prioritizes stakeholder and participant collaboration ( Davidson et al., 2017 ), and a case study has the capacity to further advance those goals through the design and implementation of data collection and analysis. As a method that has been utilized for program evaluation—one that is becoming more familiar to scholars in science disciplines—there is much that can be learned from prior case study evaluations to inform the field of evaluation studies and the work of evaluators of STEM initiatives.

A well-designed case study can contribute a rich understanding to the evaluation of an initiative or funded program. In this chapter, we have highlighted how case study design can effectively contribute to the evaluation of large-scale, multilevel, multisite undergraduate programs and broader STEM initiatives. We described lessons derived from the multiple case study design we implemented to understand the BUILD initiative as part of the larger DPC evaluation. The lessons we shared in this chapter are particularly relevant to evaluators of student-centered programs and broader STEM initiatives. As funding agencies shift toward initiatives aimed at more complex institutional and systemic change in STEM training and career development, case studies can help capture the complexity of processes that connect to program outcomes.

Biographies

Krystle P. Cobian , PhD, is a research analyst at the Diversity Program Consortium’s Coordination and Evaluation Center at UCLA.

Damani Khary White-Lewis , PhD, is an assistant professor of education at the University of Pennsylvania whose research focuses on faculty hiring, promotion & tenure, mentoring, and retention in STEM disciplines.

Sylvia Hurtado , PhD, is a professor of education at the UCLA School of Education and Information Studies whose specialty is diversity in higher education and STEM interventions.

Hector V. Ramos , PhD, is a research analyst at the Diversity Program Consortium’s Coordination and Evaluation Center at UCLA.

1 The NRMN is a national network of mentors and mentees from all biomedical disciplines relevant to the NIH mission, with a variety of programs that provide mentorship, professional development, mentor/mentee training and networking opportunities to individuals from the undergraduate to early career faculty levels. NRMN Phase II began in fall of 2019 to continue to develop mentoring and networking opportunities for biomedical researchers from diverse backgrounds, from undergraduates through early career faculty.

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Case study of a health optimizing physical education-based comprehensive school physical activity program

Affiliations.

• 1 University of Idaho 875 Perimeter Drive, Moscow, Idaho, 83844, United States. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 2 University of South Carolina 902 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC, 29208, United States. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 3 Methodist University 540 Ramsey Street, Fayetteville, NC, 28311, United States. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 4 University of South Carolina 902 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC, 29208, United States. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 5 University of South Carolina 902 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC, 29208, United States. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 6 University of South Carolina 902 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC, 29208, United States. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 7 University of South Carolina 902 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC, 29208, United States. Electronic address: [email protected].
• PMID: 30326329
• DOI: 10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2018.10.006

In this article, we report a qualitative case study, in which we examined enablers and barriers related to the development, implementation, and sustainability of a comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) aligned with the Health Optimizing Physical Education (HOPE) curriculum model at a middle school. Literature on program-diffusion and school-university partnerships guided data collection and analysis. Data sources included semi-structured interviews with the program implementation team (n = 9) and the school's health and physical education teachers (n = 7); a focus group interview with students; documents (e.g., lesson plans), and observations. Constant comparison techniques were used to code and draw out themes from the data. Findings revealed the extensive effort needed for program implementation and highlighted the importance of strong external support mechanisms, conducting needs assessments, and training teachers to market physical activity programming. Partnerships may provide critical support for schools in their efforts to generate and sustain CSPAPs.

Keywords: Evaluation; Physical activity; Physical education; Whole-of-school approach.

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

• Health Promotion / organization & administration*
• Interviews as Topic
• Needs Assessment
• Physical Education and Training / organization & administration*
• Program Evaluation
• Qualitative Research
• School Health Services / organization & administration*
• Socioeconomic Factors
• Teacher Training / organization & administration
• Urban Population

• Youth Program
• Wharton Online

Case Study for 2023-2024

You can’t build an effective investment strategy without first knowing your client., from the wharton school to la28, the games of the xxxiv olympiad: meet hilary ash, w’13.

WGAM’s portfolio manager (your team’s teacher/advisor) recently met with a potential client, Hilary Ash , who needs professional help achieving some specific investment goals (which we’ll get to in a minute). You hope to be the WGAM team that Hilary ultimately chooses to build her wealth from an initial $100,000 investment.

Introducing Hilary Ash

But first, let’s get to know your potential client.

Raised in Los Angeles, CA (U.S.), Hilary, now 32, began her college journey on the pre-med track and the volleyball court at the University of Pennsylvania (Penn) in Philadelphia, PA (U.S.). After taking a few business classes, she discovered her true passion and transferred into Penn’s Wharton School, a world leader in business education, her sophomore year. She gravitated toward entrepreneurship and innovation because she was inspired and challenged by the prospect of solving problems with an entrepreneurial mindset.

“I love thinking about business problems and coming up with new solutions, products and ideas.”

Sports have always been an important part of Hilary’s identity and her family’s livelihood (both her father and brother work in the sports industry). She excelled as a student-athlete in college and now co-chairs Penn’s women’s volleyball board. While attending Wharton, she explored the broad business of sports through internships with the cable sports channel ESPN and the X Games, an international action sports competition. She has also had the opportunity in her career to help create professional talent pipelines in underserved communities and rethink the typical standards, training and requirements required to get jobs in the sports industry.

After graduation, Hilary worked as a consultant for BCG, putting her business problem-solving skills to practice. Through her connections, she found her way to LA28, the Games of the XXXIV Olympiad, where she became the Vice President of Games Delivery and Venue Infrastructure. She and her team manage the venue masterplan strategy for the LA 2028 Olympic and Paralympic games, helping to identify, retrofit, design and build the structures needed to successfully deliver the various Olympic and Paralympic competitions when the global games come to Los Angeles in 2028.

Hilary’s Financial Goals

When she’s not strategizing about sports infrastructure, Hilary pursues her passions, including travel, real estate and her Labradoodle, Riggins. She and her husband Scott, who married only a year ago, enjoy immersing themselves in unique cultures and travel experiences.

Hilary believes that real estate investment is a way to create generational wealth for her (future) family. She owns two investment properties, one in the U.S. and, more recently, South America. She is eager to use the design skills she is developing in her professional role to renovate the modest South American property after the close of the Olympic and Paralympic Games in August 2028. She would like to allocate (and Ideally grow) 25% of her $100,000 investment to kickstart her South American home renovation. She expects WGAM to generate at least a $15,000 return on the initial $25,000 short-term investment by the end of 2028 to cover anticipated costs.

Hilary would like to combine her deep interests in entrepreneurship, inclusivity and global sports for her longer-term financial goal. She hopes to play a direct role in bringing more money into women’s sports and elevating women’s positions and influence in an increasingly international industry. Her longer-term financial goal is to open a women-owned sports consulting firm with a dual mission of helping women athletes and industry executives become more successful, while also providing greater sports access (players and fans) to underrepresented communities. She hopes that WGAM’s investing expertise can help make that business dream possible in the next 15 years.

“I think we’re at such an exciting time right now in women’s sports, where we’re starting to see a real shift in an appreciation of what it means to buy into women’s sports…With the success of the Women’s National Team in U.S. soccer and the fight for pay equity, I would love to be able to actually have a direct role in seeing more money flow into women’s sports and a proper appreciation for what female athletes can bring to brands and properties. And I want to see the growth in access for player development for young girls, because that builds a well-funded ecosystem.”

Your Investment Challenge       

Hilary has heard great things about the creativity and investing knowledge of WGAM’s analyst teams and is considering hiring WGAM to manage an investment portfolio of $100,000, which she hopes will help her achieve two fundamental objectives. She told the portfolio manager that WGAM has 10 weeks to put together a detailed portfolio analysis proposal. Your portfolio manager recognizes that it will not be easy to land Hilary as a client. To make the most convincing case to Hilary, everyone on the team must contribute to ensure that WGAM creates the best proposal.

Over the next 10 weeks, your team will develop and test an investment strategy to meet Hilary’s stated financial goals. Please keep in mind that Hilary already has a solid retirement investment plan in place, so you need not consider this goal in your strategy. Your team will conduct a thorough analysis of industries and companies to select optimal stocks and Exchange-traded Funds (ETFs) related to your strategy, with the goal of ensuring both long-term and shorter-term profitability for your prospective client. That’s right, this year we are introducing a new ETF requirement! Read more about this addition HERE . You will test your investment strategy and get stock market experience using the Wharton Investment Simulator (WInS), where you apply the concepts of investments and portfolio management in a hands-on learning environment, using real-world market data without risking real money.

Remember, your 10 weeks on WInS can only accurately assess the performance of investments that are made for the short-term. So, while you should test your strategy and build your stock portfolio on WInS, most of your strategizing should be longer-term and therefore won’t require excessive buying and selling of stocks and ETFs. However, your strategy might include investing guidelines that could influence your decision to sell, even in the short-term.

Your team will start out with a portfolio of $100,000 in virtual cash and will compete against other student teams from all around the world who are trying to land the same client. At the end of the 10 weeks of active trading, you must submit a proposal detailing your recommended investment strategy.

As you strive to win Hilary’s business, how will your team stand out against competing teams? How will you create a compelling and clever pitch to convince Hilary to choose your strategy? Judges will review your final investment reports and select top teams. Those teams will be invited to present their strategies to a panel of experts.

* Teams are not permitted to contact Hilary, LA28, or anyone else mentioned in this case study as it is grounds for disqualification. The investment scenarios included in this case study have been embellished for the purpose of the competition.

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Lomonosov Moscow State University

Preparatory course (pre-university programme).

• Duration of study: March 2024 – July 2025.
• Holidays: July – August 2024.
• Start date: 1 March – 30 March 2024.
• Exams: June 2025.
• Tuition: $8900.
• The level of Russian: Beginner.
• Duration of study: September/October 2024 – July 2025.
• Start date: September – October.
• Tuition: $7000.
• The level of Russian: All levels.

• 1 BUSINESS SCHOOL
• 2 FACULTY OF BIOENGINEERING AND BIOINFORMATICS
• 3 FACULTY OF BIOLOGY
• 4 FACULTY OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
• 5 FACULTY OF CHEMISTRY
• 6 FACULTY OF COMPUTATIONAL MATHEMATICS AND CYBERNETICS
• 7 FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL STUDIES
• 8 FACULTY OF ECONOMICS
• 9 FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
• 10 FACULTY OF FINE AND PERFORMING ARTS
• 11 FACULTY OF FUNDAMENTAL MEDICINE
• 12 FACULTY OF FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL ENGENEERING
• 13 FACULTY OF GEOLOGY
• 14 FACULTY OF GEOGRAPHY
• 15 FACULTY OF HISTORY
• 16 FACULTY OF JOURNALISM
• 17 FACULTY OF LAW
• 18 FACULTY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE
• 19 FACULTY OF MECHANICS AND MATHEMATICS
• 20 FACULTY OF PHYSICS
• 21 FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY
• 22 FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY
• 23 FACULTY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
• 24 FACULTY OF SOCIOLOGY
• 25 FACULTY OF WORLD POLITICS
• 26 GRADUATE SCHOOL OF INNOVATIVE BUSINESS
• 27 GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT AND INNOVATION
• 28 GRADUATE SCHOOL OF PUBLIC ADMINIASTRATION
• 29 HIGHER SCHOOL OF MODERN SOCIAL SCIENCES
• 30 HIGHER SCHOOL OF POLICY IN CULTURE AND ADMINISTRATION IN HUMANITIES
• 31 HIGHER SCHOOL OF STATE AUDIT
• 32 HIGHER SCHOOL OF TRANSLATION/INTERPRETING
• 33 HIGHER SCHOOL OF TELEVISION STUDIES
• 34 INSTITUTE OF ASIAN AND AFRICAN STUDIES
• 35 MOSCOW SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS
• 36 SOIL SCIENCE FACULTY
• Admission procedure

Neuromarketing — Predicting Consumer Behavior to Drive Purchasing Decisions 

Buying decisions can be driven by unconscious choices. Learn about how neuromarketing uncovers what drives decisions to increase conversions and revenue.

Valerie Kirk

What drives a person to not only buy something, but to choose one product or service over the other? The usual answers that come to a marketer’s mind when asked that question include need, price, availability, and brand familiarity.

But what if it goes deeper than that? What if consumer decision-making is driven by biology — specifically neural activity in the brain?

This idea is the basis of neuromarketing — sometimes known as consumer neuroscience — a field of study that incorporates biology and brain activity to predict and even influence consumer behavior and purchase decisions.

The Science Behind Neuromarketing

While the term neuromarketing was first introduced in the early 2000s, consumer neuroscience began to emerge in the 1990s, when measuring brain activity using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machines became more accessible. 

Consumer neuroscience examines fMRI scans and electroencephalogram measurements of people’s brain activity when they are given or shown stimuli, such as an advertisement, product packaging, or something to drink. It could also include verbal prompts to monitor reactions. The brain activity seen on the scans shows what a person is feeling in that moment. 

Consumer neuroscience also includes physiological tracking — measuring facial expressions, eye movements, pupil dilation, heart rate, or other physical reactions people experience when given the stimuli. With eye tracking software, marketers can use heat maps to see what consumers are most drawn to in ad campaigns or websites and the journey they take to ultimately purchase something or disengage with digital assets. 

Examples of neuromarketing research include: 

• Serving Coca-Cola and Pepsi to subjects in an fMRI machine. When the drinks weren’t identified, the researchers noted a consistent neural response. But when subjects could see the brand, the part of their brains associated with emotions, memories, and unconscious processing showed enhanced activity, demonstrating that knowledge of the brand altered how the brain perceived the beverage. 
• Scanning the brains of test subjects while they tasted three wines, each labeled with a different price. Their brains registered the wines differently, with neural signatures indicating a preference for the most expensive wine. In actuality, all three wines were the same. 

Why is Neuromarketing Important?

By understanding what people react to based on biology and not conscious choices, marketers can essentially predict consumer behavior. When marketers can predict behavior, they can take steps to market their products — from the price to packaging to product marketing campaigns — in ways that elicit emotional responses and compel consumers to buy, thus increasing sales and revenue. 

There is a truth to neuromarketing that can’t be replicated by traditional marketing research tactics like focus groups. People may not always tell the truth in focus groups, or they say things they think others want to hear. 

Neuromarketing techniques remove the human choice element in market research and expose a person’s real and unfiltered responses. This helps marketers gain a more complete understanding of consumer motivation and buying behavior, which drives marketing decisions and budget spending.

How is Neuromarketing Used in Business Today?

Businesses are turning to neuromarketing to guide critical marketing decisions. In many cases, neuromarketing techniques are replacing traditional marketing research tactics. 

Here are five ways businesses are using neuromarketing to improve their marketing efforts and drive sales. 

1. Testing Ads 

Marketers can get true, unbiased responses to ad campaigns by showing different ads to test subjects and scanning their brain activity or tracking their eye movement while they view the ads. Based on the scans and other physiological and emotional reactions, they can determine which campaign — or which campaign elements — resonate more with consumers.  

2. Improving Packaging Design

When test subjects are given early prototypes of a product packaging, brain scans can help marketing and design teams gain insights into which version people are more likely to pick up and buy. Package design includes color, images, and size and shape. 

3. Enhancing Website and App Design 

Neuromarketing can help guide website and app design. Brain scans can show which design elements are more likely to engage users and drive clicks and purchases. Facial coding can also show how people view websites and apps, which can inform where to put different pieces of content. 

4. Informing Rebranding

From start to finish, neuromarketing can guide decisions on rebranding. This includes whether a rebrand is needed, which visual elements and messages work better for the new brand, and how to use the new identity in marketing tools and other brand assets. 

5. Optimizing Conversion Rates 

It’s estimated that 95 percent of decision-making is made unconsciously. Neuromarketing can help marketers understand what drives a person to make those unconscious choices to buy or not buy a product. Brands can then adapt their marketing materials and tactics to enhance elements that inspire people to buy.

DCE Professional & Executive Development Consumer Behavior Course:

Using Neuromarketing to Predict and Influence Customers

Examples of Neuromarketing in Action

• Through neuromarketing techniques, Frito-Lay learned that matte bags with pictures of potatoes did not trigger a negative consumer response, whereas shiny bags with pictures did. Based on those insights, they changed their chip packaging design. 
• The National Cancer Institute used fMRI scans to test three anti-smoking commercials that included a telephone hotline. The subjects were heavy smokers who indicated they wanted to quit. The National Cancer Institute ran all three ads, but the ad to which the test group reacted favorably corresponded to an increased hotline call volume when it ran.
• IKEA has designed their stores in a way that showcases everything they sell before a consumer can actually leave the store, thus increasing the likelihood of a purchase. The layout was developed using neuromarketing research.
• Neuromarketing research has shown that people react favorably to movement and speed. This knowledge guided FedEx to include a hidden arrow in its logo that represents quickness, which garners favorable reactions — and subconscious brand trust — among consumers.
• People also react favorably to color. Through research on brain activity, businesses know that the color red signifies strength. It’s easy to see why red is the favored logo color of so many iconic brands, including Coca-Cola, Target, McDonald’s, and Netflix.  

The Ethics of Neuromarketing

In general, people like to think that they make purchasing decisions — and really any decision — consciously after considering all of the options and facts. Neuromarketing exposes the fact that people can be influenced on an unconscious level. This realization can lead not only to privacy concerns but also to people feeling like they are being manipulated by brands they trust, which could make them avoid those brands entirely. 

For example , in 2015, one of the main political parties in Mexico used neuromarketing to learn more about voters’ interests and reactions to campaign ads. When the information leaked, there was a backlash from Mexican citizens. The candidate apologized, but the revelation likely cost him votes. 

Since the very first advertisement, businesses have been trying to persuade people to buy products. Neuromarketing uses the technology of the time to help marketers understand their customers better and deliver a more favorable experience. Currently, brain scans and physiological responses are being performed on test subjects who all have likely signed an informed consent document.

While it may seem like a logical progression of the marketing and advertising discipline, companies that use neuromarketing techniques should have robust and ethical protocols and a crisis communication plan in place in case of public backlash.

How to Study Neuromarketing

People working across marketing disciplines could benefit from understanding what drives consumer behavior. Harvard Division of Continuing Education Professional & Executive Development offers a 2-day Consumer Behavior Course: Using Neuromarketing to Predict and Influence Customers.

The course covers a wide range of topics to help participants understand the psychology of consumer behavior and how to apply it. Participants will come away with a new set of tools for creating marketing campaigns that effectively resonate with the consumer base, capture market share, and ultimately drive profits and sales.

The program includes a discussion on corporate responsibility, marketing ethics, and specific guidelines for utilizing psychological techniques while safeguarding consumer and societal well-being.

Marketing Analytics Online Course: Strategies for Driving Business Results

Digital Marketing Strategy

Behavioral Decision Making

About the Author

Valerie Kirk is a freelance writer and corporate storyteller specializing in customer and community outreach and topics and trends in education, technology, and healthcare. Based in Maryland near the Chesapeake Bay, she spends her free time exploring nature by bike, paddle board, or on long hikes with her family.

How to Determine What My Leadership Style Is

Determining your leadership style is key to the success of your team, your organization, and your growth as a leader.

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Can music education boost grades, attendance? A new case study suggests it might

A new case study that included hundreds of Tennessee public schools suggests that music education may be tied to better math and reading scores, along with better attendance and positive social, emotional and behavioral effects.

The study, titled "Face the Music: A Case Study for Expanding Music and Arts in Schools," was the result of a joint effort between the CMA Foundation and the Mr. Holland's Opus Foundation. It examined the challenges and benefits stemming from music and arts education across 589 schools and 23 districts in Tennessee, and also included feedback from music and arts teachers, students and lifelong learners.

“Music and arts education are playing a key role in helping students catch up after the pandemic, from helping with math and reading proficiency to coping with stress and trauma. The research is clear: arts and music classes are a must-have, not a nice-to-have," CMA Foundation Executive Director Tiffany Kerns said in a news release.

The foundations behind the study hope it will serve as a model for other states to boost music and arts education at the state and district level, along with gaining support from nonprofit organizations and philanthropy.

Here are key takeaways from the study.

Related: TN high school band gets surprise invite to perform at CMA Fest as director wins award

A connection between music, arts, math and reading

Data from the majority of districts in the study showed that students enrolled in music and arts programs demonstrated significantly higher proficiency rates in math and literacy. The majority of districts also saw better attendance rates from music and arts students, compared to schoolwide averages. These outcomes align with a handful of other studies. However, the case study report did note an important caveat: Most studies on music and arts participation don't prove it's the cause of improved academics.

Here's a look at the proficiency and attendance numbers the study revealed:

• Roughly 1-in-4 school districts reported 47% of students enrolled in music and arts programs showed reading proficiency, compared to an overall school average of 36%.
• Roughly 7-in-10 school districts reported 46% of students enrolled in music and arts programs excelled in math, compared to an overall school average of 35%.
• Roughly 3-in-4 districts reported increased attendance rates for students enrolled in music and arts programs. The study noted that schools where music and arts students outpaced the school average for attendance saw an average attendance boost of 12%.

Systemic barriers to music and arts education

The case study also outlined factors that hamper access to music and arts education for students and schools. They largely align with trends reported in the most recent National Arts Education Status Report and historical data from the Tennessee Arts Education Data Project, the study said.

The barriers for students identified in the study are:

• Participation requirements, including after-school attendance and prerequisites or auditions
• Housing insecurity
• Transportation challenges
• Participation fees
• Equipment costs

The study also showed that curriculum scheduling is a primary issue facing schools. That can disrupt the ability to offer sequential music and arts classes in every grade, allowing students to explore a variety of options and build upon their skills each year.

Recommendations for action

The study mapped out a series of recommendations for how everyone from parents and students to educators and lawmakers can take action to bolster music and arts education in Tennessee.

For school community members like parents, students and educators, that can range from simply attending music and arts events to show support to advocating for more funding for programs. The study also calls on school and state leaders to partner to fund music and arts education, train teachers and develop partnerships that help sustain those programs in schools. It also challenges philanthropic organizations to fund grants, promote advocacy and awareness and take other steps to partner with and support schools.

"Each of us can support a system of change to enhance music and arts education for a more well-rounded education for our students," the study stated.

A look at the demographics and schools

The demographics of the schools that participated were similar to the state of Tennessee as a whole, but they differed slightly when it came to the population of public school students statewide. Students in the study were:

• 16% Black or African American
• 9% Hispanic or Latino
• 2% other racial identities
• 24% socioeconomically disadvantaged
• 13% engaged in special education services
• 9% English language learners
• 2% experiencing homelessness or in foster care
• 1% identified as migrants or refugees

According to 2022-23 academic year data from the Tennessee Department of Education, here's how Tennessee schools demographics broke down:

• 24% Black and African American
• 14% Hispanic
• 3% other racial identities
• 30% economically disadvantaged
• 14% students with disabilities
• 8% English learners
• Less than 1% in foster care
• 2% experiencing homelessness
• Less than 1% identified as migrants

Here's the full list of districts that participated in the case study:

• Arlington Community Schools
• Bartlett City Schools
• Benton County Schools
• Chester County School District
• Clarksville-Montgomery County School System
• Coffee County School District
• Germantown Municipal School District
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Smartwatches and Atrial Fibrillation: What Works and What Needs Improvement?

May 29, 2024   |   Kevin Buda, DO

Expert Analysis

Quick Takes

• Clinicians will increasingly encounter heart rhythm data generated from consumer-grade devices.
• Consumer-grade smartphone-paired devices and smartwatches have very high sensitivity and specificity for atrial fibrillation.
• The specificity for arrhythmias with regular R-R intervals is very poor.

As the availability of smartphone-paired devices and smartwatches increases, clinicians will increasingly encounter data generated from consumer-grade devices. This expert analysis reviews several common consumer-grade devices, their specificity for detecting atrial fibrillation (AF), and the limitations of their use.

Most consumer-grade devices for detecting arrhythmias use photoplethysmography (PPG). This technology measures volumetric changes in blood flow on the basis of the intensity of reflected light measured from the skin's surface. This signal generates peaks proportional to pulsatile blood flow, with the peak-to-peak interval proportional to the R-R interval. Given this method's ease of detecting irregularity, PPG technology has primarily been validated for detecting AF.

The broadened availability of consumer-grade devices may increase the detection of AF in the subclinical phase. With stroke as the initial manifestation of AF in almost one-quarter of cases, early AF detection may help relieve its burden as a leading cause of disability in the United States. 1

The Accuracy

• Apple Watch. The Apple Watch (Apple Inc., Cupertino, California) monitors heart rate and rhythm using PPG. Newer models can also record an on-demand single-lead electrocardiogram (ECG). The Apple Heart Study investigators enrolled >400,000 participants without AF. People who received an irregular pulse notification had telemedicine visits with a clinician and received an ambulatory ECG monitor. Of the 2,064 patients with irregular pulse notifications, the positive predictive value (PPV) for AF was 84%. 2 Notably, Apple recently received a cease-and-desist order on some Apple Watches after the United States International Trade Commission (USITC) ruled that Apple Watch technology infringes on oxygen saturation patents held by Masimo Corporation (Irvine, California). The cease-and-desist order on relevant Apple Watches is scheduled to take effect on December 26. This order may significantly reduce the number of Apple Watches that are available for purchase until patent issues have been resolved.
• Kardiamobile. Kardiamobile (AliveCor, Mountain View, California) is a small handheld device that can provide a 30-sec single-lead ECG. One study included monitoring participants three times daily and whenever they felt palpitations, with findings of a higher rate of AF detection with the Kardiamobile device than with 24-hour ECGs (9.4% vs. 2%). 3 In another study, >1,000 patients without a history of AF were randomized to standard care or twice-weekly monitoring with Kardiamobile, with findings of a 3.8% detection rate for AF in the Kardiamobile arm compared with <1% in the standard-care arm. 4
• Fitbit. Fitbit (Google, Mountain View, California) is a wrist-worn device with PPG technology with 37 million monthly users as of 2022. 5 Similar to the Apple Watch, some newer models also incorporate the ability to perform a single-lead ECG. The Fitbit Heart Study had a similar design to the Apple Heart Study; >400,000 participants enrolled. Routine ambulatory ECG monitoring occurred in patients with irregular rhythm notifications. Among 1,057 participants with an irregular heart rate notification and an analyzable confirmatory ambulatory ECG, the PPV of irregular rhythms for AF when using consumer-grade screening with reflex to medical-grade confirmation was 98.2%. 6

Overall Efficacy

The findings of two meta-analyses included high specificity (94%) and sensitivity (96%) for AF detection with smartphones and noninferiority of smartwatches compared with medical-grade devices. 7,8

Benefits Compared With Medical-Grade Monitoring

• They are more widely available. 4
• They do not require a prescription.
• They can detect arrhythmias independently of ECG checks when the patient is free of symptoms.
• They have very high sensitivity and specificity for detecting AF. 7,8
• They can help monitor patients with established asymptomatic AF to assess AF rate and burden.

Limitations Compared With Medical-Grade Devices

• They are not worn continuously and need to be removed for charging. Therefore, their sensitivity for infrequent paroxysmal arrhythmias is lower.
• The specificity for arrhythmias with regular R-R intervals is very poor. 9
• Monitoring in patients with a low pretest probability of arrhythmias increases the false-positive rate.
• There are no guideline recommendations on what to do with information from consumer-grade devices.
• The large volume of data obtained from consumer-grade devices may further contribute to an already strained clinician workforce.

Future Directions

Given the higher false-positive rate in patients with a low pretest probability of AF, future studies need to determine the patients most likely to benefit from ambulatory monitoring. Further, it is unknown whether increased AF detection on consumer-grade heart rhythm monitoring increases appropriate anticoagulation prescription or lowers cardioembolic stroke risk.

The ongoing Heartline Study will assess the impact of AF detection with the Apple Watch on clinical outcomes. The primary endpoint is the time from randomization to the detection of AF. Secondary endpoints include health resource utilization, cost-effectiveness, and a composite including stroke, heart failure hospitalization, and all-cause death. 10

• Freedman B, Potpara TS, Lip GYH. Stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation. Lancet 2016;388:806-17.
• Perez MV, Mahaffey KW, Hedlin H, et al.; Apple Heart Study Investigators. Large-scale assessment of a smartwatch to identify atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2019;381:1909-17.
• Koh KT, Law WC, Zaw WM, et al. Smartphone electrocardiogram for detecting atrial fibrillation after a cerebral ischaemic event: a multicentre randomized controlled trial. Europace 2021;23:1016-23.
• Halcox JPJ, Wareham K, Cardew A, et al. Assessment of remote heart rhythm sampling using the AliveCor heart monitor to screen for atrial fibrillation: the REHEARSE-AF study. Circulation 2017;136:1784-94.
• Statista. Number of active users of Fitbit from 2012 to 2022 (in millions) (Statista website). 2023. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/472600/fitbit-active-users/ . Accessed 05/15/2024.
• Lubitz SA, Faranesh AZ, Selvaggi C, et al. Detection of atrial fibrillation in a large population using wearable devices: the Fitbit Heart Study. Circulation 2022;146:1415-24.
• Prasitlumkum N, Cheungpasitporn W, Chokesuwattanaskul A, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of smart gadgets/wearable devices in detecting atrial fibrillation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2021;114:4-16.
• Elbey MA, Young D, Kanuri SH, et al. Diagnostic utility of smartwatch technology for atrial fibrillation detection - a systematic analysis. J Atr Fibrillation 2021;13:[ePub ahead of print].
• Rajakariar K, Koshy AN, Sajeev JK, Nair S, Roberts L, Teh AW. Modified positioning of a smartphone based single-lead electrocardiogram device improves detection of atrial flutter. J Electrocardiol 2018;51:884-8.
• Gibson CM, Steinhubl S, Lakkireddy D, et al.; Heartline Steering Committee. Does early detection of atrial fibrillation reduce the risk of thromboembolic events? Rationale and design of the Heartline study. Am Heart J 2023;259:30-41.

Clinical Topics: Arrhythmias and Clinical EP, Atrial Fibrillation/Supraventricular Arrhythmias

Keywords: Atrial Fibrillation, Wearable Electronic Devices

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Judge orders Tom Horne to pay $123,000 in fees after Arizona dual language case tossed

A judge has ordered Tom Horne, the Arizona public schools chief, to pay more than $123,000 in attorneys fees after his lawsuit seeking to bar English learners from participating in dual language programs was tossed.

Maricopa County Superior Court Judge Katherine Cooper said in a May 28 ruling that Horne is responsible for paying the legal fees incurred by Gov. Katie Hobbs, Attorney General Kris Mayes and 10 school districts in defending the lawsuit filed against them by Horne in 2023.

Cooper dismissed Horne's lawsuit in March , saying he did not have the legal authority under state law to file it. In tossing out Horne's lawsuit, Cooper also said that even if Horne did have the authority, he failed to state justifiable claims against the defendants that could be resolved by the court.

Horne's lawsuit argued that dual language programs that include students classified as English learners violate a ballot measure, Proposition 203, approved by voters in 2000. The measure mandates that English learners only be taught in English.

Students enrolled in dual language programs, which are growing in popularity in Arizona , spend half the day receiving instruction in English and half the day in Spanish. Some school districts in Arizona also offer dual language programs in English and Mandarin Chinese.

Arizona Department of Education spokesman Doug Nick said Horne and his legal counsel were still reviewing the order to pay attorneys fees and had no further comment.

Richie Taylor, the attorney general's spokesperson, said in a written statement that Mayes was grateful for the court's ruling.

"It should be a signal ... that he never should have brought this case in the first place and that his time would be better spent supporting our state's public schools rather than suing them," Taylor said.

Hobbs did not immediately respond to a request for comment.

The judge ordered Horne to pay the governor $44,247 in attorneys fees and the attorney general $38,360. Cooper also ordered Horne to pay the 10 school districts named in the lawsuit a total of $41,303 in attorneys fees.

Horne initiative: Education Department wants more schools to have fentanyl overdose medication

Horne, a staunch supporter of English-only immersion programs, has waged a battle against dual language programs since he was elected to lead the Arizona Department of Education in 2022.

In 2020, the Arizona Board of Education approved using dual language programs to teach students classified as English learners, in addition to three English immersion models.

The board added a dual language model to teach English learners after the state Legislature passed — and former Gov. Doug Ducey signed — legislation that directed the board to develop research-based models intended to give school districts more flexibility in teaching English learners within the framework of Proposition 203.

The legislation was passed unanimously after data showed that English learners were not adequately learning English and were falling behind academically under the previous Proposition 203 implementation framework.

Horne, however, contends students who are not proficient in English learn best in English immersion programs and argues they are prohibited from participating in dual language programs under Proposition 203.

After Cooper tossed out Horne's lawsuit in March, Horne's wife, attorney Carmen Chenal Horne, filed a new lawsuit on behalf of a Scottsdale parent that accuses the Creighton Elementary School District in Phoenix, along with Creighton Superintendent Jay Mann and all five Creighton Elementary School District governing board members, of running an unlawful dual language program.

Arizona has a large student population classified as English language learners. About 93,000 students were classified as English learners in the 2021-22 school year, making up about 8.5% of the overall 1.1 million K-12 public school enrollment.

In dispute: Horne said Arizona schools confused about funding did not check emails. Here's what records show

Reach the reporter at [email protected] .