backstroke swimming essay

Mastering the Backstroke Swimming: the Techniques and Benefits of this Efficient Swimming Style

Are you ready to dive into the world of backstroke swimming? In this comprehensive guide, we will unravel the techniques, benefits, and intricacies of this highly efficient swimming style. Whether you’re a beginner looking to improve your form or an experienced swimmer seeking to enhance your performance, mastering the backstroke is a skill worth honing. So, let’s jump in and explore the ins and outs of this graceful and powerful stroke.

The History of Backstroke Swimming: Tracing its Origins and Evolution

In order to truly appreciate the art of backstroke swimming, it is essential to delve into its rich history. Backstroke can be traced back to ancient times, with depictions of swimmers floating on their backs found in ancient Egyptian and Greek artwork. However, it wasn’t until the late 19th century that backstroke began to emerge as a distinct swimming style.

A significant milestone in the evolution of backstroke was the development of the “Trudgen” stroke by John Trudgen in the 1870s. This stroke involved a combination of arm movements, with one arm executing a double overarm pull while the other arm performed a regular sidestroke. Although the Trudgen stroke was eventually banned in competitive swimming, it laid the foundation for the modern backstroke technique.

As the sport continued to evolve, backstroke gained recognition and was officially included in the Olympic Games in 1900. Over the years, various modifications were made to improve efficiency and speed. Notably, the introduction of the “shoulder roll” technique in the 1930s revolutionized backstroke swimming by allowing swimmers to generate more power and maintain a streamlined body position.

Today, backstroke is a highly refined and technically demanding swimming style. It has become a staple in competitive swimming events, showcasing the skill and prowess of athletes worldwide. With its fascinating history and continuous evolution, backstroke remains a captivating discipline that continues to captivate swimmers of all levels.

Understanding the Basics: Body Position, Arm Movement, and Leg Action

Mastering the fundamentals is crucial for developing a strong backstroke technique. Let’s dive into the key elements that contribute to a successful backstroke.

1. Body Position:

Achieving the correct body position is paramount in backstroke swimming. Lie flat on your back with your body aligned horizontally in the water. Keep your head in a neutral position, eyes focused on the ceiling or sky. Engage your core muscles to maintain a stable and streamlined body position throughout the stroke.

2. Arm Movement:

The arm movement in backstroke involves an alternating motion. As one arm extends forward, the other arm sweeps backward in a semicircular motion. When the arm reaches the hip, initiate the recovery phase by lifting it out of the water and extending it back to the starting position. Maintain a steady and rhythmic arm movement to maximize propulsion.

3. Leg Action:

Efficient leg action plays a vital role in backstroke swimming. Your legs should execute a flutter kick, with your toes pointed and legs straight. Generate power from your hips, allowing your legs to kick in an up-and-down motion. Avoid excessive knee bending or wide leg movements, as they can hinder your speed and efficiency in the water.

By focusing on these fundamental aspects of backstroke swimming, you can establish a solid foundation for further skill development. Practice these techniques with patience and precision, and you’ll be well on your way to becoming a proficient backstroke swimmer.

Perfecting Your Backstroke Technique: Tips and Drills for Improved Performance

Refining your backstroke technique is essential for maximizing your performance in the water. Here are some valuable tips and drills to help you perfect your backstroke:

1. Focus on Rotation:

A proper shoulder rotation is crucial for an efficient backstroke. As your arm enters the water, initiate a slight roll of your body to the opposite side, allowing your shoulder to lead the way. This rotation helps increase your reach and power during each stroke cycle.

2. Develop a Strong Kick:

Your kick plays a significant role in propelling you forward. To improve your kick, incorporate kickboard drills into your training routine. Focus on maintaining a steady and consistent flutter kick, ensuring that your legs remain close together with minimal splashing.

3. Enhance Arm Recovery:

The recovery phase of your arm movement should be smooth and efficient. Practice drills that emphasize a relaxed and controlled recovery, allowing your arm to glide effortlessly over the water’s surface. Avoid unnecessary tension or excessive splashing during this phase.

4. Utilize Underwater Dolphin Kicks:

To gain an extra burst of speed during backstroke, master the technique of underwater dolphin kicks. As your arms recover, execute a series of powerful dolphin kicks, propelling yourself forward underwater. This technique is particularly effective during starts and turns.

By incorporating these tips and drills into your training regimen, you can fine-tune your backstroke technique and elevate your performance to new heights. Remember to practice consistently and seek feedback from coaches or experienced swimmers to further refine your skills.

Common Mistakes to Avoid: Troubleshooting Your Backstroke Form

Even the most experienced swimmers can fall into bad habits or make common mistakes in their backstroke technique. By identifying and correcting these errors, you can significantly improve your form and overall performance. Here are some common mistakes to watch out for:

1. Sinking Hips:

One of the most prevalent mistakes in backstroke is allowing your hips to sink too low in the water. This can create drag and hinder your forward momentum. Focus on engaging your core muscles and maintaining a horizontal body position to keep your hips at the water’s surface.

2. Crossing Arms:

Some swimmers have a tendency to cross their arms over their body during the recovery phase. This can lead to inefficient arm movement and reduce your stroke’s power. Ensure that your arms follow a straight and parallel path, entering and exiting the water at shoulder-width apart.

3. Overkicking or Underkicking:

Striking the right balance with your kick is crucial in backstroke. Overkicking with large, exaggerated movements can cause excessive splashing and waste energy. On the other hand, underkicking with weak leg action can result in reduced propulsion. Aim for a steady, moderate flutter kick that complements your arm movements.

4. Incorrect Head Position:

Keeping your head tilted too far back or too far forward can disrupt your body’s alignment and affect your stroke efficiency. Maintain a neutral head position, with your eyes focused straight up or slightly forward to maintain a streamlined body position.

By being aware of these common mistakes and actively working to correct them, you can refine your backstroke technique and enhance your overall swimming performance. Remember, practice and attention to detail are key to overcoming these challenges and swimming with improved form.

Advanced Backstroke Techniques: Exploring Underwater Dolphin Kicks and Shoulder Rotation

For those looking to take their backstroke to the next level, incorporating advanced techniques can greatly enhance your speed and efficiency in the water. Let’s delve into two key techniques: underwater dolphin kicks and shoulder rotation.

1. Underwater Dolphin Kicks:

Mastering the art of underwater dolphin kicks can give you a significant advantage in backstroke races. After completing your arm pull, submerge yourself underwater and execute a series of powerful dolphin kicks. This undulating motion generates propulsion and allows you to maintain your speed during transitions and turns. Practice proper timing and coordination between your arm strokes and kicks to maximize the effectiveness of this technique.

2. Shoulder Rotation:

To enhance your arm pull and increase your stroke power, focus on incorporating shoulder rotation into your backstroke. As your arm enters the water, initiate a slight rotation of your body to the opposite side, allowing your shoulder to lead the movement. This rotation allows for a longer and more powerful stroke, enabling you to generate more propulsion and maintain a streamlined body position. Practice drills that specifically target shoulder rotation to improve your execution and efficiency.

It’s important to note that mastering these advanced techniques requires practice, patience, and guidance from experienced coaches or instructors. Gradually incorporate them into your training sessions, focusing on proper form and technique. With dedication and persistence, you can unlock the full potential of your backstroke and elevate your swimming performance to new heights.

Developing Strength and Endurance for Backstroke: Dryland Exercises and Training Regimens

Building strength and endurance is essential for excelling in backstroke swimming. In addition to pool training, incorporating dryland exercises can help improve your overall fitness and performance. Let’s explore some effective exercises and training regimens to enhance your backstroke:

1. Core Strength:

A strong core is crucial for maintaining stability and generating power in backstroke. Incorporate exercises such as planks, Russian twists, and flutter kicks to target your abdominal muscles, obliques, and lower back. Strengthening your core will improve your body position and enhance your stroke efficiency.

2. Upper Body Strength:

Developing upper body strength is vital for a powerful backstroke. Include exercises like pull-ups, lat pulldowns, and bent-over rows to strengthen your back, shoulders, and arms. These exercises will improve your pull phase and overall stroke power.

3. Cardiovascular Endurance:

Backstroke races require sustained cardiovascular endurance. Incorporate aerobic exercises like swimming, running, cycling, or rowing into your training regimen. Aim for longer durations at a moderate intensity to build your stamina and improve your ability to maintain a consistent pace throughout a race.

4. Flexibility and Mobility:

Improving flexibility and mobility can enhance your range of motion and contribute to a more fluid backstroke technique. Incorporate stretching exercises that target your shoulders, hips, and back. Consider activities like yoga or Pilates to improve your overall flexibility and body alignment.

Design a well-rounded dryland training program that includes a mix of these exercises and regimens. Consult with a qualified trainer or coach to tailor the program to your specific needs and goals. By incorporating dryland exercises into your training routine, you can enhance your physical strength, endurance, and overall performance in backstroke swimming.

Backstroke vs. Other Swimming Styles: A Comparative Analysis

Backstroke is just one of the four major swimming styles, each with its own unique characteristics and techniques. Let’s compare backstroke to other popular swimming styles and explore their similarities and differences:

1. Freestyle (Front Crawl):

Freestyle, also known as front crawl, is characterized by its continuous alternating arm movements and flutter kick. Unlike backstroke, freestyle is swum on the stomach, with the face in the water. Both backstroke and freestyle rely on rhythmic arm and leg coordination, core engagement, and a streamlined body position.

2. Breaststroke:

Breaststroke is distinct from backstroke in terms of its arm and leg movements. Breaststroke involves a simultaneous arm pull followed by a frog-like kick. Unlike backstroke, breaststroke requires a coordinated glide phase and the head remains above the water throughout the stroke cycle.

3. Butterfly:

Butterfly is perhaps the most physically demanding swimming style. It features a symmetrical arm movement known as the “butterfly pull” and a dolphin kick. Unlike backstroke, butterfly requires simultaneous arm movement and an undulating body motion. Both backstroke and butterfly require a strong core, good body control, and precise timing.

While backstroke shares some similarities with other swimming styles, it has its own distinct characteristics that make it a unique discipline. Understanding the similarities and differences between backstroke and other styles can help you appreciate the diversity of swimming techniques and choose the style that best suits your preferences and abilities.

The Importance of Breathing: Strategies for Efficient Oxygen Intake in Backstroke

Breathing is a critical aspect of backstroke swimming, as it ensures a steady supply of oxygen to fuel your muscles and maintain your performance. Let’s explore the importance of proper breathing techniques and strategies for efficient oxygen intake in backstroke:

1. Rhythmic Breathing:

Establishing a consistent breathing pattern is key to maintaining a steady rhythm in backstroke. Most swimmers prefer to breathe every other stroke, allowing them to alternate between the left and right sides. Find a breathing pattern that works for you and practice maintaining a steady rhythm throughout your swim.

Timing is crucial when it comes to breathing in backstroke. Ideally, you should start your breath as soon as your recovering arm exits the water and your body starts to rotate. This allows for a smooth and efficient inhalation without disrupting your stroke rhythm or body position.

3. Head Position:

Keeping your head in the correct position is vital for effective breathing in backstroke. As you rotate your body, slightly lift your chin toward the chest to clear the water’s surface. Avoid lifting your head excessively, as it can disrupt your body alignment and increase drag.

4. Exhalation:

Proper exhalation is often overlooked in backstroke, but it is just as important as inhalation. Exhale continuously and steadily through your mouth or nose while your face is in the water. This ensures efficient exchange of gases and prepares you for a quick inhalation during the breathing phase.

By focusing on these breathing strategies and techniques, you can optimize your oxygen intake, enhance your endurance, and maintain a smooth and efficient backstroke. Practice these skills during your training sessions and gradually incorporate them into your swim routine for improved performance in the water.

Backstroke Racing Strategies: Tactics to Gain the Competitive Edge

When it comes to backstroke racing, employing effective strategies can give you a competitive advantage over your opponents. Let’s explore some key tactics to enhance your backstroke racing performance:

1. Fast Starts:

A powerful and streamlined start sets the tone for a successful backstroke race. Practice your backstroke starts to ensure a quick and explosive push-off from the wall. Maintain a tight streamline position and execute crisp underwater dolphin kicks to maximize your initial speed.

2. Tempo Control:

Controlling your stroke tempo is crucial in backstroke racing. Find a pace that allows you to maintain consistency throughout the race without sacrificing speed. Avoid starting too fast and burning out early or starting too slow and struggling to catch up. Practice maintaining a steady stroke rate during training to develop a good sense of tempo.

3. Strategic Turns:

Efficient turns are vital in backstroke racing. Approach the wall with a strong and controlled backstroke arm pull, followed by a swift rotation onto your stomach. Execute a powerful underwater dolphin kick off the wall to maximize your propulsion and maintain momentum during each turn.

4. Strong Finish:

Finish the race with a burst of speed and determination. As you approach the wall for the final touch, increase your stroke rate and kick intensity to give it your all. Practice sprinting the final meters of your backstroke races during training to build your finishing strength and endurance.

By incorporating these racing strategies into your backstroke training and races, you can gain a competitive edge and improve your chances of achieving your goals. Experiment with different tactics, analyze your performance, and adapt your strategy based on the specific race conditions and competition level. Remember, consistent practice and attention to race strategies can make a significant difference in your backstroke racing performance.

Benefits of Backstroke Swimming: Enhancing Fitness, Flexibility, and Posture

Backstroke swimming offers numerous benefits that go beyond its competitive nature. Let’s explore how incorporating backstroke into your swimming routine can improve your overall fitness, flexibility, and posture:

1. Full-Body Workout:

Backstroke engages multiple muscle groups simultaneously, providing a comprehensive full-body workout. It targets your back, shoulders, core, arms, and legs, helping to build strength, endurance, and overall muscle tone.

2. Cardiovascular Fitness:

Backstroke is an excellent cardiovascular exercise that elevates your heart rate and improves cardiovascular health. Regular backstroke swimming can increase your lung capacity, enhance oxygen utilization, and boost overall cardiovascular fitness.

3. Joint-Friendly Exercise:

Unlike high-impact activities, backstroke swimming is a low-impact exercise that puts minimal stress on your joints. This makes it a suitable exercise for individuals with joint conditions or those recovering from injuries.

4. Improved Flexibility:

Backstroke requires a high degree of flexibility, particularly in the shoulders and hips. Regularly practicing backstroke can help improve your range of motion, enhance flexibility, and reduce the risk of muscle imbalances and stiffness.

5. Posture Correction:

Swimming backstroke can help correct poor posture caused by sedentary lifestyles or desk-bound jobs. The constant extension of the spine and engagement of the back muscles in backstroke swimming can contribute to better posture alignment over time.

By incorporating backstroke into your swimming routine, you can reap these incredible benefits and improve your overall physical health and well-being. Whether you swim competitively or simply enjoy recreational swimming, backstroke offers a rewarding and effective way to stay fit and maintain a healthy lifestyle.

In conclusion, mastering the art of backstroke swimming can greatly enhance your swimming abilities and overall fitness. By understanding the history, techniques, and advanced strategies of backstroke, you can refine your form and improve your performance in the water. From perfecting your body position and arm movement to incorporating advanced techniques like underwater dolphin kicks and shoulder rotation, there are endless opportunities for skill development and improvement.

Additionally, focusing on dryland exercises, such as core strength training and cardiovascular endurance workouts, can further enhance your backstroke swimming abilities. Moreover, comparing backstroke to other swimming styles provides valuable insights into the diversity and uniqueness of each technique.

Remember to pay attention to breathing techniques, implement effective racing strategies, and reap the numerous benefits that backstroke swimming offers, including improved fitness, flexibility, and posture. Whether you swim for competition or leisure, backstroke is a versatile and rewarding swimming style that can contribute to your overall health and well-being.

So, dive into the world of backstroke swimming, embrace the challenges, and enjoy the journey of becoming a proficient backstroke swimmer. With consistent practice, dedication, and a focus on continuous improvement, you can unlock your full potential and make a splash in the water.

As a passionate water enthusiast, I’ve spent my life exploring the depths of swimming and sharing my experiences with the world. Stroke Swimming is more than just a blog; it’s a deep dive into the world of swimming. Here, you’ll find a treasure trove of information, tips, and insights to help both beginners and seasoned swimmers enhance their skills, knowledge, and appreciation for this timeless art.

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• Elementary Backstroke: Swimming Technique and Tips

By Author Christophe Keller

Posted on Last updated: March 13, 2021

The elementary backstroke is a basic swimming technique that is easy to learn and, therefore, useful for improving your water confidence as a beginner.

As its name indicates, it is swum on the back and uses a simple arm stroke in conjunction with a  breaststroke kick  for propulsion.

Swimming Video

The following video demonstrates elementary backstroke:

Swimming Technique

We will now explain the swimming technique of the elementary backstroke.

Initial Position and Glide Phase

Let’s start with the initial position and glide phase:

1) Turn towards the wall and push yourself off the wall with your feet. Move into a horizontal position on your back.

2) Your head is in a neutral position, in line with your body.

3) Your face is above the water and turned upwards.

4) Your arms rest along your body.

5) Your palms face your body.

6) Your legs are extended and held together.

7) Glide a little before you start with the arm and leg movements.

First Active Phase – Chicken

1) Bend your elbows and draw your hands toward your armpits as if you wanted to tickle yourself.

2) At the same time, bend your knees and bring your feet toward your buttocks. Keep your legs together while you bend your knees.

3) To illustrate this position to children and make it more fun, you can call it chicken or monkey .

Second Active Phase – Eagle

4) Extend your arms sideways so that your body forms an X in the water. Your palms should face backward.

5) Spread your legs while simultaneously extending them.

6) For children, you can call this position eagle or plane .

Third Active Phase – Soldier

Finally, you perform the propulsive movements of this swimming stroke:

7) Move your outstretched arms backward and inward so that they push against the water and return to their starting position at your sides.

8) Simultaneously move your legs together again. This also provides propulsion and brings your legs back to their original position.

9) You can call this position  soldier  or  rocket  for children.

Glide for a few moments then start a new stroke cycle.

You inhale during the first phase of the swimming stroke, as you draw your arms up to your armpits and your legs up to your buttocks.

You exhale during the next stages of the stroke cycle, as your arms and legs move outward, backward , and inward back to the starting position.

Advantages of Elementary Backstroke

1) It is a swimming stroke that can be swum in a very relaxed way.

2) The elementary backstroke is swum on the back. This makes breathing straightforward as the face is turned upwards and held above the water surface.

Moreover, compared to regular backstroke , projections of water into the face are prevented, as the arms remain underwater.

3) The arm movements are simple, symmetrical, and synchronous and, therefore, easy to learn. Nevertheless, they are very effective.

4) The leg movements are also symmetrical and synchronous and relatively easy to learn. The leg movements are similar to the ones used in the breaststroke kick .

5) Finally, the arm and leg movements are also synchronous and are performed in the same direction.

The arms and legs move forward during the first phase of the stroke, then outward during the second phase, then backward and inward during the third phase of the stroke.

Disadvantages of Elementary Backstroke

1) The elementary backstroke is slower than the regular backstroke.

2) You must have a certain degree of balance in the supine position (on the back) before you can learn this swimming stroke.

3) Since you cannot look forward, it is difficult to swim in a straight line, and you must be careful not to hit the wall or another swimmer.

Additional Tips

1) Practice this stroke in shallow water, where you can quickly regain your feet if you are a novice swimmer.

2) If you are teaching children who cannot reach the bottom of the pool with their feet, you should stay close to them and support their head and back with your hands until they have mastered this swimming technique.

3) As described above, it can make sense for children to call the different swimming phases chicken , eagle , and rocket because they capture well the shape of the desired posture.

4) It can be useful to practice the head-lead supine balance drill before learning elementary backstroke.

5) It can be useful to practice the arm and leg movements on solid ground first.

6) It can be useful to practice the arm and leg movements separately in the water using a  pull buoy  and a  kickboard , respectively.

7) You will be more relaxed if you wear  swimming goggles  and a  nose clip  because they keep the water out of your eyes and nose.

8) You can use a  swimming noodle  to support your back while swimming the elementary backstroke.

Related Pages

You may also be interested in the following articles that cover basic swimming techniques:

• Learn Basic Swimming Techniques
• Overcoming Fear of Water and Swimming
• Getting Over My Fear of Swimming
• Front Crawl / Freestyle Swimming Technique: The Flutter Kick
• How To Do Starfish Float – Basic Swimming Technique
• Breaststroke Kick – Swimming Technique and Tips
• Learn Sculling Water, a Basic Swimming Technique
• How to Tread Water – Techniques and Drills
• How to Dog Paddle – Swimming Technique and Exercises
• Enjoy Swimming Home

Tuesday 20th of June 2023

I have a torn rotator cuff that am not going to be able to fix for some years. Finding exercises I can still do has been difficult but the side stroke (on one side only) and elementary backstroke are both fine.

Wednesday 21st of June 2023

Thanks for sharing that insight. And I hope you'll eventually be able to fix your shoulder.

All the best,

Stephen Williams

Saturday 5th of March 2022

Over the years I altered this stroke by kicking the feet and at time simply dragging the feet to give the arms more exercise. I’m just getting back in the pool after several years. I’m motivated to swim rather than use machines. I’m curious about how much energy I’m burning doing this stroke. I am up to 1hr 15 min using it. My ruten when I was younger was forward swimming 1/2 lap and emergency backstroke second half of the lap. This time out I have just been doing the this backstroke.

Mary Conton

Thursday 16th of August 2018

Up, out, together and glide. Love the Elementary Backstroke. No pain on my joints.

The breaststroke or the crawl kill my joints.

Hoping to find something on the side stroke. I don't seem to have pain with this stroke either.

Sunday 22nd of July 2018

This article really helped, thank you!

I love doing this, though I’d forgotten the name.

I have had a bad injury in my left knee, but the damage is not to the point my orthopedist feels knee replacement should be undertaken.

So low impact exercise, yay, I love being in the water.

I was going to do a water aerobics class, but it seemed so slow, that I decided to water walk in a lane. Then got to the deep end and kind of fell into the elementary backstroke.

I only swim the deep end of an indoor Olympic sized pool, but am now doing 25 laps, going by back and forth.

Now I’m ready to move to regular backstroke, but have to get the rolling motion in, to keep water from my face and not wind up with sinus and respiratory junk.

The knee problem is so much better, and overall joy if moving through the water again is beyond description.

Monday 23rd of July 2018

Hi Ashleigh,

This is a nice story which brought a smile to my face. I'm glad to hear that swimming is giving you so much joy and improving your health.

Ilia Korboukh Sr.

Sunday 15th of July 2018

Hi Christophe,

My back pain disappears after I do the following stretching in water exercise originated from elementary backstroke.

1) Starting the exercise, I lay in the water on my back with both hands in the cruciform position.

2) I keep my body on the water surface by moving my legs up and down in alternated fashion.

3) Following your suggestion, I also use a water noodle by placing it under my back.

4) From this starting position, I move my hands as far as I can above my head, and maintain such 'surrender' position 2-3 min.

5) Then I return to the starting position and repeat stretching again.

As with all other exercises that I used, the healing effect against back pain is temporary.

Still, this simple exercise in water deserves to be tried.

Sounds interesting. I'll give it a try the next time I'm at the pool.

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• J Hum Kinet
• v.42; 2014 Sep 29

The Backstroke Swimming Start: State of the Art

Karla de jesus.

1 Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.

Kelly de Jesus

Ricardo j. fernandes.

2 Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.

João Paulo Vilas-Boas

Ross sanders.

3 Centre for Aquatics Research and Education, Institute for Sport, Physical Education, and Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.

4 Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.

As sprint swimming events can be decided by margins as small as .01 s, thus, an effective start is essential. This study reviews and discusses the ‘state of the art’ literature regarding backstroke start biomechanics from 23 documents. These included two swimming specific publications, eight peer-reviewed journal articles, three from the Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming Congress series, eight from the International Society of Biomechanics in Sports Conference Proceedings, one from a Biomechanics Congress and one academic (PhD) thesis. The studies had diverse aims, including swimmers’ proficiency levels and data collection settings. There was no single consensus for defining phase descriptions; and kinematics, kinetics and EMG approaches were implemented in laboratory settings. However, researchers face great challenges in improving methods of quantifying valid, reliable and accurate data between laboratory and competition conditions. For example, starting time was defined from the starting signal to distances as disparate as ∼5 m to 22.86 m in several studies. Due to recent rule changes, some of the research outcomes now refer to obsolete backstroke start techniques, and only a few studies considered the actual international rules. This literature review indicated that further research is required, in both laboratory and competition settings focusing on the combined influences of the current rules and block configuration on backstroke starting performances.

Introduction

The total swimming race time is the sum of the starting, stroking and turning times ( Guimarães and Hay, 1985 ). The start is the swimming race fastest part ( Thow et al., 2012 ) and, if performed effectively, can influence race finishing position ( Arellano et al., 2003 ; Cossor and Mason, 2001 ; Girold et al., 2001 ; Thanopoulos et al., 2012 ). In fact, nearly all the small temporal differences in the short distance events (i.e., 50 m and 100 m) might be explained by the starting efficiency ( Ikuta et al., 2001 ). For instance, at 15 m after the start, the second-place finisher of men’s 100 m backstroke at Barcelona 2013 Swimming World Championships was 0.20 s slower than the eventual winner, and the final race time difference was 0.19 s. The importance of the start is emphasized further in that the time differences between individual international level swimmers at 15 m after the start can vary by 0.30 s in the same race ( Vantorre et al., 2010 ).

Backstroke is the only competitive swimming technique in which the swimmer starts in the water. In accordance with the backstroke start rules at the Federation Internationale de Natation (FINA) from earlier 1960s to 2005, swimmers grasped the handgrips and placed their entirely immersed feet on the wall. Gripping one’s toes on the pool gutter was not allowed. FINA backstroke start rules for feet positioning were modified by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) from the early 1960s to 1990 to allow swimmers to curl their toes over the starting wall gutter. However, from 1991 to 2006 the feet positioning was restricted to underwater. This modification was made to prevent injuries in competitive swimming involving backstroke starts (Cornett et al., 2011). From 2005, FINA established that swimmers must position their hands on the starting grips and their feet totally or partially immersed or entirely out of the water without using the gutter (SW 6.1, FINA, 2005–2009). The alleged advantages of feet placed high on the wall to generate greater horizontal take-off velocity ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ), vertical peak force ( Nguyen et al., 2014 ), and consequently faster start times ( Nguyen et al., 2014 ), might be considered the main reason for the respective rule adaptation. After the 2008 Olympic Games, the FINA approved a new designed starting block (OSB11, Corgémont, Switzerland), which included a back plate and three different backstroke start handgrips (i.e., two horizontal and one vertical) (FR 2.7, FINA 2009–2012). Recently, a non-slip wedge was authorised by FINA for feet placement during backstroke starts (FR 2.7, FINA, 2013–2017).

Despite the controversies between ruling authorities, and considerable swimming and facility backstroke start rule changes recently authorized by FINA, researchers have mainly attempted to analyse the ventral start biomechanics (e.g. Takeda et al., 2012 ). The greater quantity of ventral start studies is firstly justified by the greater quantity of events that begin from a starting block rather than in water ( Theut and Jensen, 2006 ). Also, prior to recent rule changes, some controversies were possible with the dorsal, in-water start positions performed under the FINA rules ( Vilas-Boas and Fernandes, 2003 ) and the difficulties concerning the underwater experimental set-up arrangements. Cornett et al. (2011) mentioned the non-existence of documented catastrophic injuries in competitive swimming backstroke starts as one reason for the scarce research. The backstroke start has been considered a more difficult and complex movement than the ventral techniques ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ). It involves different skills to achieve the mechanical goals ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ; Maglischo, 2003 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ) and more scientific evidence is required.

The importance of swimming starts for enabling backstrokers to improve overall performances due to swimming rule changes and starting block modifications, makes it a valuable process to synthesise the scientific knowledge relating to backstroke starts. Literature reviews published regarding ventral start techniques were conducted by Vilas-Boas and Fernandes (2003) and Vantorre et al. (2014) . This paper reviews the ‘state of the art’ regarding the biomechanics of backstroke starts. It underscores the gaps in and limitations of existing knowledge, and presents topics for future research to enable coaches and swimmers to better refine backstroke start training.

Material and Methods

Search strategy.

The literature search was performed using PubMed, SportDiscus™, Scopus and ISI Web of Knowledge electronic databases, only for English written documents published before March 2014. Key words including “swimming”, “backstroke” and “start” were used to locate documents. Besides the electronic databases, the identified reference lists in the articles were also used to ensure, as far as practically possible, that all appropriate studies were considered for inclusion. Searches were carried out from the Proceedings of the Scientific Conferences of Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming (BMS), the International Society of Biomechanics in Sports (ISBS), and the International Society of Biomechanics (ISB) from 1980 to 2013.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Included studies were experimental biomechanical approaches in the laboratory or during competitions with able-bodied swimmers. The documents that were available only as abstracts and duplicated studies from original investigations were excluded.

Results and Discussion

General findings.

Eighty-seven references were obtained from the preliminary search. Ultimately, 23 studies met the inclusion criteria: (i) two from swimming specific journals; (ii) eight peer-review journal articles; (iii) three from the proceedings of the BMS conferences; (iv) eight from proceedings of the ISBS conferences; (v) one from proceedings of an ISB Biomechanics Conference, and (vi) one doctoral thesis ( Table 1 ).

Descriptive analysis of the 22 included studies with the authors, main aim, swimmer’s sample proficiency and data collection setting

Table 1 reveals a large variation in experimental designs that were used. Most of the studies analysed the different backstroke start variations performed under FINA rules (86.5%). Overall, studies included Olympic, International and National backstroke swimmers, who were able to master the aspects of the already tested backstroke starting techniques. The research settings included laboratory and competition analyses performed in the Commonwealth Games ( Miller et al., 1984 ), Olympic Games ( Arellano et al., 2001 ; Cossor and Mason, 2001 ; Chatard et al., 2003 ; Girold et al., 2001 ; Ikuta et al., 2001 ), Youth Olympics ( Arellano et al., 2003 ), Age Group Swim Meeting (Cornett et al., 2011), and European Championships ( Siljeg et al., 2011 ). The biomechanical settings in high calibre events might be more advantageous than the laboratorial conditions to obtain valid performance outcomes ( Toubekis et al., 2013 ; Schwameder, 2008 ). Otherwise, the competition rules often hamper the use of biomechanical methodology, thereby narrowing the possibility of obtaining accurate and reliable data ( Schwameder, 2008 ).

The above mentioned factors, along with a limited number of existing studies, restrict quantitative assessments of the backstroke start variables. Therefore, a qualitative description was developed on relevant backstroke start evidence. This included the separate features of the starting phases, the biomechanical approaches used, and the start techniques and variations for which the main findings have been reported.

Backstroke starting phases

The hands-off, take-off and flight are the most common aerial starting phases studied ( Figure 1 ). However, the respective descriptions vary in the literature, with disparities that hamper communication among biomechanists, coaches and swimmers. In fact, breaking down a swim-start into its component parts can be challenging as each phase is not always clear cut ( Vantorre et al., 2014 ). The hands-off and take-off phases are characterised by actions performed when swimmers are in contact with the starting wall. The beginning of the hands-off phase is determined by the starting signal ( Figure 1 ) ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ; Green, 1987 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Miller et al., 1984 ) and the swimmer’s first observable movement ( Hohmann et al., 2008 ). Considering the take-off phase, authors determined the starting signal ( Cossor and Mason, 2001 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Miller et al., 1984 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Stratten, 1970 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ), and the hands-off ( de Jesus et al., 2010 ; 2011a ; 2011b ; 2013 ; Green, 1987 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ) ( Figure 1 ) as the instant of the beginning phase. This was also observed in ventral start studies ( Takeda et al., 2012 ; Thanopoulos et al., 2012 ; Vantorre et al., 2010 ), where the hands-off was less analysed than the take-off in backstroke start studies.

The most common starting phases and respective initial and final instants reported in the included studies, the starting signal, swimmer’s hands-off, swimmer’s feet take-off, swimmer’s fingertip water contact, swimmer’s full body immersion and beginning of lower limbs propulsive movements

The beginning of the flight phase was unanimously described as the instant of take-off by the feet ( Cossor and Mason, 2001 ; de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ; Green, 1987 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Miller et al., 1984 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ) ( Figure 1 ). However, authors differed regarding the conclusions for flight. These included: the instant that the head contacted the water ( Cossor and Mason, 2001 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ), the instant of the hip entry ( Hohmann et al., 2008 ) and fingertip water contact ( de Jesus et al., 2010 ; 2011a ; 2013 ; Green, 1987 ; Miller et al., 1984 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ) ( Figure 1 ). According to Maglischo (2003) , the fingertip water contact is widely used to determine the end of the flight phase ( Vantorre et al., 2014 ). The head and/or fingertip water contact could be a more appropriate reference point than the hip entry, since swimmers could immerse the hips before the hands/head contact the water ( Takeda et al., 2014 ).

Aerial/In water and underwater phases

The entry and glide are the commonly studied aerial/in-water and underwater phases, respectively ( Figure 1 ). As previously reported in ventral start studies, these phases have been less analysed than the aerial phases, even though they contribute to reaching a considerable distance from the wall at the beginning of a race ( Vantorre et al., 2014 ). Further, contradictory definitions were found for some specific points of measurement.

The beginning of the entry phase corresponds to the final instant of the flight; and, for which, definitions differ among authors ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; Green, 1987 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ). The end of the entry phase is defined as the maximum feet depth from the first downward underwater kicking by Hohmann et al. (2008) but the full body immersion by de Jesus et al. (2011a) and Green (1987) . Full body immersion is considered to be the end of the entry phase in ventral start studies ( Vantorre et al., 2010 ) ( Figure 1 ).

Authors have defined the glide phase as beginning at the instant entry ends until the maximum feet depth of the second downward underwater kick is reached ( Hohmann et al., 2008 ), the hands reach the 5 m mark ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ), and/or the instant before underwater kicking commences ( Green, 1987 ). In competition, Miller et al. (1984) defined the glide phase as being from when the fingertips made first water contact, until the first hand which came out of the water at the end of the glide, re-enters the water. Cossor and Mason (2001) considered the entry, glide and undulatory underwater movements as one combined parameter.

In previous ventral start studies, authors divided the underwater phase into two parts: the glide ( Guimarães and Hay, 1985 ; Thow et al., 2012 ; Vantorre et al., 2010 ) and the undulatory underwater swimming ( Vantorre et al., 2010 ). This convention was adopted by de Jesus et al. (2012) for the backstroke start. The glide phase does not include lower limb propulsive movements ( Guimarães and Hay, 1985 ; Thow et al., 2012 ; Vantorre et al., 2014 ) ( Figure 1 ). Hence, future studies should examine if the underwater kicking observed by Hohmann et al. (2008) as soon as the feet entered the water, provides any advantage over a period of motionless gliding during the start.

Biomechanical approaches and parameters assessed

Despite some authors using immediate feedback devices such as stopwatches ( Green et al., 1987 ; Stratten, 1970 ) and velocimeters ( de Jesus et al., 2012 ), 82.6% of the studies assessed backstroke start kinematics using video-based techniques ( Arellano et al., 2001 ; Arellano et al., 2003 ; Chatard et al., 2003 ; Cornett et al., 2011; Cossor and Mason, 2001 ; de Jesus et al., 2010 ; 2011a ; 2013 ; Girold et al., 2001 ; Green, 1987 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Ikuta et al., 2001 ; Miller et al., 1984 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Rea and Soth, 1967 ; Siljeg et al., 2011 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ; Theut and Jensen, 2006 ; Wilson and Howard, 1983 ). Only Green (1987) used a three-dimensional (3D) dual-media setting via cinematographic cameras.

Most studies used digital cameras to provide independent aerial, underwater or combined dual-media analysis. In competition settings, cameras were positioned 18 m above the swimming pool ( Arellano et al., 2001 ; Cossor and Mason, 2001 ; Girold et al., 2001 ; Ikuta et al., 2001 ) and along the side of the pool, 15 m from the starting block wall ( Arellano et al., 2003 ); or underwater at 6.5 m from the starting block wall (Cornett et al., 2011). Studies conducted under laboratory conditions, used aerial and underwater cameras positioned at 6.78 m ( de Jesus et al., 2010 ; 2011a ; 2013 ) and 7.5 m ( Takeda et al., 2014 ), both from the primary swimmer’s plane of motion, and 30 cm above- and below-water surface ( de Jesus et al., 2010 ; 2011a ; 2013 ). Takeda et al. (2014) also described the dual-media cameras as positioned above the pool side deck and 1 m below the water surface; while Theut and Jensen (2006) implemented the same above-water camera position but the underwater camera in the corner of the swimming pool. Hohmann et al. (2008) and Nguyen et al. (2014) did not provide further details about the dual-media camera positions.

Quantitative data processing from digital cameras usually requires a coordinate scale and prevents immediate results due to the need for manual digitising ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ; Theut and Jensen, 2006 ). Furthermore, the digitisation and reconstruction errors associated with this procedure require authors to measure the errors. However, only de Jesus et al. (2011a ; 2013 ) and Takeda et al. (2014) displayed these values. In competition settings, challenges increase because the competition regulations make it difficult to use the most accurate biomechanical methodology ( Schwameder, 2008 ) which requires researchers to use parts of the swimming pool to create a digitising scale ( Miller et al., 1984 ). The automatic tracking motion analysis systems have been considered highly reliable for 3D underwater analysis ( Kudo and Lee, 2010 ). However, further validation and reliability testing is required to establish its viability for studying dual-media backstroke starts.

Most of the kinematics approaches mentioned in the backstroke start studies above provide biomechanical performance indicators instead of specifying how swimmers should organize body segments movements to optimise their performance. Performance indicators are less time-consuming for coaching feedback and hinder technique analysis method to be wide-used in backstroke start studies. Table 2 outlines the kinematic variables measured at the most common backstroke starting phases and for the overall start. In fact, 69.5% of the studies measured the starting time, which ranged from the signal to the first fingertip contact with the water ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ) and the time to 22.86 m ( Green et al., 1987 ). Following Guimarães and Hay (1985) , starting time has been often measured for ventral start studies ( Vantorre et al., 2010 ), but, there is no clear consensus as to what distances are best for assessing the most effective start, yet.

The kinematic parameters studied at the overall starting and during the hands-off, take-off and flight phases.

Table 2 indicates that most backstroke start studies have measured only linear displacement and velocity parameters, despite swimming starts not being exclusively rectilinear motions ( Bartlett, 2007 ). Authors have considered the swimmer as a rigid body to calculate the horizontal distance (Cornett et al., 2011; Cossor and Mason, 2001 ; Miller et al., 1984 ; Theut and Jensen, 2006 ) and the velocity during a backstroke start ( Arellano et al., 2003 ; Chatard et al., 2003 ; Giroldi et al., 2001 ; Theut and Jensen, 2006 ). Although these variables provide important information in training and competition environments, the curvilinear motions in the backstroke start need to be quantified. Some authors have studied translational kinematic parameters of the centre of mass or hip vectors during the overall backstroke start ( Green, 1987 ) and during starting phases ( de Jesus et al., 2010 ; 2011a ; 2013 ; Green, 1987 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ), as have been conducted for ventral starts ( Guimarães and Hay, 1985 ; Takeda et al., 2012 ).

As humans do not have rigid bodies and display combinations of rotational and linear motions ( Bartlett, 2007 ), multi-segmental models have been used to analyse segmental positions ( Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ); and joint angles from upper ( Green et al., 1987 ; Wilson and Howard, 1983 ) and lower limbs ( de Jesus et al., 2010 ; de Jesus et al., 2011a ; Green et al., 1987 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ; Wilson and Howard, 1983 ); and trunks ( de Jesus et al., 2013 ; Wilson and Howard, 1983 ) at different starting phases ( Table 2 ). The study of the coupling relationship between segments is required to provide insight into the optimal movement strategies underlying backstroke starts.

There is a paucity of evidence concerning the parameters in the aerial/in-water and underwater phases. In fact, research usually has highlighted the importance of assessing entry ( Vantorre et al., 2010 ; Vantorre et al., 2014 ) and underwater phase kinematics ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; Vantorre et al., 2010 ; Vantorre et al., 2014 ; Thow et al., 2012 ) for ventral starts. Only Green (1987) and de Jesus et al. (2011a) have calculated the centre of mass displacement and velocity, during the entry and glide phases; and the time and frequency of some undulatory underwater swimming cycles of the backstroke start ( de Jesus et al., 2012 ). In competitions, authors have measured the combined time from the entry until the swimmer’s head resurfaced ( Cossor and Mason, 2001 ) and the beginning of the first arm stroking cycle ( Miller et al., 1984 ).

Despite several studies having used kinematics, few studies of backstroke starts have included kinetic data. Kinetics requires higher costs than image based systems and presents technical difficulties when attaching the kinetic devices to the starting block and pool wall. However, de Jesus et al. (2010 ; 2011a ; 2013) successfully lowered, then elevated pool water levels so as to position a strain gauge force plate at two heights on the pool wall. Also, they instrumented the handgrips with a strain gauge load cell which was sequentially repositioned to remain at the same distance above the water surface. The dynamics between the lower limbs and the pool wall were studied using a 3D piezoelectric force plate ( Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ). The strain gauges are more commonly used due to their lower costs and highly accurate static and transient load measurement capabilities than via a 3D piezoelectric force plate.

The instrumentation of starting blocks for analysing backstroke starts has helped to verify how the respective movements are generated ( de Jesus et al., 2013 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ). The horizontal force exerted by swimmers’ lower limbs on the pool wall is the main research topic of backstroke start kinetics ( de Jesus et al., 2013 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ). The horizontal swimmers’ lower limbs force-time curve profiles ( Figure 2 ) registered during backstroke start performances were similar among these three studies reporting two distinguished peak forces. Researchers stated that swimmers should optimise the force-time distribution during the take-off phase ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ; Guimarães and Hay, 1985 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Vantorre et al., 2014 ). To obtain further insight into the mechanics of the backstroke start, de Jesus et al. (2011a ; 2013 ) analysed the horizontal forces exerted on the handgrips and noted that the role played by the upper limbs was to drive the centre of mass above the water surface.

Mean lower limbs horizontal force-time curves for backstroke start with feet immerged (continuous line) and emerged (dashed line) ( de Jesus et al., 2013 )

Despite the understanding about the horizontal force profile generated by backstroke swimmers to propel themselves off the wall ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ), coaches also recommended that swimmers endeavour to accelerate the centre of mass upwards to clear the water surface because the air presents less resistance than water ( de Jesus et al., 2013 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ). In fact, the external kinetics involved in backstroke starts should be analysed and interpreted, to consider the magnitude and timing of horizontal and vertical propulsive force vectors applied by the swimmer’s muscular actions to the handgrips and pool wall. Hohmann et al. (2008) and Nguyen et al. (2014) have assessed 3D resultant forces on swimmers’ lower limbs; but only Nguyen et al. (2014) measured the vertical force component. These authors found that altering feet positions at the start resulted in a significant change in peak horizontal and vertical forces. In 2013, FINA approved the use of a new starting platform to prevent the backstroke swimmers sliding down the wall at the start; previously a reasonably common mishap, with disastrous results for the competitor. Therefore, future research analyses are required to ascertain and confirm any advantages that could result from the increased vertical forces backstroke swimmers might achieve and could be translated into a faster racing start.

The instrumented starting blocks used in the previous research referred to the above are few and are now obsolete following the recent FINA facility rule changes approved in 2008 and 2013. The new hand and foot grips now available for backstroke starts have not been instrumented and used in research studies to date. Hence, sport biomechanists and engineers are urged to develop a 3D kinetic system in the new block configuration. Then, one could identify independently how the right and left, upper and lower, limbs contribute to propelling backstroke swimmers during the start.

Beyond the linear kinetics, Green (1987) and Takeda et al. (2014) used angular kinetics principles to study the resistance of the swimmers’ bodies and separated segments to change angular motion during backstroke starts. In previous ventral start studies, swimmers were advised to generate enough angular momentum to make a clean entry into the water ( Vantorre et al., 2010 ). Despite the unique and valid attempt to assess the swimmers’ reluctance to generate angular motion during backstroke start, a number of kinetic and kinematic variables also are required to explain how much rotation is occurring in the sequential starting phases. Takeda et al. (2012) and Takeda et al. (2014) suggested that a combination of kinetic and kinematic measurements are needed for greater clarification of important swimming start components.

Electromyography (EMG)

As for kinetics, specific EMG studies of swimming starts are few. To measure the muscle activity of backstroke swimmers during the start, a cable EMG system with surface electrodes was used by Hohmann et al. (2008) and de Jesus et al. (2011a ; 2011b ). This approach requires methodological adaptations to record accurate measurements ( Clarys and Cabri, 1993 ) such as immobilisation of cables and water proofing electrodes. De Jesus et al. ( 2011a ; 2011b ) used a complete swimming suit for electrode insulation and cable immobilisation. The full body swimming suit appeared to be suitable for immobilising cables but these had to exit via holes in the suit resulting in potential places for leaks. Further, the use of full body swimming suits is no longer allowed in competition. Insulation to cover electrodes was provided by adhesive bandages ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2011b ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ). Knowledge of specific muscle activity is an important factor in understanding neuromuscular coordination and effective force production during the different phases of the backstroke start. Overcoming these challenges would greatly assist in determining the most effective techniques and optimise training drills.

The average and integrated EMGs, as amplitude signals, were calculated by Hohmann et al. (2008) and de Jesus et al. (2011a ; 2011b ), respectively; to provide trunk, and upper and lower limb muscle activation. Muscle intensity data are only one element of motor activity; and the sequential pattern in which the muscles are engaged in a complex backstroke start movement is a more important element ( Clarys and Cabri, 1993 ). In fact, the EMG also provides information on timing of muscle activities in human movements ( Bartlett, 2007 ); nevertheless, only Hohmann et al. (2008) have been concerned about the muscle activation sequence during the backstroke start. According to these authors the backstroke start is initiated by the Deltoideus Anterior that had been very active fixing the body in a high set starting position. Despite this initial undertaking, Hohmann’s research group did not provide detailed descriptions of the criteria used to determine the muscles involvement along a continuum from strongly active to an inactive state. The lack of standard methodologies to define the EMG activity makes comparisons between studies difficult.

By studying the sequencing of muscle activation, one can focus on several factors relating to skill; including the timing and overlap of agonist and antagonist activity ( Bartlett, 2007 ). The agonist and antagonist activation in backstroke starts has not been studied yet, due to the swim start acyclic pattern. Nevertheless, Hohmann et al. (2008) mentioned that joint stabilisation occurred during flight and entry phases to overcome the high water resistance. Therefore, simultaneous activation of muscles surrounding joints should be investigated during the backstroke start ( Clarys and Cabri, 1993 ). Seven muscles were commonly studied ( Hohmann et al., 2008 ; de Jesus et al., 2011a , 2011b ); namely, the Biceps Brachii , Triceps Brachii , Deltoideus Anterior , Erector Spinae Longissimus , Rectus Femoris , Gluteus Maximus and Gastrocnemius Medialis . Authors confirmed the crucial function of the lower limbs to generate the impulse during the take-off phase; however, they disagreed about the main muscle activities of the upper limbs. Studying the above-mentioned biarticular muscles ( de Jesus et al., 2011a , 2011b ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ) has highlighted the need to clarify how the mechanical functions vary, depending on the different backstroke start variations and phases (e.g. hip flexor and knee extensor moments for the Rectus Femoris ). As backstrokers are required to coordinate multiple muscles and joints to propel themselves rigorously out of the pool wall, more studies should couple EMG, kinetic and kinematic approaches to dictate how better backstroke start performance can be achieved.

Synchronisation methods

The selected studies used a voice command ( Stratten, 1970 ), starting pistol ( Rea and Soth, 1967 ; Miller et al., 1984 ; Wilson and Howard, 1983 ), or the official competition timing systems for backstroke start synchronisation ( Arellano et al., 2001 ; Arellano et al., 2003 ; Chatard et al., 2003 ; Cornett et al., 2011; Cossor and Mason, 2001 ; de Jesus et al., 2011a , 2011b , 2013 ; de Jesus et al., 2012 ; Girold et al., 2001 ; Green, 1987 ; Green et al., 1987 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Ikuta et al., 2001 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Siljeg et al., 2011 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ; Theut and Jensen, 2006 ).

The competition timing systems were used to simultaneously produce the starting signal and export a light to the video images ( Arellano et al., 2001 ; Arellano et al., 2003 ; Chatard et al., 2003 ; Cornett et al., 2011; Cossor and Mason, 2001 ; de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Ikuta et al., 2001 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Siljeg, 2011 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ; Theut and Jensen, 2006 ); and a trigger pulse for the kinetics ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ; Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ) and EMG synchronisation ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2011b ).

Alternative synchronisation methods have been implemented as the use of force instants to record the swimmer’s handgrip release ( de Jesus et al., 2011a ; 2013 ) and feet take-off ( de Jesus et al., 2012 ) for the starting signal definition. Considering that a small temporal and spatial misalignment between different biomechanical devices can lead to large errors in the variables assessed, future studies should use a common system with consistent low trigger delay.

The backstroke start techniques, variations and main research findings

The main objective of swim-start research has been to identify the most effective start technique in terms of performance ( Vantorre et al., 2014 ). From the selected studies, 65% have established comparisons using backstroke start techniques and variations ( Table 1 ). Researchers have used different distances to assess the effectiveness of each one ( Table 3 ).

The set distance for the backstroke start variations performance assessment

Considering the backstroke start studies conducted with variations performed under the NCAA rules, both had used the 6.09 m distance to assess start time. According to Stratten (1970) the most efficient variation was performed when the swimmer’s trunk was positioned upright just in front of the block, and hands holding the horizontal hand-grips; and, the respective mean start time seems to be shorter than the one presented by Rea and Soth (1967) . This finding could be explained by the sample sizes and proficiency levels. Rea and Soth (1967) studied one specialist in backstroke start who performed with the trunk inclined forward over the top of the starting block and hands holding a bar mounted over the block. Stratten (1970) included 13 swimmers of different proficiency levels who completed a training period for familiarisation purposes. Yet, it is quite likely that previous experience with a technique may have an impact on start variables and performance ( Vantorre et al., 2014 ). The feet positioned over the pool gutter allowed swimmers to clear the water from the starting position to the beginning of entry by generating greater vertical reaction force; and considered a crucial aspect for better backstroke start performances ( de Jesus et al., 2013 ; Nguyen et al., 2014 ; Takeda et al., 2014 ). These statements corroborate other findings where the starts that were performed with shorter horizontal take-off velocities, implied greater aerial trajectory and shorter start time than the variation with a flatter profile ( Green et al., 1987 ) ( Table 3 ).

Most research considered backstroke starts performed under FINA old rules and measured the starting effectiveness using distances from 5 to 15 m ( Table 3 ). Miller et al. (1984) and Arellano et al. (2003) assessed mean start times; although, only the latter specified the set distance. Siljeg et al. (2011) measured the 15 m start time considering the pre and post period of FINA rule changes for feet positioning (FINA 2005–2009, SW. 6.1), which explains the maximum 0.55 s mean difference from the Arellano et al. (2003) findings. Indeed, Nguyen et al. (2014) noted that since the FINA rule changed for feet positioning, many backstrokers have obtained advantages from altering their starting technique to place the feet completely out of the water. To achieve a great start-time performance at 7.5 m, elite backstrokers displayed considerable intraand inter-variability of the upper limbs trajectory during the flight phase ( Hohmann et al., 2008 ; Wilson and Howard, 1983 ). The upper limb pathways over the centre of mass and close to the body allow the trunk to follow a greater parabolic flight than using a lateral path ( Bartlett, 2007 ; Green, 1987 ; Maglischo, 2003 ). According to de Jesus et al. (2013) , Nguyen et al. (2014) and Takeda et al. (2014) , a greater parabolic flight path assists in minimising drag and optimising propulsion underwater. Since a clear water entry depends on preceding actions performed during the wall and flight phases ( Thow et al., 2012 ), Theut and Jensen (2006) identified the effects of the feet submerged and positioned parallel to each other or staggered (i.e., one above the other) on backstroke start horizontal distance and average velocity. Anecdotal evidence suggested that the feet staggered position prevented swimmers from slipping down the wall; nevertheless, findings did not confirm that difference between variations ( Theut and Jensen, 2006 ). The backstroke start ledge (FINA FR. 2.7, 2013–2017) is pointed out to avoid the slippage; however, further studies are needed to describe in detail how technique must be changed to improve backstroke start performance.

Backstroke starts are performed now under the current FINA rule (adopted in 2005) and only de Jesus et al. ( 2010 ; 2011ba ; 2011ba ; 2013 ) and Nguyen et al. (2014) compared the variations with the feet parallel, and entirely submerged and out-of-water. Considering the 5 m start time ( Table 3 ) for both variations, shorter values seem to be displayed by the latter research group, which is mainly explained by the swimmers’ greater proficiency level. The variation with feet entirely submerged seems to register lower horizontal take-off mean values in both studies; and the values presented by de Jesus et al. (2013) seem lower than those of Nguyen et al. (2014) . Although this finding was not significant, the trend might be explained by the use of a fixed point to indicate the swimmer’s centre of mass. Takeda et al. (2014) verified that backstroke swimmers specialists used a feet-partial-out-of-the-water start, and tended to register greater mean 5 m start time than participants of Nguyen et al. (2014) . This might indicate superiority of the variation performed with feet entirely out-of-the-water over the method with partially emerged. De Jesus et al. have not displayed performance differences during above- (2013) and underwater phases (2012), between the variation with feet entirely out and under the water; thereby disagreeing with the Nguyen et al.’s findings (2014). These contradictions might be explained by the larger sample size and greater swimmers’ preference for feet positioned out of the water displayed by Nguyen et al. (2014) . De Jesus et al. (2011a ; 2013 ) and Nguyen et al. (2014) stressed that swimmers should generate greater horizontal and vertical take-off velocities when the feet were positioned out of the water to achieve the most appropriate aerial trajectory ( de Jesus et al., 2013 ). The inclusion of the new device for backstroke starts potentially improves the parabolic flight trajectory due to minimised take-off friction force. However, since greater vertical flight trajectory implies deeper water entry, future research should also examine underwater phase variables which can indicate risk of injury, as previously pointed out during youth competitions (Cornett et al., 2011).

Summary and future directions

The main research findings can be summarised as follows: (1) the phase definitions used in analysing backstroke starts are inconsistent and unclear. Hence, this makes it difficult to determine how many changes over time can be attributed to a real change, or mere differences between definitions; (2) studies conducted in laboratory settings have adopted kinematics, kinetics and EMG; however, many research challenges remain in both settings to improve the methods of quantifying valid, reliable and accurate data; (3) the temporal variables, particularly the starting time, were most studied; and backstroke start movements were predominantly described using linear kinematics; (4) most of the experimental and competition research findings are now out of date since the backstroke start rules have been recently changed, and the studies were completed under swimming rules which are now obsolete.

Future research would help coaches and swimmers by exploring issues not yet fully addressed in the literature. For example: (1) determination of a consistent observational model for categorisation and study of the backstroke start technique; (2) development of appropriate biomechanical measurements and research methodologies as standard tools; for scientific purposes and training support, competition preparation and analysis; (3) reinforcement of more holistic and process-oriented biomechanical approaches in laboratory procedures: involving interactions of kinematics, kinetics and EMG variables; from aerial, aerial/in-water and underwater phases; definitions for more detailed parameters which better describe the overall backstroke start in competitions, beyond the starting time; (4) focusing on studies based on the actual FINA rules and the new starting block configurations.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by CAPES (BEX 0761/12-5/2012-2014), Santander Totta Bank (PP-IJUP2011-123) and FCT (EXPL/DTL-DES/2481/2013).

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Comparing and Contrasting: The Four Main Swimming Strokes

By: Daniel Zeng, Swimming World Intern

Swimming obviously has its four main strokes: Butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and freestyle. Some are swum moving both arms together. Some are swum moving each arm separately. But there are many more distinctions and commonalities within the strokes, as well as the individuals that swim them.

Here, we break down each of the strokes.

Breaststroke(rs)

Might as well start with the first  invented stroke.

Unique Features

• Commonly swum by “non-swimmers” at pools since there are more breathing chances when you pick your head above the water
• You rise highest out of the water (whole upper body)
• Holding a tight line is crucial
• No repeated dolphin kicks off the walls, instead replaced by a pullout 
• Kick is what provides the forward propulsion, rather than the pull
• Widely considered the hardest stroke purely for its hard-to-master timing
• Quite unnatural frog-like human movement causes knee problems, with some swimmers having to take time out of the pool as a result
• Unable to kick with normal fins on

The Bright Side

• Longer recovery time between cycles
• Swimmer always at the back of the lane on best-stroke sets can use their sharp, piercing kick to signal their fearful presence

Similarities to the Other Strokes

Butterfly – worthwhile glide & two-hand wall touch, slower stroke rate than backstroke and freestyle

__________________________________________________

(Butter)Fly(ers)

Peculiarly respected for their toughness, flyers develop an iron heart. 

• Occupy a full lane width with their outstretched arms
• One-arm stroke is expected when someone comes down the lane past you, but is not as common now due to COVID-19 obliging teams to switch to one-way lanes
• Anyone will surely think of Michael Phelps if you say you swim butterfly
• Hate best-stroke sets
• Mass fatigue to shoulder muscles, forcing their arms forward over the water too many times
• Gain strong shoulder, arm, and abdominal muscles
• Earn respect by everyone from being able to power through the pain

Backstroke(rs)

The only stroke not swum on your stomach.

• Constant air access
• Ironically hyperventilate at meets due to not really having a set breathing pattern 
• Practice outdoors when sunny causes the sun’s glaring rays to blind your eyes, rendering it near impossible to swim straight
• 200 backstrokers truly know what dispair feels like when the race is nearing conclusion but the wall seems an eternity away, and your legs are comparable to sinking ships

Bright Side

• Strong leg muscles
• Can pull on the lane line to propel you forward if you’re tired (only in practice) 
• Everyone can “become” a backstroker on best stroke sets, no freestyle, because you can float on your back and breathe

Freestyle – Same flip turn, but a flag count to determine when to flip onto your stomach and turn

Freestyle – More body rotation than breaststroke and butterfly

Sprint Freestyle(rs)

• Aggressive and detail-oriented since every little mistake wastes valuable time
• Prioritizes kicking over pulling, opposing distance freestyle
• Fatigue quicker due to faster lactic acid buildup
• Go out too fast sometimes on longer events
• Participate in more relays, meaning more fun and team bonding 
• Walls are your friends

Butterfly – Possibly not breathing for a few strokes

Backstroke – Pull on the feet of the person in front to mess with them or signal they want to overtake

Distance Freestyle(rs)  

Swimmers that like these races deserve their own separate category from the sprinters.

• Freestyle is the only stroke that has races longer than 200, namely 400, 500, 800, 1000, 1500, and 1650
• Breathing patterns vary widely, although a loping stroke has seemingly taken over, specifically breathing every two strokes
• Thrive during pull sets
• Splits are precisely memorized
• Red sparks joy, even though blood is red, and you’re mentally-spent by the end of a lengthy swim
• No chances are taken on reacting early after the beep
• Less talkative to teammates
• Difficult to remain focused on long swims
• Turns not as important compared to sprints, so a bad turn won’t derail you
• Don’t have to sprint every leg, unless you are Katie Ledecky
• Get to really know yourself since you have to keep yourself company for a while

All Four Strokes

Differences aside, we can all agree that all the strokes are connected in many ways. If you practice one, it will help your other strokes since they all share some basic components. Swimming any of them ideally requires a tight core and high body position to keep stiff but also loose. Swimming “forward, not up” is also shared amongst the strokes, so your effort moves you closer to the finish, not straight up and ultimately sinking you. We all also need to do drills and sets to maintain and improve our stroke, because keeping our feel for the water is crucial to grow as swimmers. At the end of the day, all we do is kick and pull. 

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Backstroke for Beginners: Learn in 10 Minutes and Become Confident

Today, we’re exploring the challenging backstroke. By the end of this blog, you will become an expert in the basics of backstroke, and understand why it is a great choice for beginners .

A Guide to Backstroke for Beginners

We’ll throw in some expert tips and a step-by-step guide to ensure you swim like a pro in no time.

So, put on your swim cap and grab your goggles because we’re about to make a splash with the nearest swimming pool.

Table of Contents – Backstroke for Beginners

What is a backstroke in swimming.

Backstroke swimming is a technique where the swimmer lies on their back and performs alternating arm and leg movements.

The arms move in a circular motion and the legs execute an alternating flutter kick.

It is generally considered to be slower than freestyle and butterfly strokes but faster than the breaststroke.

But, what is elementary backstroke?

Backstroke vs Elementary Backstroke: A Comparison

Backstroke and elementary backstroke are two different swimming strokes , although they may look similar at first glance.

We hope that the differences are now clear to you.

Read about other Strokes – Butterfly

Here comes your next question. How difficult is it to learn the backstroke?

The challenges of backstroke: why is it so hard?

Learning this technique can be a challenging experience, especially for beginners.

These are the factors to consider:

• Limited visibility due to lying on the back
• Coordination of arms and legs required in continuous and alternating motion
• Breathing can disrupt body position and rhythm
• Maintaining proper body position requires strong core muscles and good body awareness
• It is physically demanding and can cause fatigue
• Practice and proper technique can make it easier and more comfortable.

Now that you know backstroke is considered the hardest stroke, you may be wondering if it’s still a good choice for beginners.

Why backstroke for beginners is a great choice: 3 reasons

Backstroke can be a good swimming stroke for beginners for several reasons.

First, Swimmer’s face is above water level, facilitating breathing and visibility.

Second, Comfortable body position for unsure beginners

Third, Backstroke aids beginners’ body coordination and core/leg muscle strength building.

Let’s examine the techniques used in backstroke swimming more closely.

Read about other Strokes – Breaststroke

4 Techniques to Improve Your Backstroke Swimming Performance

Backstroke swimming movement techniques can be used to improve your performance in the pool.

To execute it properly, you must master the following techniques.

Arm Movement

Arms move in a continuous circular motion .

Enter water pinky finger first, sweep towards hips.

Pull hands back towards the body, and keep elbows straight.

Leg Movement

Legs move in alternating motion with toes pointed and knees slightly bent.

Feet should stay close to the water surface to minimize splashing.

Swimmer breathes by rotating their head to one side while another arm is in the water.

Rotate your head enough to allow your mouth and nose to clear water.

A quick tip: Don’t let your rotation compromise your body position.

Body Position

Throughout the backstroke swimming stroke, maintain a stable body position .

Keep your hips and shoulders close to the surface of the water to reduce drag and swim faster.

We understand that simply reading about backstroke swimming techniques may not make you a pro.

That’s why we’ve created a step-by-step tutorial with pictures to help you learn how to swim backstroke.

8 Steps with Pictures – How to swim backstroke?

Just follow these 8 super easy steps, and you’ll be master it in no time!

To start backstroke swimming, lie on your back and keep your body straight.

Move your arms in a circular motion while keeping them straight and close to your ears.

Move your legs in a flutter kick motion alternating between them.

To reduce resistance in the water, it’s important to keep your hips and shoulders close to the surface .

Turn your head to the side opposite the arm that is underwater to breath while swimming.

This allows you to clear your mouth and nose without changing your body position.

You need to move your arms in a circular motion while kicking your legs .

This movement propels you forward through the water.

Now you started swimming. The next thing you need to do is to maintain stability . How do you do that?

Just keep your core muscles engaged.

And finally, when you are confident enough, increase your speed by maintaining proper body position.

6 Backstroke Swimming Benefits

Low-impact exercise: Joint-friendly, suitable for those with injuries or chronic pain .

Improves posture: Strengthens the muscles in the back and neck .

Full-body workout: Engages the muscles in the arms, legs, core, and back.

Cardiovascular health: Improve heart health and lung capacity .

Improves flexibility: Backstroke improves flexibility with shoulder and hip movements.

Mental benefits: Stress relief and relaxation.

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Finally, are you Feeling Confident?

You are now loaded with tips and techniques to do backstroke for beginners swimming like a pro.

Hopefully, you feel more confident. At the same time, never forget to practice regularly to improve your backstroke technique.

Consistent practice will help you build the necessary muscle memory and improve your endurance in the water.

Remember to also focus on maintaining proper body position and minimizing drag to improve your speed and efficiency in the water.

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How To Swim Backstroke

Learning how to swim backstroke can be daunting for some beginners. Maybe you're one of those swimmers who gets that sinking feeling halfway down the pool? Have you got room for improvement when it comes to backstroke swimming technique?  

Look no further! I have broken the stroke down into separate parts so that you can focus on it one piece at a time. That makes learning and improving it a whole lot easier and boosts your confidence at the same time.

HOW TO SWIM BACKSTROKE EBOOK:   everything you need to master breaststroke  swimming stroke. 20 easy drills that focus on each part of backstroke technique. From body position to breathing and timing. Decades of teaching experience all packaged into 1 easy file. Download to your device and master backstroke TODAY! 

Don't miss out!   Click here for more details on how to get your copy.  

The video clip below shows the smooth continuous flow of the swimming stroke.  The alternating leg kick and arm pull actions are balanced, with the legs kicking 6 times for each arm pull cycle. 

How To Swim Backstroke - Video Demonstration

FREE EBOOK:  all of the technique tips here can be found in my ' Backstroke  Technique ' book, along with a couple of bonus drills to help you perfect some essential parts of the stroke.

Don't miss out!   Click here to grab a FREE copy of my book.  

Breaking down backstroke technique into its separate parts makes it easier to focus on one part at a time. Here are the 10 most essential elements to focus on when performing backstroke.

10 Steps to Better Backstroke Technique

1.   The body must be as horizontal and streamlined as possible, with the head inline, eyes looking upwards and remaining steady throughout.

2.   The alternating leg kick originates from the hip and remains within the body width.

3.   Toes are pointed with ankles relaxed, and the knees bend slightly with each kick. 

4.   The knee bend provides power on the upbeat phase of the kick, finishing as the toes break the water surface.

5.   The hands enter the water with little-finger first, palm outwards with the upper arm just brushing past the ear.

6.  The arm pulls through an S shape pathway, finishing at the hip, palm downwards. 

7.   One arm begins to pull as the other recovers over the water surface.

8.  Breathing should be regular and in time with the effort phase of the stroke.

9.  The leg kick and arm actions should be controlled and steady whilst maintaining a fixed head position. 

10.  All actions should be smooth, continuous and relaxed. 

Elevate Your Backstroke To a New Level

If you're ready to take your backstroke swimming technique up a level, then get stuck into my book. ' How To Swim Backstroke ' contains clear illustrations and detailed coaching points that simplify swimming on your back. 

Click the cover image for a preview , or click add to cart to download your copy.

I am a member of the Amazon Associates Program and I will earn a  commission  from qualifying purchases at no extra cost to you. 

Why is it necessary for your arms to enter the water at 11 and 1 o'clock during backstroke arm action?  ' For backstroke arms to be efficient and effective, the entry must be in line with the shoulder, with the upper arm brushing the ear.' 

I have a problem with water on my face when swimming backstroke. 'There are a couple of reasons why you might get water on your face when doing backstroke.'

My problem seems to be floating, particularly on my back. I tend to stiffen up, and I'm not relaxed.   'Being a muscular person is a disadvantage for a beginner learning to swim because muscle is dense and tends to sink.' 

When kicking backstroke, I move in the opposite direction than I should, counteracting arms movement. 'What you are describing, I have seen many times. There are two common causes, and I suspect you are doing one or a combination of both.'

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I've been teaching swimming for over 30 years and I built this site so that I can share all my knowledge, wisdom and experience from the thousands of swimming lessons I have had the pleasure of teaching. 

So if you're a fellow teacher, beginner swimmer or an improver, there is something here for you. Simply click around and scroll about, or get in touch and ask me a question.

Click here to find out more about me and my story. " 

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How to Prevent Swimming Injuries by Doing Backstroke

by Matt Donovan

February 8, 2021

Working backstroke the way you do freestyle will help you balance your body

It’s very likely that your swim training regimen has been adversely affected by the coronavirus pandemic. When you reenter the pool for training, be sure to take your time building back to your training volume gradually to avoid injury.

And because every cloud has a silver lining, this might be the perfect opportunity to learn to go long on your back and balance out some the disparity in muscle strength and flexibility that occurs from high-volume training done primarily in freestyle. Said another way, adding significant backstroke yardage may help you alleviate the swimmer’s slouch that comes from overdeveloped lats and underdeveloped pecs.

If you’ve historically avoided the upside-down stroke, doing more of it will give you a new set of skills and event goals. Even if you don’t intend to race backstroke, adding backstroke sets will give your shoulders the balanced strength training they need to prevent shoulder injury, and it will increase the effectiveness of your body rotation in both backstroke and freestyle.

More backstroke for skill development

Backstroke can be disorienting. In the water you have limited use of your five senses as compared to on land, and when you flip on your back, it becomes even more difficult. Hand-eye coordination is almost nonexistent in backstroke. You must learn how to use the ceiling as a guide. Know that the ceiling is different in almost every pool (and in some cases different by lane within the same pool).

Your peripheral vision becomes very important in circle swimming and even more so if you train outdoors. There’s no getting around it—at some point you’ll jam your finger on a lane line, slam wrists with a lanemate, and misjudge the flags and knock your head on the wall. However, the more you swim backstroke, the better you’ll get at avoiding these scenarios, and the more skills you’ll acquire.

High volume for cardio

In most training groups, freestyle is the primary stroke used to build strength and cardio. But if you want to get better at backstroke, simply do more of it. Tune up your backstroke first with a few backstroke drills , and then put some yardage in. To start, I would suggest that your warm-up, recovery sets, and cool-down should all be primarily backstroke. If you’re a true novice in the stroke, start with 60 percent freestyle and 40 percent backstroke or 50/50. Then, increase the backstroke volume gradually.

Get creative! Try 3 x 800s back (with 4 x 50 recovery between). The first one negative split by 400, the second negative split by 200, and the third easy/fast by 100. Use gear and take rest as needed. If this distance is a bit too long for you try it with 600s, 400s, or 200s. What’s important is to add backstroke volume to your set work and get faster as you go. You can even use the first 800 as your warm-up.

When possible, have a coach or fellow swimmer video your swims. After practice, watch the video and observe your body position throughout the whole set. Are you rotating the same start to finish? Are your legs on top of the water in the middle and final laps of the 800s in the same way that they are in the beginning of your set? Are you approaching the wall with the same distance into the turn each time? Are your underwaters still long and powerful late in the set? The idea is to be successful and consistent from the first length to the last.

Kick on your back. Do this a LOT more! Throw away the kickboard. It’s absolutely the worst invention in the history of swimming. Kickboards do nothing but teach you poor body position and wreck your shoulders. Kick on your back, with and without fins. Keep your hands at your sides and think about rotation from the hips. Just remember to pay attention to the flags so you don’t hit your head. You’ll gain a new appreciation for your walls when you come in and out of your turns from an unfamiliar position.

Whether your goal is to become a better backstroker, to be a stronger all-around swimmer, or balance your musculature and prevent injury, increasing your backstroke yardage is the best way to do it.

Categories:

• Technique and Training

About the Author Matt Donovan

Matt Donovan has coached on every level and is currently the head coach at University of Maryland-Baltimore County. As a club coach in New Jersey, Donovan was awarded the 2013 YMCA National Coach of the Meet honor for the Long Course Championships held in Atlanta. A Level 4 coach with American Swim Coaches Association, Donovan has coached two national camps (2010, 2011) at the U.S. Olympic and Paralympic Training Center in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and assisted the USA Zone Select Camp in Baltimore, Maryland, in 2012. His club team (Somerset Valley 2000-2014) was honored four times by the USA Club Excellence program bronze (2010) and silver (2012, 2013, 2014). USA Swimming had him as a guest presenter for their webinar series twice (“Club Development” 2014 and “Racing Fast in Season” 2016) that can be found on  usaswimming.org .

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Home — Essay Samples — Life — Swimming — Swimming Styles: A Butterfly Stroke

Swimming Styles: a Butterfly Stroke

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• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

• Milano Cortina 2026
• Brisbane 2032
• Olympic Refuge Foundation
• Olympic Games
• Olympic Channel
• Let's Move

Olympic Games Moscow 1980

• Highlights & Replays
• Medal Design

Moscow 1980 Swimming 100m backstroke men Results

Bengt baron, viktor kuznetsov, vladimir dolgov, miloslav rolko, sandor wladar, fred eefting, mark tonelli, gary abraham, michael soderlund, romulo duncan duncan arantes, zoltan verraszto, douglas campbell, paul marshall, dietmar gohring, glen patching, jorg stingl, vladimir shemetov, frederic delcourt, herwig bayer, branimir popov, mihai mandache, franky de groote, nenad milos, rui pinto abreu, robert rudolf, moises gosalvez, ricardo prado, daniel ayora, van hoanh lam, lakis fylaktou, david cummins, alberto eugenio mestre sosa.