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The American War for Independence as a Revolutionary War

The American War for Independence lasted eight years. It was one of the longest and bloodiest wars in America's history, and yet it was not such a protracted conflict merely because the might of the British armed forces was brought to bear on the hapless colonials. The many divisions among Americans themselves over whether to fight, what to fight for, and who would do the fighting often had tragic and violent consequences. The Revolutionary War was by any measure the first American civil war. Yet national narratives of the Revolution and even much of the scholarship on the era focus more on simple stories of a contest between the Patriots and the British. Loyalists and other opponents of the Patriots are routinely left out of these narratives, or given short shrift. So, too, are the tens of thousands of ordinary colonists—perhaps a majority of the population—who were disaffected or alienated from either side or who tried to tack between the two main antagonists to make the best of a bad situation. Historians now estimate that as many as three-fifths of the colonial population were neither active Loyalists nor Patriots. When we take the war seriously and begin to think about narratives that capture the experience of the many, rather than the few, an illuminating picture emerges. The remarkably wide scope of the activities of the disaffected during the war—ranging from nonpayment of taxes to draft dodging and even to armed resistance to protect their neutrality—has to be integrated with older stories of militant Patriots and timid Loyalists. Only then can we understand the profound consequences of disaffection—particularly in creating divisions within the states, increasing levels of violence, prolonging the war, and changing the nature of the political settlements in each state. Indeed, the very divisions among diverse Americans that made the War for Independence so long, bitter, and bloody also explains much of the Revolutionary energy of the period. Though it is not as seamless as traditional narratives of the Revolution would suggest, a more complicated story also helps better explain the many problems the new states and eventually the new

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Setting the stage: The two armies

• Conflict begins in Massachusetts
• Paul Revere’s ride and the Battles of Lexington and Concord
• The Siege of Boston and the Battle of Bunker Hill
• Washington takes command
• The battle for New York
• A British general surrenders, and the French prepare for war
• After a hungry winter at Valley Forge
• Setbacks in the North
• Final campaigns in the South and the surrender of Cornwallis
• Early engagements and privateers
• French intervention and the decisive action at Virginia Capes
• The end of the war and the terms of the Peace of Paris (1783)
• How did the American colonies win the war?

What was the American Revolution?

How did the american revolution begin, what were the major causes of the american revolution, which countries fought on the side of the colonies during the american revolution, how was the american revolution a civil war.

American Revolution

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The American Revolution —also called the U.S. War of Independence—was the insurrection fought between 1775 and 1783 through which 13 of Great Britain ’s North American colonies threw off British rule to establish the sovereign United States of America, founded with the Declaration of Independence in 1776. British attempts to assert greater control over colonial affairs after a long period of salutary neglect , including the imposition of unpopular taxes, had contributed to growing estrangement between the crown and a large and influential segment of colonists who ultimately saw armed rebellion as their only recourse.

On the ground, fighting in the American Revolution began with the skirmishes between British regulars and American provincials on April 19, 1775 , first at Lexington , where a British force of 700 faced 77 local minutemen , and then at Concord , where an American counterforce of 320 to 400 sent the British scurrying. The British had come to Concord to seize the military stores of the colonists, who had been forewarned of the raid through efficient lines of communication—including the ride of Paul Revere , which is celebrated with poetic license in Longfellow ’s “Paul Revere’s Ride” (1861).  

The American Revolution was principally caused by colonial opposition to British attempts to impose greater control over the colonies and to make them repay the crown for its defense of them during the French and Indian War (1754–63). Britain did this primarily by imposing a series of deeply unpopular laws and taxes, including the Sugar Act (1764), the Stamp Act (1765), and the so-called Intolerable Acts (1774).

Until early in 1778, the American Revolution was a civil war within the British Empire , but it became an international war as France (in 1778) and Spain (in 1779) joined the colonies against Britain. The Netherlands , which was engaged in its own war with Britain, provided financial support for the Americans as well as official recognition of their independence. The French navy in particular played a key role in bringing about the British surrender at Yorktown , which effectively ended the war.

In the early stages of the rebellion by the American colonists, most of them still saw themselves as English subjects who were being denied their rights as such. “Taxation without representation is tyranny,” James Otis reportedly said in protest of the lack of colonial representation in Parliament . What made the American Revolution look most like a civil war , though, was the reality that about one-third of the colonists, known as loyalists (or Tories), continued to support and fought on the side of the crown.

Recent News

The American Revolution was an insurrection carried out by 13 of Great Britain ’s North American colonies that began in 1775 and ended with a peace treaty in 1783. The colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America . The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and a large and influential segment of its North American colonies that was caused by British attempts to assert greater control over colonial affairs after having long adhered to a policy of salutary neglect .

Until early in 1778 the conflict was a civil war within the British Empire , but afterward it became an international war as France (in 1778) and Spain (in 1779) joined the colonies against Britain . Meanwhile, the Netherlands , which provided both official recognition of the United States and financial support for it, was engaged in its own war against Britain ( see Anglo-Dutch Wars ). From the beginning, sea power was vital in determining the course of the war, lending to British strategy a flexibility that helped compensate for the comparatively small numbers of troops sent to America and ultimately enabling the French to help bring about the final British surrender at Yorktown in 1781.

The American colonies fought the war on land with essentially two types of organization: the Continental (national) Army and the state militias . The total number of the former provided by quotas from the states throughout the conflict was 231,771 soldiers, and the militias totaled 164,087. At any given time, however, the American forces seldom numbered over 20,000; in 1781 there were only about 29,000 insurgents under arms throughout the country. The war was therefore one fought by small field armies. Militias, poorly disciplined and with elected officers, were summoned for periods usually not exceeding three months. The terms of Continental Army service were only gradually increased from one to three years, and not even bounties and the offer of land kept the army up to strength. Reasons for the difficulty in maintaining an adequate Continental force included the colonists’ traditional antipathy toward regular armies, the objections of farmers to being away from their fields, the competition of the states with the Continental Congress to keep men in the militia , and the wretched and uncertain pay in a period of inflation .

By contrast, the British army was a reliable steady force of professionals. Since it numbered only about 42,000, heavy recruiting programs were introduced. Many of the enlisted men were farm boys, as were most of the Americans, while others came from cities where they had been unable to find work. Still others joined the army to escape fines or imprisonment. The great majority became efficient soldiers as a result of sound training and ferocious discipline . The officers were drawn largely from the gentry and the aristocracy and obtained their commissions and promotions by purchase. Though they received no formal training, they were not so dependent on a book knowledge of military tactics as were many of the Americans. British generals, however, tended toward a lack of imagination and initiative , while those who demonstrated such qualities often were rash.

Because troops were few and conscription unknown, the British government, following a traditional policy, purchased about 30,000 troops from various German princes. The Lensgreve (landgrave) of Hesse furnished approximately three-fifths of that total. Few acts by the crown roused so much antagonism in America as that use of foreign mercenaries .

The War of Independence in the United States Essay

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The War of Independence in the United States which started in 1775 and lasted till 1783 resulted in great liberation of many states within the country from the colonial rule of the British Empire (Krieger 53). The war started as a resistance towards payment of taxes, it became a protest before escalating to boycotts. The British authorities responded by closing Boston port and putting restriction as a way of punishing the locals (Koonings 12). A group of freedom fighters calling themselves Patriots formed their own government in Boston to coordinate the activities of the locals.

Twelve colonies supported this new movement and together they formed Continental Congress. This was a group of civilians and militia willing and ready to liberate their country from the colonial powers through any way possible. As the War of Independence gained momentum, the liberators realized that although the military played the main role in fighting the colonial masters, it was important to maintain civilian control over them because of the desire to have a democratic government other than a dictatorial rule of the military. In this paper, the researcher will look at how civilian control of the military was established and maintained throughout the War of Independence and after (Forsythe 38).

Civilian control of the military was established at the initial stages of the war. The revolution was started by civil groups who were dissatisfied by the way British government was governing the country. At first, their actions did not involve the use of force hence there was no need for a military group. It then turned into protests and boycotts to destruction of properties. The revolutionists then realized that they needed military force to drive away the colonial masters (Masciulli 42). The first step that was made to ensure that the military remained under the rule of civilians was the appointment of General George Washington as to head the militia group. The military general knew that he was exercising authority given to him by the civilians.

During the war, General Washington had to consult Continental Congress- a body of civilian rulers- when making important decisions. This helped in installing a civilian leadership during the war. The militias knew that they derived their authority from the masses who wanted to gain independence from the colonial masters. They knew that they were working on behalf of the citizens of the United States (Marston 81). Their interest when engaging in the war was to achieve victory for the people and to establish a rule for the locals. The Continental Congress gave Washington powers to command the military and to ensure that the country was liberated from the colonial rule, but he did this based on the regulations given to him by the Congress.

After the War of Independence, important precedents were set to ensure that there was civilian control of the military. The country gained independence and elected a president in a democratic election. The constitution stipulated that the president of the United States of America had to be a civilian. This means that if a military officer wanted to vie for a political position, he had to resign and become a civilian (Chartrand 89). The constitution also made the civilian president the commander-in-chief, giving him full control over the military. The supremacy of the civilian president over military commanders was demonstrated when President Harry Truman terminated the command of celebrated General Douglas MacArthur’s command.

Works Cited

Chartrand, Rene. American War of Independence Commanders . New York: Osprey Publishing, 2013. Print.

Forsythe, David. Encyclopedia of Human Rights: Vol. 5 . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.

Koonings, Kees. Political Armies: The Military and Nation Building in the Age of Democracy . New York: Zed Books, 2013. Print.

Krieger, Joel. The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World . New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Print.

Marston, Daniel. The American Revolution 1774-1783 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2012. Print.

Masciulli, Joseph. The Ashgate Research Companion to Political Leadership . Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 2009. Print.

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IvyPanda. (2020, August 29). The War of Independence in the United States. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-war-of-independence-in-the-united-states/

"The War of Independence in the United States." IvyPanda , 29 Aug. 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/the-war-of-independence-in-the-united-states/.

IvyPanda . (2020) 'The War of Independence in the United States'. 29 August.

IvyPanda . 2020. "The War of Independence in the United States." August 29, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-war-of-independence-in-the-united-states/.

1. IvyPanda . "The War of Independence in the United States." August 29, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-war-of-independence-in-the-united-states/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The War of Independence in the United States." August 29, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-war-of-independence-in-the-united-states/.

American War of Independence (1765-1783)

Current Context:

The American War of Independence, fought from 1775 to 1783, marked a significant turning point in world history, as the thirteen American colonies sought independence from British rule, laying the foundation for the birth of a new nation, the United States of America.

  Introduction

• Fought between 1775 and 1783, it emerged from a culmination of grievances and tensions between the American colonies and the British Empire. 
• The American War of Independence saw the Loyalists (British settlers) supporting Britain while France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic secretly aided the Americans. 
• Britain's failed attempt to encircle the Americans in 1777 marked a turning point, leading to France openly joining the war in 1778. 
• Eventually, in 1783, British commander Cornwallis surrendered to George Washington's army. 

CAUSES OF AMERICAN RESENTMENTS AGAINST THE BRITISH:

• Mercantile Capitalism: British trade restrictions and monopolies hindered American economic development, leading to resentment.
• Proclamation of 1763: The ban on westward expansion by the British angered American settlers who fought in the Seven Year War for that purpose.
• Role of Enlightenment Thinkers: Ideas of freedom and self-government from Enlightenment philosophers (Eg. Locke, Montesquieu) influenced American colonists' desire for independence
• Recovery of War Expenditure: British attempts to tax the colonies to cover war costs sparked opposition and resentment.
• No Representation in British Parliament: Americans objected to ‘taxation without representation’, viewing it as a violation of their rights (Eg. Stamp Act, Tea Tax).
• Coercive Acts: Harsh measures passed by the British Parliament to punish Massachusetts colony and restrict self-government, intensifying colonial discontent.

IMPACTS OF REVOLUTION: CRITICAL ANALYSIS

  Conclusion:

• The American War of Independence was a momentous struggle for freedom, self-determination, and the establishment of a new nation.

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The American War of Independence, Essay Example

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The American War of Independence, also known as the American Revolution, occurred during the years 1775-1783. This war ended the 200 year reign of Britain in the North American colonies and is credited with forming what is now the United States of America. The war began as a war between Great Britain and the 13 British colonies in North America. The war ended as a global war between Britain and France. The American War of Independence was initiated after the French and Indian War ended and the Treaty of Paris in 1973 was signed. The British established territory in North America and since the cost of the French and Indian War was so high, the British tried to tax the Americans. The British introduced the Stamp Act of 1765 to the 13 colonies. The Act forced the colonists to pay tax on printed materials, such as magazines, newspapers, legal documents and other types of paper used during that time. In addition, the stamp tax was required to be paid in British currency, not the currency used by the colonist. The colonist rebellion led to the beginning of the war.

The Stamp was controlled by George Grenville. It was initiated on November 1, 1765. This was also the first time in 150 years that the American colonist had to pay any type of tax and it wasn’t even to their own legislatures, the tax money went directly to Britain. The American colonists rebelled against this Act for two reasons. The colonists couldn’t pay the tax and because they believed it violated the newly formed principle, “No taxation without representation”. The colonists were already angered with the passing of the Quartering Act on June 2, 1976. This Act made colonist provide quarters, food and transportation for any British soldier. Britain justified this because they said they were protecting the colonist from the French, even though the colonist did not perceive the French as a threat. The colonist began to start to resent being controlled by King George III and his parliament. (Hunsaker et al., 1999) Great Britain did not take this rebellion well, as they were considered the “mother country” during that time. The colonist believed that they had rights. Neither the colonist nor the British parliament gave in and this led to an intense war for independence.

The first start of the war began on April 19, 1775. The American colonists, referred to as patriots, wanted freedom from England and violently rebelled against the British authorities. From here on, the American Revolution began and lasted for eight years. (Hunsaker et al., 1999) In 1770, Britain placed British troops in Boston and the soldiers and the colonists began to fight. On March 5, 1770, 10 British soldiers were attacked by snowballs and fired into the crowd, killing five people. Colonist’s rebels turned the incident into what is known as the “Boston Massacre”. Patriots in the American Revolution, such as Samuel Adams began forming group and releasing papers illustrating their anger against Britain. Then again in 1773, the Tea Act was passed by Parliament. Boston colonists disguised as Indians destroyed 90,000 pounds of teach on three ships in the Boston Harbor. The British parliament, in retaliation, passed the Coercive Acts, more commonly known as the “Intolerable Acts”. This Act closed the harbor to traffic and put any officials on trial. This hurt the American economy, particularly for merchants and sailors.

During 1774, 55 delegates of the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. The Congress made it a right of the colonies to tax and create legislations for themselves. This event postponed the war; however, all of the activities combined by the colonist, such as the Boston Tea Party and the Continental Congress, prompted King George to have all of the arms apprehended and the rebels, such as John Hancock and Samuel Adams arrested. The King stated, “The New England Governments are in a State of Rebellion; blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this Country or independent.” This is also where the famous line, “The British are coming” was initiated. Paul Revere was on lookout for soldiers and rode through the countryside on horse to alert the colony that the British soldiers were there. The colonists were outnumbered by the British soldiers by the hundreds. (TeachAmericanHistory)

The war began and in April, 1775, there were battles at Lexington Green and Concord. The British had 273 casualties and the Americans had 95. The second continental Congress met in May 1775 after the bloody battles at Lexington Green and Concord. The Congress passed a petition, known as the Olive Branch Petition where it affirmed that the colonists were loyal to George III; however, they also established an American Continental army. This army was led by George Washington. There was also another battle at Bunker Hill in which the British lost over 1000 people and colonist only 300. This angered the British more and the King issued a proclamation of rebellion. (TeachAmericanHistory)

The colonists wanted to reconcile; however, the book called, “Common Sense” by Thomas Paine was published. This book tore apart the monarchy system, which pushed the colonists to become independent. The book urged the Americans to become a republic. From this book, the Declaration of Independence was said to have been written. This Declaration, declared the equal rights of humans, justice and liberty for all. The war still persisted and numerous battles were won by the British; however, by 1781, a treaty was signed between America and Britain that announced the independence of America. The treaty was for all territory from the southern border of Canada to the northern border of Florida. In addition, the Americans agreed to the issue debts and compensation for damages to Britain’s property. This ended 176 years of colonial rule under the British parliament that began on May 14, 1607 with the founding of Jamestown. The American colonies were now free and America was under its own independent rule. (TeachAmericanHistory)

Hunsaker, S., Conwell, D., Ochoa, J. 1999. American Revolution. Stamp Act. University of San Francisco.< http://usf.usfca.edu/fac_staff/conwell/revolution/stamp.htm>

Teach American History. Web. Retrieved on April 27, 2012 from: http://www.teachamericanhistory.org/File/American_Revolution_Essay.pdf

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Top 12 Causes of the American War of Independence

1. Defective Administration:

The Administrative System of England in the American Colonies was defective. Each Colony had its Assembly and the elected members.

But, the nominated governor to each colony by the British Parliament became intolerable on the part of the Colonists. Many times conflict between the Governors and the elected representatives of different colonies became inevitable. The Governors did not do anything without the permission of British Parliament.

Image Source: i.ytimg.com/vi/314NbFKtn0E/maxresdefault.jpg

Thus, the administrative system of each colony was controlled by the British Parliament. The British Parliament did not recognise the colonial problems. Thus, the colonists became intolerable and raised their voice against the defective administrative system of England.

2. Restrictions on Colonial Trade:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The British Government regulated the colonial trade for her own advantage. The trade policy of England was the colonies were.

The Navigation Act which was passed in 1660 was again practised by George Greneville, the Prime Minister of England. Before this Act, the Colonist’s accepted the manufactured goods of England only by exporting the raw materials to England. But when the Navigation Act was re­introduced, the Americans were forbidden to export their native products directly to other European countries. They could import their necessary goods only through England from other countries. The British Government imposed taxes on the American Colonies.

In order to impose, more tax on the colonial imports, the British Parliament strengthened the ‘Molasses Act’ which was originally passed in 1773 by the British Parliament. By this Act the American Colonies were permitted to import Molasses only from the British West Indies. It annoyed the colonists and they became revolutionary.

3. Influence of Seven Years War:

The Seven Years War which was started in 1756 and ended in 1763 had an impact on the American Colonies. By defeating France, England occupied Canada. The Americans were freed from the French menace. This enabled the people to stand by themselves. They did not feel the necessity of maintaining the British army at their own expense. After this seven years war the American Colonies began to be revolutionary.

4. Role of the Writers and Philosophers:

The Writers and Philosophers played an important role in the American War of Independence. Thomas Paine through this writing ‘Commonsense’ inspired the Americans to raise their voice against the British Government. Samuel Adams, another writer sowed the seed of independence among the Americans through his writings. Besides this, the Americans were influenced by the writings of Locke, Rousseau, Adam Smith and Milton.

5. The Stamp Act (1765 ):

To meet the additional expenditure of the standing army in the American Colonies, England decided that American Colonists should bear that expense. So, George Greneville, the Prime Minister during the reign of George III passed the Stamp Act in 1765. The Act directed that in the American Colonies, the government papers, legal documents, receipts should be written or printed on Stamp Paper. The tax which was collected from this stamp was to be used for the expenditure of the Standing Army in America. It created storm in America. They destroyed the stamp papers. “No Taxation without Representation” or “Taxation without representation is tyranny”, became their cry. This gave impetus to the revolution.

6. The Declaratory Act (1766 ):

The Stamp Act made Grenville unpopular and he was dismissed. Rockingham succeeded him. He passed the Declaratory Act in 1766. It repealed the Stamp Act. It declared that the Mother country had the right to impose taxes on the Colonies. This created a storm among the Americans and they became revolutionary.

7. Townshend’s Policy:

Townshend, the Chanceller of Exchequer in Pitt, the Elder’s Ministry, revived the policy of Greneville. He imposed duties on tea, glass, lead, paper and colour imported into the American colonies. This gave a serious setback to the colonists and they became rebellious. They boycotted the trade relationship with England.

8. Lord North’s Measures:

Then Lord North, the Prime Minister of England abolished duties on glass, lead and paper etc. but retained on tea. This annoyed the colonist. In 1770, when a company of British soldiers were marching through the streets of Boston, the Americans showered on them snow balls. Being insulted, the soldiers fired on them and killed five Americans which was known as “Boston Massacre”.

9. The Boston Tea Party:

In 1773 Lord North introduced a new Tea Act and allowed the East India Company to sell tea directly in America. It created severe reaction among the Americans. The agitators in Boston formed the ‘Boston Tea Party’. The chief motive of this party was to resist the East India Company to sell tea in America. The first cargoes of Tea sent by East India Company arrived at Boston.

On 16 December 1773, under the leadership of Samuel Adams, some agitators of Boston Tea Party entered into the ship in the disguise of Red Indians and threw 343 chests of the tea into the Sea. This event was famous as ‘The Boston Tea Riot’. Out of anger, Lord North passed the Boston Port Act in 1774 and the Port was closed. This incident gave an impetus to the American War of Independence.

The activities of Lord North prompted the Americans to unite. All the thirteen Colonies except Georgia met at Philadelphia in 1775. They sent a petition in association with an Olive Branch to the British Parliament demanding the repeal of the thirteen Acts passed by the British Parliament since 1765. This was famous as the ‘Olive Branch Petition’.

Edmund Burke and Pitt, the Elder tried to find out the method of consiliation. They ‘ advised George III to negotiate with the Americans but George III did not pay stress on their advice. So, on 19 April, 1775, the Americans killed eight British soldiers at Lexington.

10. The Declaration of Independence:

On 4 July 1776, the thirteen American Colonies met at Philadelphia for the second time. A paper was drafted by Thomas Jefferson and this Declaration of Independence was unanimously accepted in the Congress by the thirteen American Colonies. This historic document proclaimed the cause of the revolt.

The declaration was—”That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be Free and Independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.” This declaration glavinised the course of the American war of Independence.

11. The Course of War:

Then started the war between the American Colonies and England. In June 1776 Howe moved towards New York. George Washington was also ready. He fled to South through New Jersey. Before Howe could reach the bank of river Dilaware Washington destroyed all the bridges thereby preventing Howe to proceed further.

On October 17, 1777, Burgoyne, the British Commander surrendered to the American Commander at Saratoga. The British soldiers did not know about geographical location of America for which they were defeated. In 1782, the combined army of France and Spain occupied Minorca. Lord North was compelled to resign. The American War of Independence came to an end.

12. The Treaty of Versailles:

Lord Shelburne became the Prime Minister of England. He concluded the peace treaty with the enemies. After vigorous negotiation with France, Spain and Holland, England signed the Treaty of Versailles on 3 September, 1783 at Paris. Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the United States of America.

The year 1783 was glorious for both England and America. When John Adams appeared before George III at St. James palace as the first accepted representative of the U.S.A., the latter accepted the former with a cordial gesture which marked an end of the distinction between the ‘Ruler’ and the ‘Ruled’.

The consequences of the American War of Independence were far reaching:

Firstly, the thirteen colonies of America were freed from the clutches of their Mother Country. They combindly formed the United States of America. In 1787, the thirteen Colonies met at Philadelphia and passed constitution of the United States of America and George Washington became the First President of United States of America.

Secondly, the influence of American War of Independence was felt in the whole of Europe. According to the Paris Peace Conference France received Chandan Nagar and other trade centres in India. She also received back her West African Settlement of Senegal and acquired the islands of Tobago and St. Lucia in the West Indies. Spain received Florida and Minorca from England.

Thirdly, the victory of the Americans influenced the people of France. The French people derived lesson from it. They wanted to experience the same in their own country. It also inspired the people of Ireland. In 1782, Ireland declared its independence and freed herself from the clutches of England.

Fourthly, the American War of Independence gave a serious setback to the British Colonialism and destroyed it.

Fifthly, the American War of Independence laid stress on the Rights of Human beings. The ‘Declaration of Rights’ of Thomas Jefferson aroused people about their rights.

Sixthly, by this War of Independence America became free from England. Under the table leadership of George Washington, there were several changes in the administrative system of America. After this war, America became a Democratic Nation.

Seventhly, this war opened a new avenue of trade for America. America established her trade relationship with other countries and became prosperous. The United States of America grew from strength to strength and became super power in the world.

Lastly, the American war of the independence helped England in the growth of new colonies in Australia. Australia came under the sway of England.

Related Articles:

• The American War of Independence
• Term Paper on the American Revolution | Independence | History
• The American Civil War (1861-65)
• The American Foreign Policy

America's Founding Documents

Declaration of Independence: A Transcription

Note: The following text is a transcription of the Stone Engraving of the parchment Declaration of Independence (the document on display in the Rotunda at the National Archives Museum .)  The spelling and punctuation reflects the original.

In Congress, July 4, 1776

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America, When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, --That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.--Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:

For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our Brittish brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.

Button Gwinnett

George Walton

North Carolina

William Hooper

Joseph Hewes

South Carolina

Edward Rutledge

Thomas Heyward, Jr.

Thomas Lynch, Jr.

Arthur Middleton

Massachusetts

John Hancock

Samuel Chase

William Paca

Thomas Stone

Charles Carroll of Carrollton

George Wythe

Richard Henry Lee

Thomas Jefferson

Benjamin Harrison

Thomas Nelson, Jr.

Francis Lightfoot Lee

Carter Braxton

Pennsylvania

Robert Morris

Benjamin Rush

Benjamin Franklin

John Morton

George Clymer

James Smith

George Taylor

James Wilson

George Ross

Caesar Rodney

George Read

Thomas McKean

William Floyd

Philip Livingston

Francis Lewis

Lewis Morris

Richard Stockton

John Witherspoon

Francis Hopkinson

Abraham Clark

New Hampshire

Josiah Bartlett

William Whipple

Samuel Adams

Robert Treat Paine

Elbridge Gerry

Rhode Island

Stephen Hopkins

William Ellery

Connecticut

Roger Sherman

Samuel Huntington

William Williams

Oliver Wolcott

Matthew Thornton

Back to Main Declaration Page

• Library of Congress
• Research Guides

World of 1898: International Perspectives on the Spanish American War

Introduction.

• Overview Essay
• Cuba in 1898
• Chronology of Cuba in the Spanish-American War
• Philippine Perspective
• The Changing of the Guard: Puerto Rico in 1898
• The Spanish-American War of 1898: a Spanish View
• American Perspective
• Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy
• Russell Alexander Alger
• Thomas McArthur Anderson
• Basilio Augustin y Dávila
• Ramón Auñón y Villalón
• Román Baldorioty de Castro
• José Celso Barbosa
• Clara Barton
• Segismundo Bermejo
• Ramón Emeterio Betances
• Ramón Blanco y Erenas
• Andrés Bonifacio
• John Rutter Brooke
• Jules-Martin Cambon
• Pascual Cervera y Topete
• Grover Cleveland
• Stephen Crane
• George W. Davis
• Federico Degetau y González
• George Dewey
• José de Diego
• Manuel V. Domenech
• Enrique Dupuy de Lôme
• Oswald Herbert Ernst
• Maximo Gómez Baez
• John Milton Hay
• Guy Vernon Henry
• Eugenio María de Hostos y Bonilla
• Tulio Larrinaga
• Fitzhugh Lee
• William Ludlow
• Antonio Maceo
• Manuel Macías
• William McKinley
• Nelson Appleton Miles
• Luis Muñoz Rivera
• Whitelaw Reid
• Lola Rodríguez de Tió
• Manuel Rojas
• Theodore Roosevelt
• Práxedes Mateo Sagasta
• William T. Sampson
• Juan Manuel Sánchez y Gutiérrez de Castro
• Theodore Schwan
• William Shafter
• Martín Travieso
• Joaquín Vara de Rey y Rubio
• James Franklin Wade
• Richard Wainwright
• Valeriano Weyler
• Walt Whitman
• Henry H. Whitney
• James Harrison Wilson
• Coamo and Aibonito
• Mayagüez, Hormigueros, and Arecibo
• Cienfuegos Bay
• Abolition of Slavery in Puerto Rico
• American Ships in the Spanish-American War
• Balzac v. Porto Rico
• Foraker Act (Organic Act of 1900)
• Grito de Balintawak
• Grito de Lares
• Hurricane San Ciriaco
• Anti-Imperialist League
• Military Government in Puerto Rico
• Olmsted Amendment
• Peace Agreement in Puerto Rico
• Reconcentration Policy
• Rough Riders
• Spanish Ships in the Spanish-American War
• Teller and Platt Amendments
• Treaty of Paris of 1898
• U.S.S. Gloucester
• Additional Resources
• Acknowledgements

Guide Editor: María Daniela Thurber, Reference Librarian, Hispanic Reading Room, Latin American, Caribbean, and European Division

Content Authors: Please visit the Acknowledgement page for information on all authors and contributors to the original The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War web project.

Note: This guide is adapted from The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War , the first online collection mounted on the web by the Hispanic Reading Room.

Created: Spring 2022

Last Updated: February 28, 2023

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The war of the United States with Spain was very brief. Its results were many, startling, and of world-wide meaning. --Henry Cabot Lodge

On April 25, 1898 the United States declared war on Spain following the sinking of the Battleship Maine in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. As a result, Spain lost its control over the remains of its overseas empire -- Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines Islands, Guam, and other islands.

Beginning in 1492, Spain was the first European nation to sail westward across the Atlantic Ocean, explore, and colonize the Amerindian nations of the Western Hemisphere. At its greatest extent, the empire that resulted from this exploration extended from Virginia on the eastern coast of the United States south to Tierra del Fuego at the tip of South America excluding Brazil and westward to California and Alaska. Across the Pacific, it included the Philippines and other island groups. By 1825 much of this empire had fallen into other hands and in that year, Spain acknowledged the independence of its possessions in the present-day United States (then under Mexican control) and south to the tip of South America. The only remnants that remained in the empire in the Western Hemisphere were Cuba and Puerto Rico and across the Pacific in Philippines Islands, and the Carolina, Marshall, and Mariana Islands (including Guam) in Micronesia.

Kurz & Allison. Destruction of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana Harbor Feby 15th. Havana, Cuba, ca. 1898. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

A view of our battleship MAINE as she appears today. Havana Harbor, ca. 1900. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

Raising of battleship Maine. Havana, Cuba. 1911. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

Following its declaration of war against Spain issued on April 25, 1898, the United States added the Teller Amendment asserting that it would not attempt to exercise hegemony over Cuba. Two days later Commodore George Dewey sailed from Hong Kong with Emilio Aguinaldo on board. Fighting began in the Phillipines Islands at the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1 where Commodore George Dewey reportedly exclaimed, "You may fire when ready, Gridley," and the Spanish fleet under Rear Admiral Patricio Montojo was destroyed. However, Dewey did not have enough manpower to capture Manila so Aguinaldo's guerrillas maintained their operations until 15,000 U.S. troops arrived at the end of July. On the way, the cruiser Charleston stopped at Guam and accepted its surrender from its Spanish governor who was unaware his nation was at war. Although a peace protocol was signed by the two belligerents on August 12, Commodore Dewey and Maj. Gen. Wesley Merritt, leader of the army troops, assaulted Manila the very next day, unaware that peace had been declared.

In late April, Andrew Summers Rowan made contact with Cuban General Calixto García who supplied him with maps, intelligence, and a core of rebel officers to coordinate U.S. efforts on the island. The U.S. North Atlantic Squadron left Key West for Cuba on April 22 following the frightening news that the Spanish home fleet commanded by Admiral Pascual Cervera had left Cadiz and entered Santiago, having slipped by U.S. ships commanded by William T. Sampson and Winfield Scott Schley. They arrived in Cuba in late May.

War actually began for the U.S. in Cuba in June when the Marines captured Guantánamo Bay and 17,000 troops landed at Siboney and Daiquirí, east of Santiago de Cuba, the second largest city on the island. At that time Spanish troops stationed on the island included 150,000 regulars and 40,000 irregulars and volunteers while rebels inside Cuba numbered as many as 50,000. Total U.S. army strength at the time totalled 26,000, requiring the passage of the Mobilization Act of April 22 that allowed for an army of at first 125,000 volunteers (later increased to 200,000) and a regular army of 65,000. On June 22, U.S. troops landed at Daiquiri where they were joined by Calixto García and about 5,000 revolutionaries.

U.S. troops attacked the San Juan heights on July 1, 1898. Dismounted troopers, including the African-American Ninth and Tenth cavalries and the Rough Riders commanded by Lt. Col. Theodore Roosevelt went up against Kettle Hill while the forces led by Brigadier General Jacob Kent charged up San Juan Hill and pushed Spanish troops further inland while inflicting 1,700 casualties. While U.S. commanders were deciding on a further course of action, Admiral Cervera left port only to be defeated by Schley. On July 16, the Spaniards agreed to the unconditional surrender of the 23,500 troops around the city. A few days later, Major General Nelson Miles sailed from Guantánamo to Puerto Rico. His forces landed near Ponce and marched to San Juan with virtually no opposition.

Representatives of Spain and the United States signed a peace treaty in Paris on December 10, 1898, which established the independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States, and allowed the victorious power to purchase the Philippines Islands from Spain for $20 million. The war had cost the United States $250 million and 3,000 lives, of whom 90% had perished from infectious diseases.

What's included in this guide

This presentation provides resources and documents about the Spanish-American War, the period before the war, and some of the fascinating people who participated in the fighting or commented about it. Information about Cuba, Guam, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Spain, and the United States is provided in chronologies, bibliographies, and a variety of pictorial and textual material from bilingual sources, supplemented by an overview essay about the war and the period. Among the participants and authors featured are such well-known figures as Presidents Grover Cleveland, William McKinley, and Theodore Roosevelt, as well as Admiral George Dewey and author Mark Twain (United States), together with other important figures such as Antonio Maceo and José Martí (Cuba), Román Baldorioty de Castro and Lola Rodríguez de Tió (Puerto Rico), José Rizal and Emilio Aguinaldo (Philippines), and Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and Ramón Blanco (Spain).

Related Research Guides by the Library of Congress

Spanish-American War: A Resource Guide

The Spanish-American War (1898) was a conflict between the U.S. and Spain, ending with the loss of Spain’s overseas empire and the U.S. emerging as a world power. This guide compiles digital material, external websites, and a selected print bibliography.

Spanish American War: Topics in Chronicling America

A guide for researching the topic of the "Spanish American War," which took place from April 25 until December 10,1898, in the Chronicling America digital collection of historic newspapers.

Spain: Hispanic Reading Room Country Guide

This guide provides curated Library of Congress resources for the study of Spain, including digitized primary source materials in a wide variety of formats, books and periodicals, online databases, and tips for searching.

Cuba: Hispanic Reading Room Country Guide

This guide provides curated Library of Congress resources for researching Cuba, including digitized primary source materials in a wide variety of formats, books and periodicals, online databases, and tips for searching.

Philippine-American War: Topics in Chronicling America

After the Treaty of Paris, the Phillippine-American War occurred from February 1899 to July 1902. This guide provides access to materials related to the “Philippine-American War” in the Chronicling America digital collection of historic newspapers.

• Next: Overview Essay >>
• Last Updated: Jan 12, 2024 2:02 AM
• URL: https://guides.loc.gov/world-of-1898

Trump and Allies Forge Plans to Increase Presidential Power in 2025

The former president and his backers aim to strengthen the power of the White House and limit the independence of federal agencies.

Donald J. Trump intends to bring independent regulatory agencies under direct presidential control. Credit... Doug Mills/The New York Times

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By Jonathan Swan Charlie Savage and Maggie Haberman

• Published July 17, 2023 Updated July 18, 2023

Donald J. Trump and his allies are planning a sweeping expansion of presidential power over the machinery of government if voters return him to the White House in 2025, reshaping the structure of the executive branch to concentrate far greater authority directly in his hands.

Their plans to centralize more power in the Oval Office stretch far beyond the former president’s recent remarks that he would order a criminal investigation into his political rival, President Biden, signaling his intent to end the post-Watergate norm of Justice Department independence from White House political control.

Mr. Trump and his associates have a broader goal: to alter the balance of power by increasing the president’s authority over every part of the federal government that now operates, by either law or tradition, with any measure of independence from political interference by the White House, according to a review of his campaign policy proposals and interviews with people close to him.

Mr. Trump intends to bring independent agencies — like the Federal Communications Commission, which makes and enforces rules for television and internet companies, and the Federal Trade Commission, which enforces various antitrust and other consumer protection rules against businesses — under direct presidential control.

He wants to revive the practice of “impounding” funds, refusing to spend money Congress has appropriated for programs a president doesn’t like — a tactic that lawmakers banned under President Richard Nixon.

He intends to strip employment protections from tens of thousands of career civil servants, making it easier to replace them if they are deemed obstacles to his agenda. And he plans to scour the intelligence agencies, the State Department and the defense bureaucracies to remove officials he has vilified as “the sick political class that hates our country.”

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